桥梁外文翻译 ---荷兰跨线高架桥

A类部分预应力混凝土 type A partially prestressed concreteA形索塔 A-framed towerB类部分预应力混凝土 type B partially prestressed concreteGM法 Guyon-Massonet methodJM12型锚具 J M 12 anchorageOVM锚具 oriental cone anchorage;T[形]梁桥 T-beam bridgeT形刚构桥 T-shaped rigid frame bridgeT形梁 T[-shaped] beamT形桥台 T-abutmentU形梁 U[-shaped] beamU形桥台 U-abutmentVSL锚具 VSL anchorage; 瑞士VSL 厂生产的国际通用夹片锚具。

W型护栏 w-type guardrailXM锚具 X-typed anchorage; X型三夹片式群锚。

YM锚具 Y-typed anchorage, post-tensioning strand group anchorage;[桥]台后回填 back filling behind abutment[桥基]沉降 settlement[桥梁]动力回应试验 bridge response to forced vibration[桥头]锥坡 conical slope八字形桥台 flare wing-walled abutment板 slab板端错台 faulting of slab ends板肋拱桥 slab-rib arch bridge板桥 slab bridge板式橡胶支座 laminated rubber bearing板体断裂 slab rupture板体翘曲 slab warping板体温度翘曲应力 slab stress due to thermal warping 板桩 sheet pile板桩围堰 sheet pile cofferdam便桥 detour bridge标准车辆荷载 standard truck loading波纹钢桥面 corrugated steel deck波纹管涵 corrugated-metal pipe culvert 波形梁护栏 corrugated beam barrier超载预压 surcharge preloading车道 lane车道分布 lane distribution车道荷载 lane load车间净距 vehicular gap沉管灌注桩 tube-sinking cast-in-situ pile沉降差 differential settlement沉井基础 open caisson foundation沉井刃脚 caisson cutting edge冲击系数 impact factor;承台 bearing platform, pile cap冲刷 scouring erosion搭接钢板接缝 lapped steel plate joint打入桩 driven pile打桩 pile driving搭接钢板接缝 lapped steel plate joint打入桩 driven pile打桩 pile driving大跨径桥 long span bridge单铰拱桥 single-hinged arch bridge单室箱梁 single cell box girder单索面斜拉桥 single plane cable stayed bridge 单向板 one-way slab单向推力墩 single direction thrusted pier单柱式[桥]墩 single-columned pier, single shaft pier单桩 individual pile, single pile单桩承载力 bearing capacity of pile弹性梁支承法 elastic supported beam method 弹性模量 modulus of elasticity挡土墙 retaining wall地震荷载 earthquake load seismic force; 又称“地震力”。

E-mail文化传播网The scariest Bridge was recently discovered in Switzerland. It stretches over a formidable precipice, 500 meters deep. It is 100 meters long and only one meter wide.最近在瑞士发现了一座最吓人的桥梁，这座桥跨越一深500米的悬崖绝壁，桥长100米，宽只有1米。

桥梁跨越一深500米的悬崖绝壁，桥长100米，宽只有1米。

The suspension bridge, suspended by balloons. It is located in Teton Park, England. It is a lightweight wooden construction that hangs suspended by three white balloons. Its author was the French artist Olivier Grosetet. Unfortunately, people who walk in the park, can not walk over the facility -it is not secure enough and is only an attractive art installation.在英国提顿国家公园有一座用气球悬浮着的桥梁。

桥梁为重量较轻的木结构，靠三个白色气球悬挂着，它是法国艺术家Olivier Grosetet设计的。

但游客不能在这种不安全的桥上行走，它只是一件供游客观赏的艺术品。

英国提顿国家公园一座用气球悬浮着的桥梁。

靠三个白色气球悬挂着，但游客不能在这种不安全的桥上行走，它只是一件供游客观赏的艺术品。

桥面在水下Bridge under waterThe Bridge in the park "Banif―, Canada, was built as a land path for wild animals for it crosses the natural forests and hills wildlife inhabits. Wild animals cross the busy highway using that bridge. It allows the animals that inhabit the forests and the slopes safely cross roads, not dying under the wheels of the fast cars flying by. The first of these transitions was made in France back in the1950s.在加拿大班尼佛公园的一座桥梁，以便野生动物穿过繁忙的公路，回到牠们森林中的居住地而不被飞驰而过的车辆碾压。

桥梁专业外文翻译--欧洲桥梁研究附录Bridge research in EuropeA brief outline is given of the development of the European Union, together with the research platform in Europe. The special case of post-tensioned bridges in the UK is discussed. In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio: relating to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges using digital impulse radar.IntroductionThe challenge in any research arena is to harness the findings of different research groups to identify a coherent mass of data, which enables research and practice to be better focused. A particular challenge exists with respect to Europe where language barriers are inevitably very significant. The European Community was formed in the 1960s based upon a political will within continental Europe to avoid the European civil wars, which developed into World War 2 from 1939 to 1945. The strong political motivation formed the original community of which Britain was not a member. Many of the continental countries saw Britain’s interest as being purely economic. The 1970s saw Britain joining what was then the European Economic Community (EEC) and the 1990s has seen the widening of the community to a European Union, EU, with certain political goals together with the objective of a common European currency.Notwithstanding these financial and political developments, civil engineering and bridge engineering in particular have found great difficulty in forming any kind of common thread. Indeed the educational systems for University training are quite different between Britain and the European continental countries. The formation of the EU funding schemes —e.g. Socrates, Brite Euram and other programs have helped significantly. The Socrates scheme is based upon the exchange of students between Universities in different member states. The Brite Euram scheme has involved technical research grants given toconsortia of academics and industrial partners within a number of the states— a Brite Euram bid would normally be led by an industrialist.In terms of dissemination of knowledge, two quite different strands appear to have emerged. The UK and the USA have concentrated primarily upon disseminating basic research in refereed journal publications: ASCE, ICE and other journals. Whereas the continental Europeans have frequently disseminated basic research at conferences where the circulation of the proceedings is restricted.Additionally, language barriers have proved to be very difficult to break down. In countries where English is a strong second language there has been enthusiastic participation in international conferences based within continental Europe —e.g. Germany, Italy, Belgium, The Netherlands and Switzerland. However, countries where English is not a strong second language have been hesitant participants }—e.g. France.Post-tensioned concrete rail bridge analysisOve Arup and Partners carried out an inspection and assessment of the superstructure of a 160 m long post-tensioned, segmental railway bridge in Manchester to determine its load-carrying capacity prior to a transfer of ownership, for use in the Metrolink light rail system..Particular attention was paid to the integrity of its post-tensioned steel elements. Physical inspection, non-destructive radar testing and other exploratory methods were used to investigate for possible weaknesses in the bridge.Since the sudden collapse of Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge in Wales, UK in 1985, there has been concern about the long-term integrity of segmental, post-tensioned concrete bridges which may be prone to ‘brittle’ failure without warning. The corrosion protection of the post-tensioned steel cables, where they pass through joints between the segments, has been identified as a major factor affecting the long-term durability and consequent strength of this type of bridge. The identification of voids in grouted tendon ducts at vulnerable positions is recognized as an important step in the detection of such corrosion.Description of bridgeGeneral arrangementBesses o’ th’ Barn Bridge is a 160 m long, three span, segmental, post-tensioned concrete railway bridge built in 1969. The main span of 90 m crosses over both the M62 motorway and A665 Bury to Prestwick Road. Minimum headroom is 5.18 m from the A665 and the M62 is cleared by approx 12.5 m.The superstructure consists of a central hollow trapezoidal concrete box section 6.7 m high and 4 m wide. The majority of the south and central spans are constructed using 1.27 m long pre-cast concrete trapezoidal box units, post-tensioned together. This box section supports the in site concrete transverse cantilever slabs at bottom flange level, which carry the rail tracks and ballast.The center and south span sections are of post-tensioned construction. These post-tensioned sections have five types of pre-stressing:1. Longitudinal tendons in grouted ducts within the top and bottom flanges.2. Longitudinal internal draped tendons located alongside the webs. These are deflected at internal diaphragm positions and are encased in in site concrete.3. Longitudinal macalloy bars in the transverse cantilever slabs in the central span .4. Vertical macalloy bars in the 229 mm wide webs to enhance shear capacity.5. Transverse macalloy bars through the bottom flange to support the transverse cantilever slabs.Segmental constructionThe pre-cast segmental system of construction used for the south and center span sections was an alternative method proposed by the contractor. Current t hinking suggests that such a form of construction can lead to ‘brittle’ failure of the entire structure without warning due to corrosion of tendons across a construction joint，The original design concept had been for in site concrete construction.Inspection and assessmentInspectionInspection work was undertaken in a number of phases and was linked with the testing required for the structure. The initial inspections recorded a number of visible problems including:1、Defective waterproofing on the exposed surface of the top flange.2、Water trapped in the internal space of the hollow box with depthsup to 300 mm.3、Various drainage problems at joints and abutments.4、Longitudinal cracking of the exposed soffit of the central span.5、Longitudinal cracking on sides of the top flange of the pre-stressedsections.6、Widespread sapling on some in site concrete surfaces with exposedrusting reinforcement.AssessmentThe subject of an earlier paper, the objectives of the assessment were:1、Estimate the present load-carrying capacity.2、Identify any structural deficiencies in the original design.3、Determine reasons for existing problems identified by the inspection. Conclusion to the inspection and assessmentFollowing the inspection and the analytical assessment one major element of doubt still existed. This concerned the condition of the embedded pre-stressing wires, strands, cables or bars. For the purpose of structural analysis these elements、had been assumed to be sound. However, due to the very high forces involved,、a risk to the structure, caused by corrosion to these primary elements, was identified.The initial recommendations which completed the first phase of the assessment were:1. Carry out detailed material testing to determine the condition of hidden structural elements, in particularthe grouted post-tensioned steel cables.2. Conduct concrete durability tests.3. Undertake repairs to defective waterproofing and surface defects inconcrete.欧洲桥梁研究在欧洲，一个共同研究的平台随着欧盟的发展诞生了。

