Causes of fossilization and rules to avoidfossilizationContentsChapter One: Introduction (4)Chapter Two: Literature Review (4)Chapter Three: Definition and Causes of Fossilization (6)3.1 Definition of fossilization (6)3.2 Internal reasons of fossilization (6)3.3 External reasons of fossilization (8)Chapter Four: Some Rules to avoid fossilization (9)4.1 Increasing the quantity of second language input (9)4.2 Enhancing the motivation (10)4.3 Improving automatization and declarativization (12)4.3.1 content-centered teaching (13)4.3.2 Theme-based teaching (13)4.3.3 Task-based teaching (14)Chapter Five: conclusion (15)References (16)AbstractAs the universal phenomenon in interlanguage development, fossilization hasattracted prevalent attention among both language researchers and teachers. There are various kinds of causes for the conformation of fossilization, in this thesis, it pay particular attention to internal and external reasons of fossilization and explain the conformation process by these reasons. It also proposes some useful advices to avoid fossilization and confirms that English teachers play an essential role in students‟second language acquisition. English teachers have to stimulate students‟ learning motivation, to enhance students‟ interests, and to cultivate students‟ English thought ability in proper sequence as well as improve their own integrated qualities.Key words: fossilization; avoid; causesChapter one IntroductionIn the past 30 years, researchers have launched a through analysis and discussion on the causes of fossilization from different angles. Combining the characteristics ofChinese learner analyzes the causes of interlanguage fossilization, emphatically discusses how to take measures from class teaching to avoid fossilization under the special foreign languages learning environment in China. In order to improve our country‟s foreign language teaching and learning and further promoting the international communication and multiple co-operations between China and the outside world, it is necessary to get a better understanding of second language acquisition, especially, of fossilization which is an unavoidable phenomenon in the field of second language acquisition research. This thesis is written under such a situation to meet various practical needs. By explaining fossilization and suggesting some available methods, the author wants to remind foreign language teachers and learners to try their best to improve language proficiency before fossilization occurs. In this thesis, it first makes a survey of the development of fossilization study including its definition and reasons for the conformation of fossilization. Then the author put forward some tentative methods to reduce fossilization from following three aspects: increase the quantity of second language input; enhancing the motivation; and improving automatization and declarativization. At the end of this thesis, it put forward several methods from the perspective of teacher‟s activities that help students to enhance their learning abilities.Chapter two Literature reviewThe term "fossilization" was introduced to the field of SLA by Selinker in 1972 on the basis of his observation that the vast majority of second language learners fail to achieve native-speaker competence. (ZhaoHong Zhang, 2008). Fossilization, as then conceptualized, implicated both a cognitive mechanism known as the fossilization mechanism （Selinker, 1972:221）and a performance-related structural phenomenon. In 1978, Selinker and Lamendella defined fossilization in terms of "…a permanent cessation of IL learning before the learner has attained TL norms at all levels of linguistic structure and in all discourse domains in spite of the learner's positiveability, opportunity, and motivation to learn and acculturate into target society. (1978:187)". In Selinker and Lakshmanan (1992), fossilization is defined structurally in terms of persistent non-target-like structures, thus incorporating long-term persistence as a defining feature of empirical discovering of fossilization. In 1996, Selinker stated that fossilization is the process whereby the learner creates a cessation of interlanguage learning, thus stopping the interlanguage from developing, it is hypothesized, in a permanent way… the argument is that no adult can hope to ever speak a second language in such a way that she/he is indistinguishable from native speakers of that language (Selinker, 1996b).Beyond Selinker's definitions, the SLA literature over the past three decades has seen numerous interpretations of fossilization, such as Lowther (1983:127), R Ellis (1985:48) and Hyltenstam (1988:68) also give their advanced definition of fossilization. Fossilization is a mechanism existing in the latent psychological structure underlying a learner's second language acquisition; it is overtly a process that affects every learner's interlanguage; and is manifested in the form of "backsliding". In this earliest conceptualization; fossilization is largely monolithic, linked primarily with "backsliding". For other researchers, fossilization is a product as well as a process; it affects the entire interlanguage system as well as its subsystems; it is literally permanent as well as relatively