Test+Paper+Chapter+1-3+复习(附答案)

Chapter One Language1. Define the following terms1) discreteness2) design features3) arbitrariness 4) duality5) displacement 6) cultural transmission7) the imaginative function of language8) the personal functionof language9) the heuristic function of language10) language2. Multiple ChoiceDirections: In each question there are four choices. Decide which one would be the best answer to the question or to complete thesentence best.1) Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. crashC. typewriterD. bang2)The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade” is ________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD.performative3) In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate thehost or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an (everyDirections: Fill in the blanks with the most suitable words.1)Design features, a framework proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett, refer to the ________ properties of human language that distinguishes it from any animal system of communication.2)________ refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. For instance, the difference between the sounds /p/ and /b/ is not actually very great, but when these sounds are part of a language like English, they are used in such a way that the occurrence of one rather than the other is meaningful.3)In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed p_______ or c________.4)Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about language itself. This function is m________ function.5)Cultural transmission refers to the fact that language is c________ transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by i_________.5) ( ) Language change is universal,ongoing and arbitrary.6) ( ) Language is a system of arbitrary, written signs which permit all the people in a given culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate or interact.7)( ) In theory, the length of sentences is limited.8)( ) The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is arbitrary.9)( ) Linguistic symbols are a kind of visual symbols, which include vocal symbols.10)( ) Linguistic symbols are produced by human speech organs.11)( ) Every language has two levels: grammatically — meaningless and sound — meaningful.12)( ) Such features of language as being creative, vocal, and arbitrary can differentiate human languages from animal communicative systems.13)( ) Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels ofstructures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.14) ( ) Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.15)( ) Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreign language learner, the latter is more important for us.5.Glossary translation1)personal function2)heauristic function3)ideational function4)interchangeability5)控制功能6)表现功能7)文化传递性8)分离性9)区别性特征10)不受时空限制的属性11)Interactional function12)instrumentational function13)imaginative function14)寒暄功能15)元语言功能16)Personal function17)performative function18)娱乐功能19)信息功能20)人际功能6. Short Essay Questions1)What are the functions of language? Exemplify eachfunction.2)Explain what the term duality means as it is used todescribe a property of human language.3)Is language productive or not? Why?4)What is language?5)What are the major design features of language? Pleaseexplain three of them with examples.Key to Chapter One1.Define the followina terms1) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. For instance, the difference between the sounds /p/ and /b/ is not actually very great, but when these sounds are part of a language like English, they are used in such a way that the occurrence of one rather than the other is meaningful. The fact that the pronunciation of the forms pad and bad leads to a distinction in meaning can only be due to the difference between the sounds/p/ and /b/in English. Each sound in the language is thought of as discrete. It is possible to produce a range of sounds in a continuous stream which are all generally like the sounds /p/ and /b/.2) “Design features” refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability. (3分)3) “Arbitrariness” means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig.Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely arbitrary, because there are cases where there are or at leastseem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo Words, like “bang”, “crash”,”roar”,’ which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds are not entirely arbitrary either. “Snow” and “storm” are arbitrary or unmotivated words, while “snowstorm” is less so. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.4) Linguists refer “duality” of structure to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhuanglin et al., language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (For example, we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!) Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.5) “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. People can use language’ to describe something that had occurred, is occurring, or is to occur. But a dog could not bark for a bone to be lost. The bee’s System has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.6) Language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a geneticbasis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one rather than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The wolf-child reared by the wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. And it was difficult for him to acquire human language.7) The imaginative function refers to language used to create imaginary system, whether these are literary works, philosophicalsystems or utopian visions on the one hand, or daydreams and idle musings on the other hand. It is also language used for sheer joy of using language, such as a baby’s babbling, a chanter’s chanting, a poet’s pleasuring.8) The personal function refers to language used to express the individual’s feelings, emotions and personality.9) The heuristic function of language refers to language used in order to acquire knowledge and understanding the world. The heuristic functioning provides a basis for the structure of knowledge in the different disciplines. Language allows people to ask questions about the nature of the world they live in and to construct possible answers.10) Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Multiple Choice1) – 5): A C C C B 6) – 10): A C C B B3. Word Completion.1) defining 2) Descreteness 3）productivity or creativity 4) metalingual 5) culturally, instinct or inheritance 6) speech 7) representational 8) interactional; 9) vocal;10) gramatically meaningful, sound meaningless; 11) system; 12) regulatory 13) arbitrariness, duality,productivity, cultural transmission, interchangeability, discreteness, displacement. 14) sound; 15) exhaustiveness, economy, objectivity, consistency4.True or False Questions1 – 5: FFTFF 6 – 10: FFTFT 11 – 15: FFTFT5.Glossary Translation1)personal function: 人际功能2)heauristic function：启发功能3)ideational function：概念功能4)interchangeability：互换性5)控制功能：regulatory function6)表现功能: representational functin7)文化传递性: cultural transmisssion8)分离性: discreteness9)区别性特征: design features10)不受时空限制的属性: displacement11)Interactional function: 互动功能12)instrumentational function：工具功能13)imaginative function：想象功能14)寒暄功能：phatic function15)元语言功能: metalingual function or metafunction oflanguage16)personal function: 自指性功能17)performative function: 表达功能18)娱乐功能: recreational function19)信息功能: informative function20)人际功能: interpersonal function6. Short Essay Questions1) What are the functions of language? Exemplify each function.According to Wang Gang (1988: 11), the functions of language can be mainly embodied in three aspects. i) Language is a tool of human communication; ii) Language is a tool whereby people learn about the world; iii) Language is a tool by which people create art.As a matter of fact, different linguists have different terms for the various functions of language. The British linguist M. A. K. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:(1)InstrumentalThe instrumental function of language refers to the fact that language allows speakers to get things done. It allows them to controlthings in the environment. People can cause things to be done and to happen through the use of words alone. An immediate contrast here is with the animal world in which sounds are hardly used in this way, and, when they are, they are used in an extremely limited degree. The instrumental function can be primitive too in human interaction. Performative utterances such as the words which name a ship at a launching ceremony clearly have instrumental functions if the right circumstances exist；they are acts, e.g. I name this ship Liberty Bell.(2) RegulatoryThe regulatory function refers to language used in an attempt to control events once they happen. Those events may involve the self as well as others. People do try to control themselves through language, e.g. Why did I say that? / Steady! / And Let me think about that again. Language helps to regulate encounters among people. Language provides devices for regulating specific kinds of encounters and contains words for approving or disapproving and for controlling or disrupting the behavior of others. It allows us to establish complex patterns of organization in order to try to regulate behavior, from game playing to political organization, from answering the telephone to addressing in foreign affairs. It is the regulatory function of language that allowspeople some measure of control over events that occur in their lives.(3)RepresentationalThe representational function refers to the use of language to communicate knowledge about the world, to report events, to make statements, to give accounts, to explain relationships, to relay messages and so on. This function of language is represented by all kinds of record-keeping, such as historical records, geographical surveys, business accounts, scientific reports, government acts, and public data banks. It is an essential domain of language use, for the availability of this material guarantees the knowledge-base of subsequent generations, which is a prerequisite of social development.(4)InteractionalThe interactional function refers to language used to ensure social maintenance. Phatic communion is part of it. The term phatic communion introduced by the anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging facts. A greeting such as how are you? is relatively empty of content, and answers like fine or very well, thank you are equally empty, because the speaker is not interested in the hearer’s health, but rather to demonstrate his politeness and generalattitude toward the other person when he gives a conversational greeting.(5)PersonalThe personal function refers to language used to express the individual’s feelings, emotions and personality. A person’s individuality is usually characterized by his or her use of personal function of communication. Each individual has a “voice” in what happens to him. He is free to speak or not to speak, to say, as much or as little as he pleases, and to choose how to say what he says. The use of language can tell the listener or reader a great deal about the speaker or writer — in particular, about his regional origin, social background, level of education, occupation, age, sex, and personality.Language also provides the individual with a means to express feelings, whether outright in the form of exclamations, endorsements, or curse, or much more subtly through a careful choice of words. Many social situations display language used to foster a sense of identity: the shouting of a crowd at a football match, the shouting of names or slogans at public meetings, the reactions of the audience to television game shows, the shouts of affirmation at some religious meetings. For example, the crowds attending President Regan’s pre-election meetings in 1984 repeatedly shouted “Four more years!” which united among those whoshared the same political views.