银河桥荷兰皮尔墨伦德佚名【期刊名称】《世界建筑导报》【年(卷),期】2018(000)001【总页数】2页(P94-95)【正文语种】中文荷兰Melkweg大桥，俗称“银河桥”，横跨Noord-hollandsch运河，连接皮尔默伦德市历史中心区与西南地区不断发展的Weidevenne 区。

银河桥的建造是运河及其周边地区总体发展规划的第一阶段。

“设计团队旨在打造一个具有特定标志的新区，以作为新旧两个中心城区之间的连系纽带。

”银河桥，由NEXT建筑事务所设计建造。

最引人注目的部分是一个巨大的拱形桥，水平面之上高达12米，与Melkweg路连绵延伸为一体，提供一种独特的城市视野。

登高望远，让银河桥之上的行人从日常生活中的琐碎平凡抽身出来，以一个新的视角，去领略皮尔默伦德市新城与历史古城之间千丝万缕的联系。

拱形桥下方是自行车道，长达100米，恰似一个钟摆横跨水面。

自行车道长度的确定出于对自行车和轮椅通行的最小坡度的考量。

骑车者与行人分道而行，可经桥梁直线通达Melkweg (Melkroad)古城。

步行桥重达85吨，由130级台阶构成，并采用钢拱支撑。

设计为运河及周边地区预留了足够的开阔空间。

拱门高达12米，足以保证下方船只安全通行。

当船只靠近时，下甲板可旋转打开并一分为二，让船只顺利通行。

桥梁两个组成部分衔接舒缓，自然融为一个整体。

材料及色彩运用的延续性也为这个组合体增色不少。

LED灯排列分布于桥梁两侧，不仅勾勒出桥梁轮廓；而且可让人们在黄昏时分，置身桥上去领略城市的曼妙风光。

The Melkweg Bridge (the Netherlands) crosses the Noordhollandsch Kanaal and connects the historic center of Purmerend with the growing Weidevenne district in the south-west. The bridge is the fi rst stage in a master plan for the canal and its periphery.“The aim of the design team was to create a new area with a speci fi c identity, which could work as a connector between the old and the new center.”The most striking part of the bridge, designed by NEXT architects, is a massive arch which reaches a height of 12m above water level and stands in a continuous line with the Melkweg-road, thus oあering an incredible view over the city. The high lookout gives pedestrians the opportunity to take a step back from their daily environment and, on a new level, experience the relation between the new and historic city of Purmerend. The lower bicycle deck is made out of a 100m long bicycle deck that crosses the water like a pendulum. The length of this deck was necessary due to the minimum slope conditions for bicycles andwheelchairs.Separating cyclists from pedestrians, gave the opportunity to maintain the direct line of the historics Melkweg (Melkroad) within the bridge. The pedestrian bridge weighs 85 tons,consists of 130 steps and is supported by a steel arch. The design makes it able to retain the spatial openness of the channel and its surroundings. At 12 meters, this arch is high enough to allow boats to pass beneath; the lower deck splits into twoparts that revolve open when boats are approaching.Both bridge sections fl ow smoothly into each other and form one whole. This unity is enhanced by the continuity of materials and colors. In the edges of the bridge LED lines are applied that follow the contour of the bridge and guarantees a spectacular view on the bridge even after sunset.。

中英文资料外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Asphalt Mixtures-Applications, Theory and Principles1 . ApplicationsAsphalt materials find wide usage in the construction industry. The use of asphalt as a cementing agent in pavements is the most common of its applications, however, and the one that will be consid ered here.Asphalt products are used to produce flexibl e pavements for highways and airports. The term “fl exible” is used to distinguish these pavements from those made with Portland cement, which are classified as rigid pavements, that is, having beam strength. This distinction is important because it provid es they key to the design approach which must be used for successful flexibl e pavement structures.The flexibl e pavement classification may be further broken d own into high and l ow types, the type usually depending on whether a solid or liquid asphalt product is used. The l ow types of pavement are mad e with the cutback, or emulsion, liquid products and are very widely used throughout this country. Descriptive terminology has been devel oped in various sections of the country to the extent that one pavement type may have several names. However, the general process foll owed in construction is similar for most l ow-type pavements and can be described as one in which the aggregate and the asphalt product are usually applied to the roadbed separately and there mixed or all owed to mix, forming the pavement.The high type of asphalt pavements is made with asphalt cements of some sel ectedpenetration grad e.Fig. ·1 A modern asphalt concrete highway. Should er striping is used as a safely feature.Fig. ·2 Asphalt concrete at the San Francisco International Airport.They are used when high wheel l oads and high volumes of traffic occur and are, therefore, often designed for a particular installation.2 . Theory of asphalt concrete mix designHigh types of flexible pavement are constructed by combining an asphalt cement, often in the penetration grad e of 85 to 100, with aggregates that are usually divided into three groups, based on size. The three groups are coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, and mineral filler. These will be discussed in d etail in later chapter.Each of the constituent parts mentioned has a particular function in the asphalt mixture, and mix proportioning or d esign is the process of ensuring that no function is negl ected. Before these individual functions are examined, however, the criteria for pavement success and failure should be consid ered so that d esign objectives can be established.A successful fl exible pavement must have several particular properties. First, it must be stable, that is to resistant to permanent displacement under l oad. Deformation of an asphalt pavement can occur in three ways, two unsatisfactory and one desirable. Plastic d eformationof a pavement failure and which is to be avoid ed if possible. Compressive deformation of the pavement results in a dimensional change in the pavement, and with this change come a l oss of resiliency and usually a d egree of roughness. This deformation is less serious than the one just described, but it, too, leads to pavement failure. The desirabl e type of deformation is an elastic one, which actually is beneficial to flexibl e pavements and is necessary to their long life.The pavement should be durable and should offer protection to the subgrade. Asphalt cement is not impervious to the effects of weathering, and so the design must minimize weather susceptibility. A durable pavement that does not crack or ravel will probably also protect the roadbed. It must be remembered that fl exible pavements transmit l oads to the subgrad e without significant bridging action, and so a dry firm base is absolutely essential.Rapidly moving vehicl es d epend on the tire-pavement friction factor for control and safety. The texture of the pavement surfaces must be such that an adequate skid resistance is developed or unsafe conditions result. The design procedure should be used to sel ect the asphalt material and aggregates combination which provid es a skid resistant roadway.Design procedures which yield paving mixtures embodying all these properties are not available. Sound pavements are constructed where materials and methods are selected by using time-tested tests and specifications and engineering judgments al ong with a so-call ed design method.The final requirement for any pavement is one of economy. Economy, again, cannot be measured directly, since true economy only begins with construction cost and is not fully determinable until the full useful life of the pavement has been record ed. If, however, the requirements for a stable, durable, and safe pavement are met with a reasonable safety factor, then the best interests of economy have probably been served as well.With these requirements in mind, the functions of the constituent parts can be examined with consideration give to how each part contributes to now-established objectives or requirements. The functions of the aggregates is to carry the l oad imposed on the pavement, and this is accomplished by frictional resistance and interl ocking between the individual pieces of aggregates. The carrying capacity of the asphalt pavement is, then, related to the surface texture (particularly that of the fine aggregate) and the density, or “compactness,”, of the aggregates. Surface texture varies with different aggregates, and while a rough surfacetexture is desired, this may not be available in some l ocalities. Dense mixtures are obtained by using aggregates that are either naturally or artificially “well grad ed”. This means tha t the fine aggregate serves to fill the voids in the coarser aggregates. In addition to affecting density and therefore strength characteristics, the grading also influences workability. When an excess of coarse aggregate is used, the mix becomes harsh and hard to work. When an excess of mineral filler is used, the mixes become gummy and difficult to manage.The asphalt cement in the fl exibl e pavement is used to bind the aggregate particl es together and to waterproof the pavements. Obtaining the proper asphalt content is extremely important and bears a significant influence on all the items marking a successful pavement. A chief objective of all the design methods which have been devel oped is to arrive at the best asphalt content for a particular combination of aggregates.3 . Mix design principl esCertain fundamental principles underlie the design procedures that have been developed. Before these procedures can be properly studied or applied, some consid eration of these principles is necessary.Asphalt pavements are composed of aggregates, asphalt cement, and voids. Consid ering the aggregate alone, all the space between particles is void space. The volume of aggregate voids depends on grading and can vary widely. When the asphalt cement is ad ded, a portion of these aggregate voids is fill ed and a final air-void volume is retained. The retention of thisair-void volume is very important to the characteristics of the mixture. The term air-void volume is used, since these voids are weightless and are usually expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the compacted mixture.An asphalt pavement carries the applied load by particl e friction and interlock. If the particl es are pushed apart for any reason , then the pavement stability is d estroyed. This factor indicates that certainly no more asphalt shoul d be ad ded than the aggregate voids can readily hold. However ,asphalt cement is susceptible to volume change and the pavement is subject to further compaction under use. If the pavement has no air voids when placed, or if it loses them under traffic, then the expanding asphalt will overfl ow in a condition known as bleeding. The l oss of asphalt cement through bl eeding weakens the pavement and also reduces surface friction, making the roadway hazard ous.Fig. ·3 Cross section of an asphalt concrete pavement showing the aggregate framework bound together by asphalt cement.The need for a minimum air-void volume (usually 2 or 3 per cent ) has been established. In addition, a maximum air-void volume of 5 to 7 per cent shoul d not be exceed. An excess of air voids promotes raveling of the pavement and also permits water to enter and speed up the deteriorating processes. Also, in the presence of excess air the asphalt cement hard ens and ages with an accompanying loss of durability and resiliency.The air-void volume of the mix is determined by the d egree of compaction as well as by the asphalt content. For a given asphalt content, a lightly compacted mix will have a large voids volume and a l ower d ensity and a greater strength will result. In the laboratory, the compaction is controlled by using a specified hammer and regulating the number of bl ows and the energy per blow. In the fiel d, the compaction and the air voids are more difficult to control and tests must be made no specimens taken from the compacted pavement to cheek on the d egree of compaction being obtained. Traffic further compact the pavement, andall owance must be mad e for this in the design. A systematic checking of the pavement over an extend ed period is needed to given factual information for a particular mix. A change in density of several per cent is not unusual, however.Asphalt content has been discussed in connection with various facets of the ix design problem. It is a very important factor in the mix design and has a bearing an all the characteristics ld a successful pavement: stability, skid resistance, durability, and economy. As has been mentioned, the various design procedures are intended to provid e a means for selecting the asphalt content . These tests will be consid ered in detail in a future chapter ,butthe relationship between asphalt content and the measurable properties of stability, unit weight, and air voids will be discussed here.Fig.4 Variations in stability, unit weight, and air-void content with asphalt cement content.If the gradation and type of aggregate, the degree of compaction, and the type of asphalt cement are controll ed, then the strength varies in a predictable manner. The strength will increase up to some optimum asphalt content and then decrease with further additions. The pattern of strength variation will be different when the other mix factors are changed, and so only a typical pattern can be predicted prior to actual testing.Unit weight varies in the same manner as strength when all other variabl e are controll ed. It will reach some peak value at an asphalt content near that determined from the strength curve and then fall off with further additions.As already mentioned, the air-void volume will vary with asphalt content. However, the manner of variation is different in that increased asphalt content will d ecrease air-void volume to some minimum value which is approached asymptotically. With still greater additions of asphalt material the particles of aggregate are only pushed apart and no change occurs in air-void volume.In summary, certain principles involving aggregate gradation, air-void volume, asphalt content, and compaction mist be understood before proceeding to actual mix d esign. The proper design based on these principl es will result in sound pavements. If these principles are overl ooked, the pavement may fail by one or more of the recognized modes of failure: shoving, rutting, corrugating, becoming slick when the max is too ‘rich’; raveling, cracking,having low durability when the mix is too ‘l ean’.It should be again emphasized that the strength of flexible is, more accurately, a stabilityand d oes not indicate any ability to bridge weak points in the subgrade by beam strength. No asphalt mixture can be successful unless it rests on top of a properly designed and constructed base structure. This fact, that the surface is no better than the base, must be continually in the minds of those concerned with any aspect of fl exible pavement work.译文：沥青混合料的应用、理论和原则1、应用沥青材料如今在建筑行业广泛使用。