permanent; it is persistent and resistant; and for some it happens to every learner but to only some learners for others. It is a stage of interlanguage learning, therefore, incorporating the fossilization of correct as well as of incorrect forms. It is externally manifested as well as internally determined. Furthermore, it is suggested that fossilization my represent the ultimate outcome of second language learning (ZhaoHong Han, 2008).Chapter three Definition and Causes of fossilization3.1 Definition of fossilizationSelinker pointed out that it was extremely rare for the learners of an L2 to achievefull native-like competence. Among second language learners, only 5 percent who achieve mastery of the second language have access to the “latent language structure”, while the other 95 percent of learners fall back on the “latent psychological structure”, never quite achieving complete mastery of the second language.Selinker gave definitions about fossilization as following:“Fossilizable linguistic phenomena are linguistic items, rules and subsystems which speakers of a particular NL (native language) will tend to keep in their IL (interlanguage) productive performance, no matter what the age of the learner or the amount of instruction he receives in the TL (target language)”. (Selinker 1972, p.215) The Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics gives the definition of fossilization as follows:…a process (in second and foreign language learning) which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. Aspects of pronunciation, vocabulary usage, and grammar may become fixed or fossilized in second or foreign language learning. Fossilized features of pronunciation contribute to a person‟s foreign ac cent.3.2 Internal Reasons of FossilizationLearning methodWhen English second language learners choose kinds of inappropriate or even wrong learning methods during the process of second language learning, fossilization may occur. For example, when doing reading comprehension tasks, if learners focus too much on lexical category and interfered by unfamiliar vocabulary, this reading habit will not only effect their speed but also not beneficial for the cultivation of their English thought ability. And if there is no good and appropriate material for their oral practice and imitation, the more mechanical oral practices they take, the more probably fossilization occurs which produced by wrong phonetic materials.Communicational habitsFossilization also occurs when inappropriate communicational habits produced. Some learners prefer to use simple expressions to communicate after a period of English learning. In fact, if those simple expressions are judged by English grammar seriously, then most of them are not correct. However, those errors will usually not or very little effect their common communication. It is the simplicity and convenience of easier expressions that stimulates learners be used to them. As time goes by, fossilization is formed.Affectional factorAmong various kinds of affectional factors, the most important and positive factor is motivation. Some learners are holding a utilitarianism attitude toward English learning either because English is a hot major and easy to get a job or because they have to take part in examinations and get the certifications. Based on such motivations, learners will not that positive in English and do not make any more efforts after they reach the anticipated purposes. At this time, fossilization is easy to occur. Meanwhile, lack of interests is anther important factor of fossilization. And many learners lack interests because of bad foundational knowledge and too much learning barriers, they can not pay attention to English synthesized ability of themselves. Definitely, fossilization occurs.Age factorAge of the learner is an essential factor which effect English learning efficiency. The critical period of learning English is 2 to 13. Learners who are elder than 13 are less sensitive towards English, and their learning ability reduces. Therefore, the elder a learner is, the worse the learning efficiency is.Psychological factorThere is no doubt that psychological factor is essential to English learning. During English learning process, at a certain stage, learners may meet some difficulties andproblems. If learners can adjust their psychological situations in time, and try to keep a balanced emotion to face those problems, their English learning efficiency will have great improvement when language input accumulated to a certain degree. However, many learners choose to hold a passive attitude or even give up at that time, so as to make many year‟s hardworking in futile. Therefore, we can say with no hesitation that unhealthy psychological factor is a important reason of fossilization.Characteristic factorMany Chinese English learners are shy and not confident to express themselves in fear that their oral English is not so good which may make them be laughed, so they keep silence or answer in Chinese when be asked in the class. When meeting foreigners after class, most of them will choose not to communicate with them in English.3.3 External reasons of fossilizationMother tongueThe excessive dependence of mother tongue will lead to fossilization of