(6)HeuristicThe heuristic function refers to language used in order to acquire knowledge and understanding the world. The heuristic functioning provides a basis for the structure of knowledge in the different disciplines. Insofar as the inquiry into language itself, a necessary result is the creation of a metalanguage, i.e. a language used to refer to language, containing terms such as sound, syllable, word, structure, sentence, meaning and so on.(7)ImaginativeThe imaginative function refers to language used to create imaginary system, whether these are literary works, philosophical systems or utopian visions on the one hand, or daydreams and idle musings on the other hand. The imaginative function also allows people to consider not just the real world but all possible worlds — and many impossible ones. Much literature is the most obvious example to serve this function as an account of Robinson Crusoe in the deserted island. The imaginative function enables life to be lived vicariously and helps satisfy numerous deep artistic urges.2) Explain what the term duality means as it is used todescribe a property of human language.Language is organized at two levels or layers-- sounds and meaning-- simultaneously. This property is called duality, or “double articulation”. In terms of speech production, we have the physical level at which we can produce individual sounds, like n, b, and i. As individual sound, none of these discrete forms has any intrinsic meaning. When we produce those sounds in a particular combination, as in bin, we have another level producing a meaning, which is different from the meaning of the combination in nib. So, at one level, we have distinct sounds, and at another level, we have distinct meanings. This duality of levels is, in fact,: one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (relatively finite words and infinite number of sentences) which are distinct in meaning. No animal communication system has duality, or ever comes near to possessing it.3) Is language productive or not? Why?(1) Language is productive or creative. (233) This means that users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before. Every day we send messages that have never been sent before, and we understand novel messages. Much of them we say and hear for the firsttime; yet there seems no problem of understanding. For example, the sentence” A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed” must be new to you and it does not describe a common happening in the world. Nevertheless, nobody has any difficulty in understanding it.(2) Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. For example, gibbon calls are not productive, for they draw all their calls from a limited repertoire, which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. Bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only message that can be sent through the dancing.(3) The productivity or creativity of language partially. originates from its duality, because of which the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. The productivity of language also means its potential to create endless sentences. It is the recursive nature of language that provides a theoretical basis for this possibility.4) What is language?(1) It is very difficult to give this question a satisfactory definition. However, most linguists would accept a tentative definition like this:language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (2) Language must be a system, since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; they cannot be combined at will. If language were not systematic, it could not be learned or used consistently.(3) Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we use to write with. The fact that different languages have different words for it (钢笔in Chinese for instance) speaks strongly for the arbitrary nature of language. (4) This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention. (5) We say language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed are their writing systems. All evidence shows that writing systems came much later than the spoken forms and that they are only attempts to capture sounds and meaning on paper (6) The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human.specific; that is, it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.5) What are the major design features of language?Please explain three of them with examples.(1)Displacement is one of the defining properties of humanlanguage, which refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are present or not present, real or not real, and about matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of its users. This phenomenon is thought of as “displacement”, which can provide its users with an opportunity to communicate about a wide range of subjects, free from any barriers caused by separation in time and space. That is, the feature of displacement can enable us to talk about things and places whose existence we cannot even be sure of. We can refer to mythical creatures, demons, fairies, angels, Santa Claus, and recently invented characters such as superman. This feature is unique to human language. No animal communication system possesses it. Some animal calls are often uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. For instance, during the mating season, in the present of danger or pain, animals will make calls. Once the danger or pain is missing, their calls stop.