greatbeltbridge丹麦大贝尔特跨海大桥文档仅供参考如有不当之处请联系改正
1. Salginatobel Brücke(瑞士萨尔基那山谷桥) 2. Golden Gate Bridge (美国旧金山金门大桥) 3. The Brotonne Bridge (法国东纳大桥) 4. Kirchheim Overpass (德国克西汉姆跨线桥) 5. Orly Airport Overpass (法国奥利机场跨线桥) 6. First Bosphoros Bridge (土耳其博斯布鲁斯大桥) 7. Sunniberg Bridge (瑞士桑尼伯格大桥) 8. Normandy Bridge (法国诺曼底大桥)
2. Golden Gate Bridge (美国旧金山金门大桥)
The bridge was built in 1937. Bridge color is orange, the main span of 1280m, located in the San Francisco Bay entrance. "She sleek, proportion, is the jewel in bridge engineering, so that the designers of this century has been unable to go beyond."
5. Orly Airport Overpass (法国奥利机场跨线桥)
Built in 1958. "It was delicate and graceful curves gives a strong feeling."
6. First Bosphoros Bridge (土耳其博斯布鲁斯大桥)

London Bridge is a historic and iconic structure that spans the River Thames in the heart of London. It is not only a vital part of the citys infrastructure but also a symbol of Londons rich history and architectural prowess. The following essay will explore the significance of London Bridge and its role in the citys development.London Bridge has been a crucial crossing point over the River Thames since Roman times. The first bridge on the site was a wooden construction built by the Romans around 50 AD. Over the centuries, the bridge has been rebuilt and redesigned several times to accommodate the growing needs of the city. The current stone bridge, which opened in 1973, is a marvel of modern engineering.The bridges design is both functional and aesthetically pleasing. It features a series of elegant arches that gracefully curve over the river, creating a striking visual impact. The stone used in the construction of the bridge is not only durable but also gives the structure a timeless quality that complements the surrounding architecture.London Bridge is not just a means of transportation but also a hub of activity. The bridge is surrounded by numerous attractions, including the iconic Tower Bridge and the historic Tower of London. It is a popular spot for tourists and locals alike, who come to enjoy the stunning views of the river and the city skyline.Moreover, London Bridge has played a significant role in the citys cultural life. It has been immortalized in literature, music, and art, reflecting its importance to the people of London. The nursery rhyme London Bridge is Falling Down is perhaps the most famous example of the bridges cultural significance.In conclusion, London Bridge is an integral part of Londons landscape. It serves as a vital transportation link, a symbol of the citys history, and a source of cultural inspiration. The bridges enduring presence and beauty continue to captivate the hearts of Londoners and visitors from around the world.伦敦桥是一座历史悠久且具有标志性的建筑，横跨伦敦市中心的泰晤士河。