the learner. The negative affections include phonetic, phonological, semantic, and pragmatic aspects, etc. Many Chinese learners speak “Chinglish” when learning English influenced by their mother tongue.Lack of language environmentMost of domestic English teaching activities happen at class, and that is not a really language environment. In the class, due to variable reasons and stress to pass the examination such as TEM8 or CET6, teachers are focusing on teaching grammars and explaining exam papers instead of paying attention to the communication and interactive effects. If let these learners to take exams, there is no doubt to pass them. But if let them to express themselves in English orally, frequently, the result is not satisfied.Chapter Four Some Rules to Avoid Fossilization4.1 Increasing the quantity of second language inputIn foreign language teaching, when language learners have reached a certain proficient learning stage, they should be provided with more second language input. The second language input should be focused on the quantity and quality. A significant idea that has emerged in recent years is that of comprehensible input. Krashen‟s (1985) input hypothesis posits that language is picked up, or acquired, when learners receive input from …messages‟ which contain language a little above their existing understanding and from which they can infer meaning. It confirms the need for meaningful input which will engage learners in working with language at a level which is slightly above their competence. It implies that the classroom materials should be varied and many current course books should demonstrate a motivating range of situations and texts, for example, newspaper articles, posters, advertisements, guides, maps, and invitations.Comprehensible input also suggests the value of providing input throughout-of-class resources such as various reading materials and listening materials for self-access learning, or encouraging students to make use of whatever resources might be available in the community to increase input opportunities. The language teachers should adjust their own classroom language, in line with students‟ proficiency, to simpler or more difficult vocabulary and slower or faster speech while retaining natural rhythm and intonation.The second language input should include the phonological knowledge, the grammar as well as the vocabulary. Generally speaking, after the learners have learned a foreign language for a certain period, they tend to ignore the phonological knowledge of it. And their pronunciation, intonation, tone and many other aspects in phonology remain the original state without any change. By talking with native speakers of the target language or imitating the speech from videos or cassettes, they can make further progress in their pronunciation and other phonological aspects. As tothe grammar study, they should master the internal rules of language, and moreover, they need to know about the general rule and some particular exceptions and restrictions. For language learners in our country, memorizing the grammatical rules is not a difficult task and the key point is how to put these rules into practice, which involves many other complex processes.In order to learn words, learners need to grasp not only the conceptual meaning of the words but also the connotative and associative meaning of the words. They should grasp both syntactic and semantic features of the words. The accumulation of vocabulary is very important. Having devoted to SLA research for decades, Lauufer (1997) advocates that if language learners want to understand the content in an article, they need to recognize at least 95%of the words in the article. Language behavior can be realized through its abundant vocabulary, because the information contained in vocabulary is much more than that in other components of language.The accumulation of the second language knowledge should also involve the relevant cultural knowledge input. The study on language transfer indicates that the learners are sensitive to the marked features of language, so the common characters of language other than the distinguishable properties are easier to lead to fossilization. Thus in order to avoid fossilization, language learners need to compare the culture of the native language with that of their target language and find out the similarities and differences existing in the structural expressions of the two languages to reduce native language transfer.4.2 enhancing the motivationThere are generally two kinds of motivation for learning English in China:—needing English as an instrument to achieve other purposes such as doing a job effectively or studying successfully at an English-speaking institution;—wishing to integrate into the activities or culture of another group of people.Motivation may consist of a number of variables. The relation between motivationand successful learning is indisputable. For the language teachers, motivation is of crucial importance in the classroom and they should make it clear that whether learners arrive with it or whether they could acquire it through classroom experiences. Perhaps the most useful perspective for the teacher to take is to consider what aspects of motivation can be changed and to focus on creating successful experiences which will enhance motivation.Brown (2001) suggests that the teacher should think of himself not so much as a teacher who must constantly “deliver” information to his students, but more as a facilitator of learning whose job it is to set the stage for learning, to start the wheels turning inside the heads of his students, and to help channel those abilities in fruitful directions. He also lists out the following six general guidelines to help teachers in English teaching classroom:(1)Teachers are enablers. So, when you teach, you should focus less on how to administer immediate or tangible rewards and more on how to get students to tune in to their potential and to be challenged by self-determined goals.