(2) Discreteness The sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. For example, the difference between the sounds b andp is actually not very great, but when these sounds are part of a language like English, they are used in such a way that the occurrence of one ratherthan the other is meaningful. The fact that the pronunciation of the forms pack and back leads to a distinction in meaning can only be due to the difference between the sounds p and b in English. This property of language is described as discreteness. Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. It is possible; in fact, to produce a range of sounds in a continuous stream which are all generally like the p and b sounds. However, that continuous stream will only be interpreted as being either a p sound, or a b sound (or, possibly, as a non-sound) in the language. We have a very discrete view of the sounds of our language and wherever a pronunciation falls within the physically possible range of sounds, it will be interpreted as a linguistically specific and meaningfully distinct sound(3) Language is a system. It is organized into two levels simultaneously. We have distinct sounds at the lower level (sound level), which is seen as a sequence of segments which have no meaning in themselves. At the higher level, we have distinct meanings (meaningful level). Language is analyzed in terms of combination of meaningful units. Then the meaningful units (such as morphemes, words, etc.) at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. The organization of language into levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality or doublearticulation. This unique feature of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system possesses the feature of duality.。

Test Paper 1 ability abstract accountant accuracyacidaction activityactoradult adventure advertisements advertising adviceageagency agreement agricultureaidaimairallergyalley allowance alteration altitude ambition ambulance amount analysis analystangeranimalankleanswer Antarctica ape appearance architect architecture area argument aristocrat armyartarticle aspirin assignmentatlasaudienceauditoriumauthorauthorityaverageawardbachelorbackgroundbacteriabadgebadmintonbackpackbaldnessbandbandagebandsbankbanquetbasebasementbasesbasisbathbatteriesbatterybeachbeardbeatsbeautybedbedroombed sheetbedsitbehaviorsbeltbenefitbeveragebibliographybicyclebillbiologistbirdbirthblanketblastblockblouseboardboarderboatbonebowlbowlingbranchbreakfastbrickbridgebrochuresbuildingbungalowburgerburglarbuscabTest Paper 2cabinetcablecafécafeteriacageCambridgecamelcameracamp campus candidate candle canteen capital capsule carbon care career carpet carving cashier castle category cathedral cause cave cents century 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]hunthuntingideaidentificationidentityimageimpactimportsinabilityincomingindexindustryinfectioninfluenceinformationinjectioninjuryinlandinsectinsomniainstituteinstitutioninstructioninstructorinstrumentinterestInternetinterviewerintroductioninvestigatorinvestmentirrigationislandisolationitemjacketjamjawjeansjournaljudgejuicejunctionjuniorkeeperkelpkeywordkidkingkioskkitkitchenkitsknifeknowledgekoalalablakelamplandlandmarklandscapelanguagelaptoplaserlavalawyerlayerlecturelecturerleisurelemonlenderlengthlessonletterlevellibraryliftlightlinelionlistsloanlocationlocklossloungeloyaltylucklunchlungmachinemagazine maidmail majority making male manager mane manufacture map margin mark market marketingmarshmastermatmatchingmaterialmaturitymaximummealmeasuremeasurementmeatmediamedicationmedicinemediummethodmicrophonemigrationmilemileagemilkminemineralmillminimumminutemixturemodelmoneymonopolymonthmoodmoralitymosquitomotelmountainTest Paper 6 moustache mouthmovie muscle museum music musical 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9taxiteateacherteachingteamjargontermtechnologyteethtelephonetelescopetelevisiontempertempletexttexturegalaxythefttheorytherapisttherapythesisthiefthievesthinkingthirdthoughtthreatthrillertickettidetidestiletimbertimetitletoastertoilettomatotonetooltoptopictotaltouchingtourtouringtourismtouristtoweltowertowntracktractortradetramtragedytrailertrainingtrendtraveltravelertreatmenttriptribetributetributesTrinitytrolleytroubletubetunnelstuitiontunetunestutortypeumpireunderstandingutensiluniformunionuniversityusagevacancyvacationvalueparticularsvarietyvegetablevelvetvetvideo view village vinegar visa visitor vitamin vocation volunteer volunteers waist waiter walk walking wall world warming washing wasp waste wasteland water wavewax wealth weapon weather weeds week weekday weekend weight welfare west wetland whale wheel width willows windwing word workforce working wound writing year yoga youth zero。

计算机英语课后练习题答案Chapter 11.1T T F F F1. G2. D3. A4. C5. E6. I7. H8. F9. B 10. J1.hardware2. digital3. executes4. software5. modified6. Firmware7. users 8. disc 9. computers1. Inputs are the signals or data received by the system, and outputs are the signals or data sentfrom it.输入是系统所收到的信号或数据,输出是系统所发出的信号或数据。

2. Keyboards and mouses are considered input devices of a computer, while monitors andprinters are considered output devices of a computer.键盘和鼠标被认为是计算机的输入装置,而显示器和打印机被认为是计算机的输出装置。

3. Devices for communication between computers, such as modems and network cards,typically serve for both input and output.计算机之间的通讯装置,例如调制解调器和网卡,通常起输入和输出作用。

4. The printer takes the information on your screen and transfers it to paper or a hard copy.打印机接收您屏幕上的信息并将其转移到纸张或硬拷贝上。