中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Bridge research in EuropeA brief outline is given of the development of the European Union, together with the research platform in Europe. The special case of post-tensioned bridges in the UK is discussed. In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio: relating to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges using digital impulse radar.IntroductionThe challenge in any research arena is to harness the findings of different research groups to identify a coherent mass of data, which enables research and practice to be better focused. A particular challenge exists with respect to Europe where language barriers are inevitably very significant. The European Community was formed in the 1960s based upon a political will within continental Europe to avoid the European civil wars, which developed into World War 2 from 1939 to 1945. The strong political motivation formed the original community of which Britain was not a member. Many of the continental countries saw Britain’s interest as being purelyeconomic. The 1970s saw Britain joining what was then the European Economic Community (EEC) and the 1990s has seen the widening of the community to a European Union, EU, with certain political goals together with the objective of a common European currency.Notwithstanding these financial and political developments, civil engineering and bridge engineering in particular have found great difficulty in forming any kind of common thread. Indeed the educational systems for University training are quite different between Britain and the European continental countries. The formation of the EU funding schemes —e.g. Socrates, Brite Euram and other programs have helped significantly. The Socrates scheme is based upon the exchange of students between Universities in different member states. The Brite Euram scheme has involved technical research grants given to consortia of academics and industrial partners within a number of the states— a Brite Euram bid would normally be led by an industrialist.In terms of dissemination of knowledge, two quite different strands appear to have emerged. The UK and the USA have concentrated primarily upon disseminating basic research in refereed journal publications: ASCE, ICE and other journals. Whereas the continental Europeans have frequently disseminated basic research at conferences where the circulation of the proceedings is restricted.Additionally, language barriers have proved to be very difficult to break down. In countries where English is a strong second language there has been enthusiastic participation in international conferences based within continental Europe —e.g. Germany, Italy, Belgium, The Netherlands and Switzerland. However, countries where English is not a strong second language have been hesitant participants }—e.g. France.European researchExamples of research relating to bridges in Europe can be divided into three types of structure:Masonry arch bridgesBritain has the largest stock of masonry arch bridges. In certain regions of the UK up to 60% of the road bridges are historic stone masonry arch bridges originally constructed for horse drawn traffic. This is less common in other parts of Europe as many of these bridges were destroyed during World War 2.Concrete bridgesA large stock of concrete bridges was constructed during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. At the time, these structures were seen as maintenance free. Europe also has a large number of post-tensioned concrete bridges with steel tendon ducts preventing radar inspection. This is a particular problem in France and the UK.Steel bridgesSteel bridges went out of fashion in the UK due to their need for maintenance as perceived in the 1960s and 1970s. However, they have been used for long span and rail bridges, and they are now returning to fashion for motorway widening schemes in the UK.Research activity in EuropeIt gives an indication certain areas of expertise and work being undertaken in Europe, but is by no means exhaustive.In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio. The example relates to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges, using digital impulse radar.Post-tensioned concrete rail bridge analysisOve Arup and Partners carried out an inspection and assessment of the superstructure of a 160 m long post-tensioned, segmental railway bridge in Manchester to determine its load-carrying capacity prior to a transfer of ownership, for use in the Metrolink light rail system..Particular attention was paid to the integrity of its post-tensioned steel elements. Physical inspection, non-destructive radar testing and other exploratory methods were used to investigate for possible weaknesses in the bridge.Since the sudden collapse of Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge in Wales, UK in 1985, there has been concern about the long-term integrity of segmental, post-tensioned concrete bridges which may b e prone to ‘brittle’ failure without warning. The corrosion protection of the post-tensioned steel cables, where they pass through joints between the segments, has been identified as a major factor affecting the long-term durability and consequent strength of this type of bridge. The identification of voids in grouted tendon ducts at vulnerable positions is recognized as an important step in the detection of such corrosion.Description of bridgeGeneral arrangementBesses o’ th’ Barn Bridge is a 160 m long, three span, segmental, post-tensionedconcrete railway bridge built in 1969. The main span of 90 m crosses over both the M62 motorway and A665 Bury to Prestwick Road. Minimum headroom is 5.18 m from the A665 and the M62 is cleared by approx 12.5 m.The superstructure consists of a central hollow trapezoidal concrete box section 6.7 m high and 4 m wide. The majority of the south and central spans are constructed using 1.27 m long pre-cast concrete trapezoidal box units, post-tensioned together. This box section supports the in site concrete transverse cantilever slabs at bottom flange level, which carry the rail tracks and ballast.The center and south span sections are of post-tensioned construction. These post-tensioned sections have five types of pre-stressing:1. Longitudinal tendons in grouted ducts within the top and bottom flanges.2. Longitudinal internal draped tendons located alongside the webs. These are deflected at internal diaphragm positions and are encased in in site concrete.3. Longitudinal macalloy bars in the transverse cantilever slabs in the central span .4. Vertical macalloy bars in the 229 mm wide webs to enhance shear capacity.5. Transverse macalloy bars through the bottom flange to support the transverse cantilever slabs.Segmental constructionThe pre-cast segmental system of construction used for the south and center span sections was an alternative method proposed by the contractor. Current thinking suggests that such a form of construction can lead to ‘brittle’ failure of the ent ire structure without warning due to corrosion of tendons across a construction joint，The original design concept had been for in site concrete construction.Inspection and assessmentInspectionInspection work was undertaken in a number of phases and was linked with the testing required for the structure. The initial inspections recorded a number of visible problems including:Defective waterproofing on the exposed surface of the top flange.Water trapped in the internal space of the hollow box with depths up to 300 mm.Various drainage problems at joints and abutments.Longitudinal cracking of the exposed soffit of the central span.Longitudinal cracking on sides of the top flange of the pre-stressed sections.Widespread sapling on some in site concrete surfaces with exposed rusting reinforcement.AssessmentThe subject of an earlier paper, the objectives of the assessment were:Estimate the present load-carrying capacity.Identify any structural deficiencies in the original design.Determine reasons for existing problems identified by the inspection.Conclusion to the inspection and assessmentFollowing the inspection and the analytical assessment one major element of doubt still existed. This concerned the condition of the embedded pre-stressing wires, strands, cables or bars. For the purpose of structural analysis these elements、had been assumed to be sound. However, due to the very high forces involved,、a risk to the structure, caused by corrosion to these primary elements, was identified.The initial recommendations which completed the first phase of the assessment were:1. Carry out detailed material testing to determine the condition of hidden structural elements, in particularthe grouted post-tensioned steel cables.2. Conduct concrete durability tests.3. Undertake repairs to defective waterproofing and surface defects in concrete.Testing proceduresNon-destructi v e radar testingDuring the first phase investigation at a joint between pre-cast deck segments the observation of a void in a post-tensioned cable duct gave rise to serious concern about corrosion and the integrity of the pre-stress. However, the extent of this problem was extremely difficult to determine. The bridge contains 93 joints with an average of 24 cables passing through each joint, i.e. there were approx. 2200 positions where investigations could be carried out. A typical section through such a joint is that the 24 draped tendons within the spine did not give rise to concern because these were protected by in site concrete poured without joints after the cables had been stressed.As it was clearly impractical to consider physically exposing all tendon/joint intersections, radar was used to investigate a large numbers of tendons and hence locate duct voids within a modest timescale. It was fortunate that the corrugated steel ducts around the tendons were discontinuous through the joints which allowed theradar to detect the tendons and voids. The problem, however, was still highly complex due to the high density of other steel elements which could interfere with the radar signals and the fact that the area of interest was at most 102 mm wide and embedded between 150 mm and 800 mm deep in thick concrete slabs.Trial radar investigations.Three companies were invited to visit the bridge and conduct a trial investigation. One company decided not to proceed. The remaining two were given 2 weeks to mobilize, test and report. Their results were then compared with physical explorations.To make the comparisons, observation holes were drilled vertically downwards into the ducts at a selection of 10 locations which included several where voids were predicted and several where the ducts were predicted to be fully grouted. A 25-mm diameter hole was required in order to facilitate use of the chosen horoscope. The results from the University of Edinburgh yielded an accuracy of around 60%.Main radar sur v ey, horoscope verification of v oids.Having completed a radar survey of the total structure, a baroscopic was then used to investigate all predicted voids and in more than 60% of cases this gave a clear confirmation of the radar findings. In several other cases some evidence of honeycombing in the in site stitch concrete above the duct was found.When viewing voids through the baroscopic, however, it proved impossible to determine their actual size or how far they extended along the tendon ducts although they only appeared to occupy less than the top 25% of the duct diameter. Most of these voids, in fact, were smaller than the diameter of the flexible baroscopic being used (approximately 9 mm) and were seen between the horizontal top surface of the grout and the curved upper limit of the duct. In a very few cases the tops of the pre-stressing strands were visible above the grout but no sign of any trapped water was seen. It was not possible, using the baroscopic, to see whether those cables were corroded.Digital radar testingThe test method involved exciting the joints using radio frequency radar antenna: 1 GHz, 900 MHz and 500 MHz. The highest frequency gives the highest resolution but has shallow depth penetration in the concrete. The lowest frequency gives the greatest depth penetration but yields lower resolution.The data collected on the radar sweeps were recorded on a GSSI SIR System 10.This system involves radar pulsing and recording. The data from the antenna is transformed from an analogue signal to a digital signal using a 16-bit analogue digital converter giving a very high resolution for subsequent data processing. The data is displayed on site on a high-resolution color monitor. Following visual inspection it is then stored digitally on a 2.3-gigabyte tape for subsequent analysis and signal processing. The tape first of all records a ‘header’ noting the digital radar settings together with the trace number prior to recording the actual data. When the data is played back, one is able to clearly identify all the relevant settings —making for accurate and reliable data reproduction.At particular locations along the traces, the trace was marked using a marker switch on the recording unit or the antenna.All the digital records were subsequently downloaded at the University’s NDT laboratory on to a micro-computer.（The raw data prior to processing consumed 35 megabytes of digital data.）Post-processing was undertaken using sophisticated signal processing software. Techniques available for the analysis include changing the color transform and changing the scales from linear to a skewed distribution in order to highlight、突出certain features. Also, the color transforms could be changed to highlight phase changes. In addition to these color transform facilities, sophisticated horizontal and vertical filtering procedures are available. Using a large screen monitor it is possible to display in split screens the raw data and the transformed processed data. Thus one is able to get an accurate indication of the processing which has taken place. The computer screen displays the time domain calibrations of the reflected signals on the vertical axis.A further facility of the software was the ability to display the individual radar pulses as time domain wiggle plots. This was a particularly valuable feature when looking at individual records in the vicinity of the tendons.Interpretation of findingsA full analysis of findings is given elsewhere, Essentially the digitized radar plots were transformed to color line scans and where double phase shifts were identified in the joints, then voiding was diagnosed.Conclusions1. An outline of the bridge research platform in Europe is given.2. The use of impulse radar has contributed considerably to the level of confidence in the assessment of the Besses o’ th’ Barn Rail Bridge.3. The radar investigations revealed extensive voiding within the post-tensioned cable ducts. However, no sign of corrosion on the stressing wires had been found except for the very first investigation.欧洲桥梁研究欧洲联盟共同的研究平台诞生于欧洲联盟。