(2)Learners need to develop autonomy, not dependence. Therefore, be careful not to let learners become dependent on your daily praise and other feedback. Rather, administer praise selectively and judiciously, helping students to recognize their own self-satisfaction in having done something well.(3)Help learners to take charge of their own learning through setting some personal goals and utilizing learning strategies.(4)Learner-centered, cooperative teaching can motivate students. Give students opportunities to make choices in activities, topics, discussions, etc.(5)Content-based activities and courses are motivating. Therefore, the teacher might strive to focus the students on interesting, relevant subject-matter content that gets them linguistically involved with meanings and purposes and less so with verbs and prepositions.(6)Give well-thought-out classroom tests that are face-valid in the eyes of students and give narrative evaluations.There is little doubt that individual differences exist and they play a significant rolein language learning. For the teacher, the challenge must be how to teach each learner according to his or her individual characteristics and cultural background. It may be a question of flexibility in materials design, or variety in skill working or classroom interaction.4.3 Improving automatization and declarativizationMost intermediate learners possess a great deal of English knowledge, but the problem they face is the inability to automatize their declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge. Other learners have grasped much procedural knowledge of English, such as the fixed expressions, which can be used at various occasions or places like the dinner party or the great hotel, but the obstacle they meet is to maintain and declarativize their procedural knowledge into declarative knowledge. So we can make an attempt to adopt some teaching methods integrating the “four skills” to solve those fossilizable problems they face.For almost six decades, research and practice in English language teaching has identified the “four skills”—listening, speaking, reading, and writing—as of great importance. In textbooks and curricula in widely varying contexts, English classes around the world tend to focus on one or two of the four skills, sometimes to the exclusion of the others. With all our history of treating the four skills in separate segments of a curriculum, there is nevertheless a more recent trend toward skill integration. That is, rather than designing a curriculum to teach the many aspects of one skill, curriculum designers are taking more of whole language approach whereby each skill is treated as one of two or more integrated skills. (Brown 2001) How can you maintain an integrated-skills focus in your teaching? Brown has generalized five models which are in common use. They all pull the direct attention of the student away from the separateness of the skills of language and toward the meaningful purposes for which we use language. Given the current teaching and learning conditions, I think three of them are worth popularizing in our country.4.3.1 content-centered teachingContent-centered language teaching integrates the learning of some specificsubject-matter content with the learning of a second language. The overall structure of a content-based curriculum, in contrast to many traditional language curricula, is dictated more by the nature of the subject matter than by language forms and sequences. This kind of teaching is based on the theory of language functions. By teaching this way, the second language is simply the medium to convey informational content of interest and relevance to the learner. There are some examples ofcontent-based curricula like immersion programs for elementary school children and English for specific purposes such as engineering, economics, agriculture, and medicine.Content-based teaching presents some challenges to language teachers. Allowing the subject matter to control the selection and sequencing of language items means that you have to view your teaching from an entirely different perspective. You are first and foremost teaching geography or math or culture; secondarily you are teaching language.4.3.2 Theme-based teachingNumerous current English textbooks in China, especially at the intermediate or advanced levels, offer theme-based courses of study. Such textbooks catch the curiosity and motivation of students with challenging topics and as they