5. A modem is used to translate information transferred through telephone lines or cable.调制解调器是用来转换通过电话线或电缆传输的信息。

Chapter 3(第三章)The Reliability of Testing(测试的信度)•The definition of reliability•The reliability coefficient•How to make tests more reliableWhat is reliability?Reliability refers to the trustworthiness and stability of candidates‟ test results.In other words, if a group of students were given the same test twice at different time, the more similar the scores would have been, the more reliable the test is said to be.How to establish the reliability of a test?It is possible to quantify the reliability of a test in the form of a reliability coefficient.They allow us to compare the reliability of different tests.The ideal reliability coefficient is 1.---A test with a reliability coefficient of 1 is one which would give precisely the same results for a particular set of candidates regardless ofwhen it happened to be administered.---A test which had a reliability coefficient of zero would give sets of result quite unconnected with each other.It is between the two extremes of 1 and zero that genuine test reliability coefficients are to be found.How high should we expect for different types of language tests? Lado saysGood vocabulary, structure and reading tests are usually in the 0.9 to 0.99 range, while auditory comprehension tests are more often in the 0.8 to 0.89 range.A reliability coefficient of 0.85 might be considered high for an oral production test but low for a reading test.The way to establish the reliability of a test:1. Test-retest methodIt means to have two sets of scores for comparison. The most obvious way of obtaining these is to get a group of subjects to take the same test twice.2. Split-half methodIn this method, the subjects take the test in the usual way, but each subject is given two scores. One score is for one half of the test, the second score is for the other half. The two sets of scores are then used to obtain the reliability coefficient as if the whole test had been taken twice.In order for this method to work, it is necessary for the test to be spilt into two halves which are really equivalent, through the careful matching of items (in fact where items in the test have been ordered in terms of difficulty, a split into odd-numbered items and even-numbered items may be adequate).3. Parallel forms method(the alternate forms method)It means to use two different forms of the same test to measure a group of students continuously or in a very short time. However, alternate forms are often simply not available.How to make tests more reliableAs we have seen, there are two components of test reliability: the performance of candidates from occasion to occasion, and the reliability of the scoring.Here we will begin by suggesting ways of achieving consistent performances from candidates and then turn our attention to scorer reliability.1.Take enough samples of behaviorOther things being equal, the more items that you have on a test, the more reliable that test will be.e.g.If we wanted to know how good an archer someone was, wewouldn‟t rely on the evidence of a single shot at the target. That one shot could be quite unrepresentative of their ability. To be satisfied that we had a really reliable measure of the ability we should want to see a large number of shots at the target.The same is true for language testing.It has been demonstrated empirically that the addition of further items will make a test more reliable.The additional items should be independent of each other and of existing items.e.g.A reading test asks the question:“Where did the thief hide the jewels?”If an additional item following that took the form: “What was unusual about the hiding place?”Would it make a full contribution to an increase in the reliability of the test?No.Why not?Because it is hardly possible for someone who got the original questions wrong to get the supplementary question right.We do not get an additional sample of their behavior, so the reliability of our estimate of their ability is not increased.Each additional item should as far as possible represent a fresh start for the candidate.Do you think the longer a test is, the more reliability we will get?It is important to make a test long enough to achieve satisfactory reliability, but it should not be made so long that the candidates become so bored or tired that the behavior that they exhibit becomes unrepresentative of their ability.2. Do not allow candidates too much freedomIn general, candidates should not be given a choice, and the range over which possible answers might vary should be restricted.Compare the following writing tasks:a) Write a composition on tourism.b) Write a composition on tourism in this country.c) Write a composition on how we might develop the tourist industry in this country.d) Discuss the following measures intended to increase the number of foreign tourists coming to this country:i)More/better advertising and / or information (where? What formshould it take?)ii)Improve facilities (hotels, transportation, communication etc.). iii)Training of personnel (guides, hotel managers etc.)The successive tasks impose more and more control over what iswritten. The fourth task is likely to be a much more reliable indicator of writing ability than the first.But in restricting the students we must be careful not to distort too much the task that we really want to see them perform.3. Write unambiguous itemsIt is essential that candidates should not be presented with items whose meaning is not clear or to which there is an acceptable answer which the test writer has not anticipated.The best way to arrive at unambiguous items is, having drafted them, to subject them to the critical scrutiny of colleagues, who should try as hard as they can to find alternative interpretations to the ones intended. 