桥梁的快速修复——圣彼得堡一座旧木桥的更换工作在今年年初完成在俄罗斯的圣彼得堡，崛起的交通水平和发展要求促使一个旧的电车轨道桥被改造为一个斜拉桥。

新的Lazarevsky大桥横跨马来亚内芙卡，并与今年早些时候建成通车，取代了一座本来供有轨电车通行但是现在只供行人行走的旧木质桥。

这座桥坐落于彼得格勒区，并且沿着Pionerskaya和Sportivnaya街道将Krestovsky和Petrogradsky群岛连接了起来，这两者都是当地的交通枢纽。

它始建于1949年，当时被称为Koltovsky桥，相邻马来亚内芙卡河堤。

但在1952年，为了纪念传说中的俄罗斯海军上将米哈伊尔拉扎列夫，路堤及桥梁被易名为拉扎列夫海军上将路堤和Lazarevsky桥。

这座桥由VV Blazhevich工程师设计，最初桥有11跨，中央一个是单叶。

它最初是设计用于电车，并且是当时该市唯一的一座电车轨道桥。

总长度为141m，总宽度为11m，层面由金属和木质材料组成。

木材支柱支撑的码头建在钢管桩基础上。

但是在2002年时，电车轨道被关闭，从那时起，这座桥只供行人使用。

这座桥梁的位置就意味着它服务这座城市的西部——包括Krestovsky岛的彼得格勒区。

所有到Krestovsky岛的车辆都用主要这个岛的Krestovsky桥，这自然导致该桥大大超载。

由于Lazarevsky桥并没有承受车辆荷载，所以它不被认为是彼得格勒区的交通网络的一部分。

但是，Krestovsky岛上计划在victory 公园里兴建一个体育场，离海边仅有3公里，这意味着城市的其余部分需要一个可靠的连接方式。

当地政府认为解决这个问题最好的办法就是重建Lazarevsky 桥。

新桥的规模取决于现有交通水平，并且考虑到了该地区未来的发展。

据预测，到2025年，Lazarevsky桥的全年平均日交通量将上升至16000车次。

车流高峰发生在体育场馆举行重大赛事时，此时该桥须能在一小时内纾缓这个地段的交通。

Prestressed Concrete bridgesPrestressed concrete has been used extensively in U.S. bridge construction since its first introduction from Europe in the late 1940s. Literally thousands of highway bridges of both precast, prestressed concrete and cast-in-place post-tensioned concrete have been constructed in the United States. Railroad bridges utilizing prestressed concrete have become common as well. The use and evolution of prestressed concrete bridges is expected to continue in the years ahead.Short-span BridgeShort-span Bridge, as shown in Fig.18for the purposes of this discussion, will be assumed to have a maximum span of 45ft (13.7m). It should be understood that this is an arbitrary figure, and there is no definite line of demarcation between short, moderate, and long spans in highly bridges. Short-span bridges are most efficiently made of precast prestressed-concrete hollow slabs, I-beams, solid slabs or cast-place solid slabs, and the T-beams of relativily generous proportions.Precast solid slabs are most economical when used on very short spans. The slabs can be made in any convenient width, but widths of 3 or 4ft(0.9 to 1.2m ) have been common. Keys frequently are cast in the longitudinal sides of the precast units. After the slabs have been erected and joints between the slabs have been filled with concrete, the keys transfer live load shear forces between the adjacent slabs.Precast hollow slabs used in short-span bridge may have round or square void. They too are generally made in units 3 to 4 ft (0.9 to 1.2m) wide with thicknesses from 18 to 27 inch 9 (45.7 to 68.8cm). Precast hollow slabs can be made in any convenient width and depth, and frequently are used in bridges having spans from 20 to 50 ft (6.1 to 15.2cm). Longitudinal shear keys are used in the joints between adjacent hollow slabs in the same way as with solid slabs, but the use of a leveling course of some type normally is required as a means of obtaining an acceptable appearance and levelness.Transverse reinforcement normally is provided in precast concrete bridge superstructures for the purpose of tying the structure together in the transverse direction. Well-designed ties ensure that the individual longitudinal members forming the superstructure will act as a unit under the effects of the live load. In slab bridge construction, transverse ties most frequently consist of threaded steel bars placedthrough small holes formed transversely through the member during fabrication. Nuts frequently are used as fasteners at each end of the bars. In some instances, the transverse ties consist of post tensioned tendons placed, stressed, and grouted after the slabs have been erected. The transverse tie usually extends from one side of the bridge to the other.The shear forces imposed on the stringers in short-span bridges frequently are too large to be resisted by the concrete alone. Hence, shear reinforcement normally is required. The amount of shear reinforcement required may be relatively large if the webs of the stringers are relatively thin.Concrete diaphragms, reinforced with post-tensioned reinforcement or nonprestressed reinforcement, normally are provided transversely at ends and at intermediate locations along the span in stringer-type bridges. The diaphragms ensure the lateral-distribution of the live loads to the various stringers from displacing or rotating significantly with respect to the adjacent stringers.No generalities will be made here about the relative cost of each of the above types of construction; construction costs are a function of many variables which prohibit meaningful generalizations. However, it should be noted that the stringer type of construction requires a considerably greater construction depth that is requires a considerably greater construction depth that is required for solid, hollow, or channel slab bridge superstructure. Stringer construction does not require a separate wearing surface, as do the precast slab types of construction, unless precast slabs are used to span between the stringers in lieu of the more commonly used cast-in-place reinforced concrete deck. Strings construction frequently requires smaller quantities of superstructure materials than do slab bridges (unless the spans are very short). The construction time needed to complete a bridge after the precast members have beenerected is greater with stringer framing than with the slab type of framing.Bridge of moderate spanAgain for the purposes of this discussion only, moderate spans for bridges of prestressed concrete are defined as being from 45 to 80ft (13.7 to 24.4m). Prestressed concrete bridges in this spans range generally can be divided into two types; stringer-type bridges and slab-type bridges and slab-type bridges. The majority of the precast prestressed concrete bridges constructed in the United States have been stringer bridges using I-shaped stringers, but a large number of precast prestressedconcrete bridges have been constructed with precast hollow-box girders (sometimes also called stringer). Cast-in-place post-tensioned concrete has been used extensively in the construction of hollow-box girder bridges-a form of construction that can be considered to be a slab bridge.Stringer bridges, which employ a composite, cast-in-place deck slab, have been used in virtually all parts of the United States. These stringers normally are used at spacing of about 5 to 6 ft (1.5 to 1.8m). The cast-in-place deck is generally form 6.0 to 8.0 inch (15.2 to 20.3 cm) in thickness. This type of framing is very much the same as that used on composite stringer construction for short-span bridges.Diaphragm details in moderate-span bridges are generally similar to those of the short spans, with the exception that two or three interior diaphragms sometime are used, rather than just one at mid span as in the short-span bridge.As in the case of short-span bridges, the minimum depth of construction in bridges of moderate span is obtained by using slab construction, which may be either solid-or hollow-box in cross section. Average construction depths are required when stringers with large flanges are used in composite construction, and large construction depths are required when stringers with small bottom flanges are used. Composite construction may be developed through the use of cast-in-place concrete decks or with precast construction may be developed through the use of cast-in-place concrete decks or with precast concrete decks. Lower quantities of materials normally are required with composite construction, and dead weight of the materials normally is less for stringer construction than for slab construction.Long-Span BridgesPrestressed concrete bridges having spans of the order of 100 ft are of the same general types of construction as structures having moderate span lengths, with the single exception that solid slabs are not used for long spans. The stringer spacings are frequently greater (with stringers at 7 to 9 ft) as the span lengths of bridges increase. Because of dead weight consideration, precast hollow-box construction generally is employed for spans of this length only when the depth of construction must be minimized. Cast-in-place post-tensioned hollow-box bridges with simple and continues spans frequently are used for spans on the order of 100 ft and longer.Simple, precast, prestressed stringer construction would be economical in the United States in spans up to 300 ft under some condition. However, only limited use has been made of this type of construction on spans greater than 100 ft. For very longsimple spans, the advantage of precasting frequently is nullified by the difficulties involved in handing, transporting, and erecting the girders, which may have depths as great as 10 ft and weight over 200 tons. The exceptions to this occur on large projects where all of the spans are over water of sufficient depth and character that precast beams can be handled with floating equipment, when custom girder launchers can be used, and when segmental construction techniques can be used.The use of cast-in-place, post-tensioned, box-girder bridges has been extensive. Although structures of these types occasionally are used for spans less than 100 ft, they more often are used for spans in excess of 100ft and have been used in structures having spans in excess of 300ft. Structure efficient in flexure, especially for continues bridges, the box girder is torsionally stiff and hence an excellent type of structure for use on bridges that have horizontal curvature. Some governmental agencies use this form of construction almost exclusively in urban areas where appearance from the side, is considered important.Segmental BridgesBridges that are constructed in pieces of one various connected together in some way, frequently are referred to as segmental bridges. The segments may be cast-in-place or precast, elongated units, such as portions of stringers or girders, or relatively short units that are as wide as the completed bridge superstructure.The Esbly Bridge in France is an example of one of the earliest precast concrete segmental bridges. This bridge is one of five bridges that were made with the same dimensions and utilized the same steel molds for casting the concrete units. All of the bridges span the River Marne, and because of the required navigational clearances and the low grades on the roads approaching the bridge, the depth of construction at the center of each span was restricted. The bridges were formed of precast elements, 6ft long, and were made in elaborate molds by first casting and steam-curing the top and bottom flanges in which the ends of the web reinforcement were embedded. The flanges were then jacked apart, and held apart by the web forms resulted in the prestressing of the webs. The 6-ft-long elements were temporarily post-tensioned in the factory into units approximately 40ft long. The 40ft units were transported to the bridge site, raised into place, and post-tensioned together longitudinally, after which the temporary post tensioned was removed. Each span consists of six ribs or beams that were post tensioned together transversely after they were erected. Hence, the beams are triaxially prestressed. The completed Esbly Bridge consists of a very flat,two hinged, prestressed concrete arch with a span of 243 ft and a depth at midspan of about 3ft.Cast-in-place prestressed concrete segmental construction, in which relatively short, full-width sections of a bridge superstructure are constructed, cantilevered from both sides of a pier, originated in Germany shortly after World War 2. This procedure sometimes is referred to as balanced cantilever construction. The well-known, late German engineer U.Finterwalder is credited with being originator of the technique. The basic construction sequence used in this method is illustrated in Fig.18.2 which shows that segments, erected one after another on each side of a pier, form cantilevered spans. The construction sequence normally progresses from pier to pier, from one end of the bridge to the other, with the ends of adjacent cantilevered being joined together to continuous deck. The individual segments frequently are made in lengths of 12 to 16 ft in cycles of four to seven days. The method has been used in the United States for bridges having spans as long as 750ft.The segmental construction technique also has been used with precast segments. The technique originated in France and has been used in the construction of bridges having spans in excess of 300ft. the eminent French engineer Jean Muller is credited with originating precast segment bridge construction using match cast segments. The precast segment may be erected in balanced cantilever, similar to the method described above for cast-in-place segment bridges construction in cantilever, or by using span-by-span technique. Precast segments have been made in precasting plants located on the construction site as well as off site. The segments frequently are stored for a period of weeks or months before being moved to the bridge site and erected- a factor having favorable effects on concrete strength, shrink-age, and creep. Construction of precast segmental bridge superstructures normally progresses at a rapid rate once the erection progress begins. The erection of precast concrete segments normally does not commence, however, until such time as a large number of segments have been precast and stockpiled because the erection normally can progress at a faster rate than the production of the segments.Bridge DesignThe design of bridges requires the collection of extensive date and from this the selection of possible options. From such a review the choice is narrowed down to a shortlist of potential bridge design. A sensible work plan should be devised for the marshaling and deployment of information throughout the project from conception tocompletion to completion. Such a checklist will vary from project to project but a typical example might be drawn up on the following lines.Selection of Bridge TypeThe chief factors in deciding whether a bridge will be built as girder, cantilever, truss, arch, suspension, or some other type are: (1) location ;for example, across a river ; (2) purposes; for example, a bridge for carrying motor vehicles; (3) span length;(4) strength of available materials; (5) cost ; (6) beauty and harmony with the location.Each type of bridge is most effective and economical only within a certain range of span lengths, as shown in the following table:Selection of MaterialThe bridge designer can select from a number of modern high-strength materials, including concrete, steel, and a wide variety of corrosion-resistant alloy steels.For the Verrazano-narrows bridge, for example, the designer used at least seven different kinds of alloy steel, one of which has a yield strength of 50000 pounds per square inch (psi) (3515 kgs/sq cm) and does not need to be painted because an oxide coating forms on its surface and inhibits corrosion. The designer also can select steel wires for suspension cables that have tensile strengths up to 250 000 psi (14 577 kgs/sq cm).Concrete with compressive strength as high as 8 000 psi (562.5 kgs/sq cm) can now be produced for use in bridges, and it can be given high durability against chipping and weathering by the addition of special chemical and control of the hardening process. Concrete that has been prestressed and reinforced with steel wires has a tensile strength of 250 000 psi (17 577kgs/sq cm).Other useful materials for bridges include aluminum alloys and wood. Modern structural aluminum alloys have yield strengths exceeding 40 000 psi (2 812 kgs/spcm). Laminated strips of wood glued together can be made into beams with strengths twice that of natural timbers; glue-laminated southern pine, for example, can bear working stresses approaching 3 000 psi (210.9 kgs/sq cm).Analysis of ForcesA bridge must resist a complex combination of tension, compression, bending, shear, and torsion forces. In addition, the structure must provide a safety factor as insurance against failure. The calculation of the precise nature of the individual stresses and strains in the structure, called analysis, is perhaps the most technically complex aspect of bridge building. The goal of analysis is to determine all of the forces that may act on each structural member.The forces that act on bridge structure member are produced by two kinds of loads-static and dynamic. The static load-the dead weight of bridge structure itself-is usually the greatest load. The dynamic or live load has components, including vehicles carried by the bridge, wind forces, and accumulation of ice and snow.Although the total weight of the vehicles moving over a bridge at any time is generally a small fraction of the static and dynamic load, it presents special problems to the bridge designer because of the vibration and impact stresses created by moving vehicles. For example, the sever impacts caused by irregularities of vehicle motion or bumps in the roadway may momentarily double the effect of the live load on the bridge.Wind exerts forces on a bridge both directly by striking the bridge structure and indirectly by striking vehicles that are crossing the bridge. If the wind induces aeronautic vibration, as in the case of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, its effect may be greatly amplified. Because of this danger, the bridge designer makes provisions for the strongest winds that may occur at the bridge location. Other forces that may act on the bridge, such as stresses created by earthquake tremors must also be provided for.Special attention must often be given to the design of bridge piers, since heavy loads may be imposed on them by currents, waves, and floating ice and debris. Occasionally a pier may even be hit by a passing ship.Electronic computers are playing an everincreasing role in assisting bridge designers in the analysis of forces. The use of precise model testing particularly for studying the dynamic behavior of bridges, also helps designers. A scaled-down model of the bridge is constructed, and various gauges to measure strains, acceleration, and deforestation are placed on the model. The model bridge is then subjected to variousscaled-down loads or dynamic conditions to find out what will happen. Wind tunnel tests may also be made to ensure that nothing like the Tacoma Narrows Bridge failure can occur. With modern technological aids, there is much less chance of bridge failure than in the past.预应力混凝土桥19世纪40年代后期，预应力混凝土首次引入美国，很快便广泛应用于桥梁结构中。