are connected with many real-life issues ranging from simple to complex, they can also focus on improving their linguistic skills. Theme-based teaching structures a course around themes or topics. Theme-based curricular can serve the multiple interests of students in a classroom and can offer a focus on content while still offering a language course. For example, an intensive English course for intermediate pre-university students might deal with topics of current interests such as public health, environmental awareness, world economics, etc.In the classroom students read articles or chapters, view video programs, discuss issues, propose solutions, and carry out writing assignments on a given theme. This kind of teaching also makes use of the theory of language functions, specifically, the meaningful learning principle.In China, most of schools have practiced this kind of teaching, but they have notgot satisfying effects. The most important reason is that there aren‟t available textbooks designed for the purpose of theme-based teaching. So we need to make efforts to revise the present so-called “classical” textbooks. Another reason is that the teachers seldom make enough p reparations for the course design and the students‟ motivation hasn‟t been aroused. In order to teach in this way successfully, the teacher must arrange his procedures of teaching and content of the curriculum elaborately to catch the curiosity and motivation of students, and thus they can improve both language skills and some subject-matter.4.3.3 Task-based teachingDavid Nunan (1991:279) gives us five characteristics of a task-based approach to language teaching:(1)An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.(2)The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.(3)The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language, but also on the learning process itself.(4)An enhancement of th e learner‟s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning.(5)An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom.In task-based instruction, the priority is not the bits and pieces of language but rather the functional purposes for which language must be used. While content-based instruction focuses on subject-matter content, task-based instruction focuses on a whole set of real-world tasks themselves. Input for tasks can come from a variety of authentic sources, such as interviews, public announcements, directions, invitations, menus, songs, and so on.Task-based curricula differ from content-based and theme-based instruction in that the course objectives are somewhat more language-based. While there is an ultimate focus on communication and purpose and meaning, nevertheless goals are linguistic in nature. They are not focusing on grammar or phonology, but maintaining thecentrality of functions like greeting people, expressing opinions, requesting information, etc., the course goals center on learners‟ pragmatic language competence. So when we use the task-based teaching method, we can integrate the four language skills.Chapter five ConclusionAs it known to all, fossilization is a comparatively complex process. As English teachers, they should strengthen students‟ language input practice appropriately in common teaching activities consciously and treat correctly when find some mistakes in process of students‟ language output. Meanwhile, teachers should instruct students according to their differences. To change the main role of class, make students become the center of class. In particular, to stimulate their learning motivation, to enhance their interests, and to cultivate their English thought ability in proper sequence. Furthermore, teachers have to learn to obverse changes of students‟psychological situations. Especially when they expose the emotion of being afraid of difficulty, teachers should provide students with necessary psychological tutorship, and make sure that they behave well and keep a positive attitude toward English learning.References[1] Brown,H.D.:Principles of Language Learning and Teaching.Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall.1980.[2] Ellis，R.(1985).Understanding Second Language Acquisition.Oxford: Oxford University Press.[3] Han ZhaoHong.Fossilization in Adult Second Language Acquisition[M].Peking:Foreign Language Teachingand Research Press,2008.[4] Hyltenstam K.Lexical characteristics of near -native second language learners of Swedish [J].Journal ofMultilingual and Multilingual Development, 1988(9):67-84.[5] Krashen，S.D.1985.The Input Hypothesis:Issues and Implications【M】.London: Longman.Lowther M.Fossilization, pidginization and the Monitor [C]//Mathuna L M,Singleton nguage Across Cultures.Dublin: Irish Association for Applied Linguistics,1983.[6] Nunan, D.: Communicative tasks and the language curriculum. TESOL Quarterly 25(2), 1991.[7] Selinker, L.1972Interlanguage [J].International Review of Applied Linguistics[8] Selinker, L&nguage transfer and fossilization: the multiple effects Principle [A] .In S.Gass & L. Selinker (eds.).Language Transfer in Language Learning[C].Amsterdam:JohnBenjamins，1992:[9] Selinker L.Research proposal for grant application submitted to the British Library[D].1996.。
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