AbstractThe construction process of continuous large span prestressed concrete rigid frame bridges with curve and high piers is very complex. The linear and internal forces are changing during the construction process. The linear and internal forces of the bridges are closely linked with the construction methodology. In order to ensure the stability and safety of this kind of bridge and guarantee its linear and internal forces to meet the design requirements, the structure analysis and construction monitoring are all required.The Liziping Bridge locates in Luoyang-Luanchuan highway, it is a three-span continuous rigid frame bridge, and its span is 95m + 170 m + 95 m. Its plane is gentle curve and circular curve. The girder is three direction prestressed Single Box and Single Room, the construction method is cradle cantilever casting construct. The height of thin-walled high piers is 68m and 62m, the construction method is turning mould. This paper is based on the engineering background of Liziping Bridge. Combining the construction method, the structure analysis and construction monitoring are performed. The main research of this paper is:1. The Liziping Bridge is analyzed using the finite element software Midas / Civil. Considering the construction process, the mechanical properites of this bridge are analyzed, yielding its section stress and strain during different construction period. This sets a good data foundation for the construction monitoring of this bridge.2. Formulate the construction monitoring schemes for Liziping Bridge. it monitor and control the thin-walled high pier of The Liziping Bridge in the whole construction process. According to the in situ data of the material and construction load, the numerical model is modified accordingly. Based on the feedback of the calculation, construction of the high pier is forecast; it analyzed the influence of upper structure on the thin-walled high piers and by compairing the numerical result with the measured data, adjust offset value of the thin-walled high piers which was used to guide and predict of the thin-walled high piers in the next construction paragraph.3. It analyzed the stability of naked piers and the biggest cantilever in the different load combinations. Finally it obtained the most unfavorable load combinations and the most unstable state and ensure the safety of the bridge construction摘要施工过程中的大跨度预应力混凝土连续刚构梁曲线和高墩是非常复杂的。

Quick fix: replacement of an old wooden bridge in St Petersburg was completed earlier this year.Rising traffic levels and development demands led to an old tramway bridge being rebuilt as a cable-stayed crossing in the Russian city of St Petersburg. The new Lazarevsky Bridge across the Malaya Nevka was opened to traffic earlier this year, replacing an old wooden structure which was built for trams but recently had only been used by pedestrians.The bridge is located in Petrograd district and connects Krestovsky and Petrogradsky Islands along Pionerskaya and Sportivnaya Streets, both of which are importanat links for local traffic. When it was built in 1949, the crossing was called the Koltovsky Bridge, after the adjacent Malaya Nevka river embankment. But in 1952, it was renamed to commemorate the legendary Russian admiral Mikhail Lazarev. The embankment and the bridge were redesignated the Admiral Lazarev Embankment and Lazarevsky Bridge respectively.Built to the design of engineer VV Blazhevich, the original bridge had 11 spans, the central one being a single-leaf drawspan. It was originally designed for trams and was the only tramway bridge in the city at that time. Its total length was 141m and its width was 11m, the deck consisting of metal baulks and wooden plank flooring. The timber post piers rested on piled foundations of steel pipes. But in 2002 the tramway was closed and since then, the bridge has only been used by pedestrians.Its location meant that Lazarevsky Bridge served the western part of the city--the Petrograd districts including Krestovsky island. All the road traffic to Krestovsky island used the main Krestovsky Bridge which as a consequence was considerably overloaded. Since the Lazarevsky Bridge carried no vehicular traffic it was not considered part of the road network of the district. But plans to build a new stadium at the Seaside Victory Park on Krestovsky Island just 3km from the bridge site meant that a reliable transport connection to the rest of the city was required. The local authority decided that reconstruction of the Lazarevsky Bridge was the best way to provide this.The size of new bridge was determined based on the predicted traffic levels, taking into account the prospective development of the district. According to the forecast, the annual average daily traffic intensity on Lazarevsky Bridge will rise to 16,000 vehicles per day by 2025. Peak loads occur during major sporting events at the stadium when the bridge will be required to help relieve the area of traffic within one hour. This traffic flow includes 4,500 to 5,000 cars, so even if the Petrovsky Bridge were to be rebuilt, the Lazarevsky Bridge needed two lanes of traffic in both directions in order to do this.Taking into consideration the fact that the timber structures of the bridge had been in use for more than 55 years, if the bridge reconstruction had been restricted to the widening and strengthening of the existing superstructure and piers, it would not have ensured the longevity of the fixed bridge and might have led to high operation costs. Another consideration was that the appearance of a multi-span structure with bulky piers would not have fitted into the architectural style that is emerging with construction of modern buildings on Krestovsky Island and the adjacentembankments.As a result, the decision was taken to completely demolish the existing bridge and replace it with a new structure on the same alignment. As part of the project, some of Sportivnaya Street on the right bank had to be widened, and improvement of the adjacent area was also included.The history of the project dates back more than a decade to 1998, when JSC Institute Strojproect won the tender to carry out a feasibility study into the reconstruction of Lazarevsky Bridge and its approaches.Even at this time, the architect Igor Serebrennikov had developed an original architectural concept of the bridge which involved use of a cable-stayed system. This concept was approved by the city's committee for development but financial problems meant that the design was suspended for seven years before it resumed.In 2003, the project was included in the target programme of design and survey works, and the tender for design development was officially announced. Again these works were awarded to JSC Institute Strojproect. The reconstruction design was completed in 2007 and was received positively by the State Expert Review Board; construction began at the end of that year.The structural concept of the bridge was approved based on the comparison of technical and economical options. One of the main restrictions was the strict limitation on the superstructure construction depth. On the one hand, it was limited by the need to maintain underbridge clearance for navigation, while on the other hand the deck level was governed by the height of Admiral Lazarev Embankment, which could not be raised, according to the requirements of the committee for protection of monuments.To meet these almost incompatible conditions it was necessary to make the longitudinal profile of the deck with a vertical curve of radius 1,000m, a radius which is allowable only for very constrained conditions. But even with this minimum vertical curve radius, the limitation for the deck construction depth remained fairly strict--it had to be 1.4m at the maximum. This condition could be met either by a classic five-span continuous beam scheme or by a cable-stayed system. The costs of both options are practically the same but the cable-stayed option was preferred as it was considered more attractive from the architectural point of view. Another benefit was that it would take less time for construction as there was no need for intermediate piers to be built in the river bed.The unconventional appearance of the structure, particularly the shape of the tower and its asymmetric arrangement with its single span, put demands on the design abilities of the engineers from JSC Institute Strojproect, requiring them to cope with non-standard problems. One such problem was the need to provide the required rigidity to the deck while at the same time minimising its weight in order to decrease the moments in the tower elements and balance the system. Hence a single-span cable-stayed bridge with steel deck, orthotropic carriageway slab and a steel tower was selected for construction. The deck is supported by two rows of stays, with five stays in each row. The cable stays pass through the tower and are anchored in the reinforced concrete slab of the counterweight which is located beyond the bridgeabutment on Krestovsky Island. The front arch of the tower, which is inclined towards the riverbed, carries the dead anchorages by which means the cable stays and backstays are secured. Tensioning of both sets of cables was carried out by means of active anchors located at the deck and in the counterweight slab. To minimise the total width of the deck, the anchorages are removed to the front surfaces of the main beams. The optimum force distribution in the tower elements was obtained by means of the arch shape that became sharper and elongated in the transverse section of the bridge.The deck consists of a system of longitudinal and transverse H-beams connected via the orthotropic slab with its U-shape stiffeners. The anchorages are located along the transverse beams. At the tower, the deck is rigidly fixed and at pier one it rests on Maurer spherical bearings. The steel part of the deck is made of low-alloy steel grade 10 and 15 and the tower of steel grade 10 (400MPa).The cable stays are VSL standard monostrands and each one is made up of from 50 to 73 strands. The total length of strand used in the bridge is about 31km. Meanwhile the bridge deck pavement consists of two layers of asphalt/concrete 40mm and 50mm placed over the Technoelastomost-S membrane waterproofing layer.The pier foundations are formed of high pile caps resting on bored piles driven deep into the bearing stratum of firm clay. Above the foundation top, the piers are made of cast in situ concrete and faced with granite.Construction was carried out by Mostootryad No 75, a branch of OAO Mostotrest No 6, while the steel deck structure was manufactured by JSC Zavod Metallokonstruktsiy and the steel tower structure was manufactured by NPO Mostovik.For development of the detail design the specialists of automation division of the Institute prepared complex 3-D models of the tower and cable stay anchorages in PRO-E software which were used for analysis and as a basis for the fabrication of the structures by NPO Mostovik. The use of this successful PRO-E modelling enabled the complicated tower structures to be manufactured within a relatively short time.Taking into consideration the constraints imposed on the bridge construction, JSC Institute Strojproect suggested some modifications to the detailed design. One such proposal was to replace the cable backstays of the tower with rigid ties made of low-alloy steel grade 10 which would be fixed rigidly at the tower arches and counterweight. Temporary supports would be installed under the deck anchorages These modifications allowed the erection of the back-stays to be considerably simplified, and would also eliminate the need to tension the backstays, cutting in half the time for the cable-stay installation.In addition it meant that the cable-stays supporting the deck could be tensioned in a single operation, once the asphalt and concrete pavement had been installed on the bridge. Analysis included successive tensioning of cable-stay pairs from the longest pair down to the shortest pair with the subsequent final tensioning of the two longest pairs. Apart from the forces, the vertical displacements of the deck at the 'breakaway' points on the temporary supports had to be controlled. The actual tensioning works were carried out in compliance with the design solutions. The data on the forces and displacements at each stage were handed over by the general contractor to thedesigners, and if necessary, the required corrections were introduced to the design. On the whole, the calculated data showed a high correlation with the actual parameters.In fact it took the general contractor only 17 months to complete construction of all the works involved in the bridge construction. The new cable-stayed bridge has fitted harmoniously into the surrounding landscape. By avoiding placement of intermediate piers in the riverbed it was possible to open up views along the Malaya Nevka. The arch tower acts as a symbolic gateway to the island and stands out distinctly against its background of sky and trees. The architectural expressiveness of the bridge is determined by the general asymmetrical composition and the dynamic shape of the tower formed by two inclined arches, a light and gently-curved deck, and the elegant outline of the cable stay arrangement. At night time, the appearance of the bridge is highlighted by architectural lighting.Tatiana Gurevich is project manager and Yuri Krylov is head of the structural steel department at JSC Institute Strojproect。

2. The cable-stayed bridge
During the past decade cable-stayed bridges have found wide application, s\especially in Western Europe, and to a lesser extent in other parts of the world.
tion in excess of 600 mห้องสมุดไป่ตู้ and is regarded as competitive for down to 300. The world’s longest bridge at present is the Verrazano Narrows bridge in New York. Another modern example is the Severn Bridge in England.
The side span to main span ratio varies from 0.17 to 0.50 .The span to depth ratio for the stiffening truss in existing bridge lies between 85 and 100 for spans up to 1,000m and rises rather steeply to 177. The ratio of span to width of deck for existing bridges ranges from 20 to 56. The aerodynamic stability will have be to be investigated thoroughly by detailed analysis as well as wind tunnel tests on models.

桥梁工程中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)BRIDGE ENGINEERING AND AESTHETICSEvolvement of bridge Engineering,brief reviewAmong the early documented reviews of construction materials and structu re types are the books of Marcus Vitruvios Pollio in the first century B.C.The basic principles of statics were developed by the Greeks , and were exemplifi ed in works and applications by Leonardo da Vinci,Cardeno,and Galileo.In the fifteenth and sixteenth century, engineers seemed to be unaware of this record , and relied solely on experience and tradition for building bridges and aqueduc ts .The state of the art changed rapidly toward the end of the seventeenth cent ury when Leibnitz, Newton, and Bernoulli introduced mathematical formulatio ns. Published works by Lahire (1695)and Belidor (1792) about the theoretical a nalysis of structures provided the basis in the field of mechanics of materials .Kuzmanovic(1977) focuses on stone and wood as the first bridge-building materials. Iron was introduced during the transitional period from wood to steel .According to recent records , concrete was used in France as early as 1840 for a bridge 39 feet (12 m) long to span the Garoyne Canal at Grisoles, but r einforced concrete was not introduced in bridge construction until the beginnin g of this century . Prestressed concrete was first used in 1927.Stone bridges of the arch type (integrated superstructure and substructure) were constructed in Rome and other European cities in the middle ages . Thes e arches were half-circular , with flat arches beginning to dominate bridge wor k during the Renaissance period. This concept was markedly improved at the e nd of the eighteenth century and found structurally adequate to accommodate f uture railroad loads . In terms of analysis and use of materials , stone bridges have not changed much ,but the theoretical treatment was improved by introd ucing the pressure-line concept in the early 1670s(Lahire, 1695) . The arch the ory was documented in model tests where typical failure modes were considered (Frezier,1739).Culmann(1851) introduced the elastic center method for fixed-e nd arches, and showed that three redundant parameters can be found by the us e of three equations of coMPatibility.Wooden trusses were used in bridges during the sixteenth century when P alladio built triangular frames for bridge spans 10 feet long . This effort also f ocused on the three basic principles og bridge design : convenience(serviceabili ty) ,appearance , and endurance(strength) . several timber truss bridges were co nstructed in western Europe beginning in the 1750s with spans up to 200 feet (61m) supported on stone substructures .Significant progress was possible in t he United States and Russia during the nineteenth century ,prompted by the ne ed to cross major rivers and by an abundance of suitable timber . Favorable e conomic considerations included initial low cost and fast construction .The transition from wooden bridges to steel types probably did not begin until about 1840 ,although the first documented use of iron in bridges was the chain bridge built in 1734 across the Oder River in Prussia . The first truss completely made of iron was in 1840 in the United States , followed by Eng land in 1845 , Germany in 1853 , and Russia in 1857 . In 1840 , the first ir on arch truss bridge was built across the Erie Canal at Utica .The Impetus of AnalysisThe theory of structures ,developed mainly in the ninetheenth century,foc used on truss analysis, with the first book on bridges written in 1811. The Wa rren triangular truss was introduced in 1846 , supplemented by a method for c alculating the correcet forces .I-beams fabricated from plates became popular in England and were used in short-span bridges.In 1866, Culmann explained the principles of cantilever truss bridges, an d one year later the first cantilever bridge was built across the Main River in Hassfurt, Germany, with a center span of 425 feet (130m) . The first cantileve r bridge in the United States was built in 1875 across the Kentucky River.A most impressive railway cantilever bridge in the nineteenth century was the Fir st of Forth bridge , built between 1883 and 1893 , with span magnitudes of 1711 feet (521.5m).At about the same time , structural steel was introduced as a prime mater ial in bridge work , although its quality was often poor . Several early exampl es are the Eads bridge in St.Louis ; the Brooklyn bridge in New York ; and t he Glasgow bridge in Missouri , all completed between 1874 and 1883.Among the analytical and design progress to be mentioned are the contrib utions of Maxwell , particularly for certain statically indeterminate trusses ; the books by Cremona (1872) on graphical statics; the force method redefined by Mohr; and the works by Clapeyron who introduced the three-moment equation s.The Impetus of New MaterialsSince the beginning of the twentieth century , concrete has taken its place as one of the most useful and important structural materials . Because of the coMParative ease with which it can be molded into any desired shape , its st ructural uses are almost unlimited . Wherever Portland cement and suitable agg regates are available , it can replace other materials for certain types of structu res, such as bridge substructure and foundation elements .In addition , the introduction of reinforced concrete in multispan frames at the beginning of this century imposed new analytical requirements . Structures of a high order of redundancy could not be analyzed with the classical metho ds of the nineteenth century .The importance of joint rotation was already dem onstrated by Manderla (1880) and Bendixen (1914) , who developed relationshi ps between joint moments and angular rotations from which the unknown mom ents can be obtained ,the so called slope-deflection method .More simplification s in frame analysis were made possible by the work of Calisev (1923) , who used successive approximations to reduce the system of equations to one simpl e expression for each iteration step . This approach was further refined and int egrated by Cross (1930) in what is known as the method of moment distributi on .One of the most import important recent developments in the area of analytical procedures is the extension of design to cover the elastic-plastic range , also known as load factor or ultimate design. Plastic analysis was introduced with some practical observations by Tresca (1846) ; and was formulated by Sa int-Venant (1870) , The concept of plasticity attracted researchers and engineers after World War Ⅰ, mainly in Germany , with the center of activity shifting to England and the United States after World War Ⅱ.The probabilistic approa ch is a new design concept that is expected to replace the classical determinist ic methodology.A main step forward was the 1969 addition of the Federal Highway Adim inistration (F HWA)”Criteria for Reinforced Concrete Bridge Members “ that co vers strength and serviceability at ultimate design . This was prepared for use in conjunction with the 1969 American Association of State Highway Offficials (AASHO) Standard Specification, and was presented in a format that is readil y adaptable to the development of ultimate design specifications .According to this document , the proportioning of reinforced concrete members ( including c olumns ) may be limited by various stages of behavior : elastic , cracked , an d ultimate . Design axial loads , or design shears . Structural capacity is the r eaction phase , and all calculated modified strength values derived from theoret ical strengths are the capacity values , such as moment capacity ,axial load ca pacity ,or shear capacity .At serviceability states , investigations may also be n ecessary for deflections , maximum crack width , and fatigue .Bridge TypesA notable bridge type is the suspension bridge , with the first example bu ilt in the United States in 1796. Problems of dynamic stability were investigate d after the Tacoma bridge collapse , and this work led to significant theoretica l contributions Steinman ( 1929 ) summarizes about 250 suspension bridges bu ilt throughout the world between 1741 and 1928 .With the introduction of the interstate system and the need to provide stru ctures at grade separations , certain bridge types have taken a strong place in bridge practice. These include concrete superstructures (slab ,T-beams,concrete box girders ), steel beam and plate girders , steel box girders , composite const ruction , orthotropic plates , segmental construction , curved girders ,and cable-stayed bridges . Prefabricated members are given serious consideration , while interest in box sections remains strong .Bridge Appearance and AestheticsGrimm ( 1975 ) documents the first recorded legislative effort to control t he appearance of the built environment . This occurred in 1647 when the Cou ncil of New Amsterdam appointed three officials . In 1954 , the Supreme Cou rt of the United States held that it is within the power of the legislature to de termine that communities should be attractive as well as healthy , spacious as well as clean , and balanced as well as patrolled . The Environmental Policy Act of 1969 directs all agencies of the federal government to identify and dev elop methods and procedures to ensure that presently unquantified environmenta l amentities and values are given appropriate consideration in decision making along with economic and technical aspects .Although in many civil engineering works aesthetics has been practiced al most intuitively , particularly in the past , bridge engineers have not ignored o r neglected the aesthetic disciplines .Recent research on the subject appears to lead to a rationalized aesthetic design methodology (Grimm and Preiser , 1976 ) .Work has been done on the aesthetics of color ,light ,texture , shape , and proportions , as well as other perceptual modalities , and this direction is bot h theoretically and empirically oriented .Aesthetic control mechanisms are commonly integrated into the land-use re gulations and design standards . In addition to concern for aesthetics at the sta te level , federal concern focuses also on the effects of man-constructed enviro nment on human life , with guidelines and criteria directed toward improving quality and appearance in the design process . Good potential for the upgradin g of aesthetic quality in bridge superstructures and substructures can be seen in the evaluation structure types aimed at improving overall appearance .Lords and lording groupsThe loads to be considered in the design of substructures and bridge foun dations include loads and forces transmitted from the superstructure, and those acting directly on the substructure and foundation .AASHTO loads . Section 3 of AASHTO specifications summarizes the loa ds and forces to be considered in the design of bridges (superstructure and sub structure ) . Briefly , these are dead load ,live load , iMPact or dynamic effec t of live load , wind load , and other forces such as longitudinal forces , cent rifugal force ,thermal forces , earth pressure , buoyancy , shrinkage and long t erm creep , rib shortening , erection stresses , ice and current pressure , collisi on force , and earthquake stresses .Besides these conventional loads that are ge nerally quantified , AASHTO also recognizes indirect load effects such as fricti on at expansion bearings and stresses associated with differential settlement of bridge components .The LRFD specifications divide loads into two distinct cate gories : permanent and transient .Permanent loadsDead Load : this includes the weight DC of all bridge components , appu rtenances and utilities, wearing surface DW nd future overlays , and earth fill EV. Both AASHTO and LRFD specifications give tables summarizing the unit weights of materials commonly used in bridge work .Transient LoadsVehicular Live Load (LL) Vehicle loading for short-span bridges :considera ble effort has been made in the United States and Canada to develop a live lo ad model that can represent the highway loading more realistically than the H or the HS AASHTO models . The current AASHTO model is still the applica ble loading.桥梁工程和桥梁美学桥梁工程的发展概况早在公元前1世纪，Marcus Vitrucios Pollio 的著作中就有关于建筑材料和结构类型的记载和评述。