4. Provide clear and explicit instructionsThis applies both to written and oral instructions.If it is possible for candidates to misinterpret what they are asked to do, then on some occasions some of them certainly will.A common fault of tests written for the students of a particular teaching institution is the supposition that the students all know what is intended by carelessly worded instructions.The frequency of the complaint that students are unintelligent, have been stupid, have willfully misunderstood what they were asked to do, reveals that the supposition is often unwarranted.Test writers should not rely on the students‟ powers of telepathy toelicit the desired behavior.The best means of avoiding problems is the use of colleagues to criticize drafts of instructions (including those which will be spoken).Spoken instructions should always be read from a prepared text in order to avoid introducing confusion.5. Ensure that tests are well laid out and perfectly legibleToo often, institutional tests are badly typed (or handwritten), have too much text in too small a space, and are poorly reproduced. As a result, students are faced with additional tasks which are not ones meant to measure their language ability. Their variable performance on the unwanted tasks will lower the reliability of a test.6. Candidates should be familiar with format and testing techniquesIn any aspect of a test is unfamiliar to candidates, they are likely to perform less well than they would do otherwise. For this reason, every effort must be made to ensure that all candidates have the opportunity to learn just what will be required of them. This may mean the distribution of sample tests (or of past test paper), or at least the provision of practice materials in the case of tests set within teaching institutions.7. Provide uniform and non-distracting conditions of administrationThe greater the differences between one administration of a test and another, the greater the differences one can expect between a candidate‟s performance on the two occasions.Great care should be taken to ensure uniformity.e.g.Timing should be specified and strictly adhered to;The acoustic conditions should be similar for all administrations of a listening test. Every precaution should be taken to maintain a quiet setting with no distracting sounds or movements.How to obtain scorer reliability1. Use items that permit scoring which is as objective as possibleThis may appear to be a recommendation to use multiple choice items, which permit completely objective scoring. This is not intended. While it would be mistaken to say that multiple choice items are never appropriate, it is certainly true that there are many circumstances in which they are quite inappropriate. What is more, good multiple choice items are notoriously difficult to write and always require extensive pretesting.An alternative to multiple choice is the open-ended item which has a unique, possibly one-word, correct response which the candidates produce themselves. This too should ensure objective scoring, but in fact problems with such matters as spelling which makes a candidate‟s meaning unclear often make demands on the scorer‟s judgment. The longer the required response, the greater the difficulties of this kind.One way of dealing with this is to struct ure the candidate‟s response byproviding part of it.e.g.The open-ended question What was different about the results?may be designed to elicit the responseSuccess was closely associated with high motivation.This is likely to cause problems for scoring. Greater scorer reliability will probably be achieved if the question is followed by:_____ was more closely associated with _____.2. Make comparisons between candidates as direct as possibleThis reinforces the suggestion already made that candidates should not be given a choice of items and that they should be limited in the way that they are allowed to respond.Scoring the compositions all on one topic will be more reliable than if the candidates are allowed to choose from six topics, as has been the case in some well-known tests.3. Provide a detailed scoring keyThis should specify acceptable answers and assign points for partially correct responses. For high scorer reliability the key should be as detailed as possible in its assignment of points. It should be the outcome of efforts to anticipate all possible responses and have been subjected to group criticism. (This advice applies only where responses can be classed as partially or totally …correct‟, not in the case of compositions, forinstance.)4. Train scorersThis is especially important where scoring is more subjective. The scoring of compositions, for example, should hot be assigned to anyone who has not learned to score accurately compositions from past administrations. After each administration, patterns of scoring should be analyzed. Individuals whose scoring deviates markedly and inconsistently from the norm should not be used again.5. Agree acceptable responses and appropriate scores at outset of scoringA sample of scripts should be taken immediately after the administration of the test. Where there are compositions, archetypical representatives of different levels of ability should be selected. Only when all scorers are agreed on the scores to be given to these should real scoring begin.For short answer questions, the scorers should note any difficulties they have in assigning points (the key is unlikely to have anticipated every relevant response), and bring these to the attention of whoever is supervising that part of the scoring. Once a decision has been taken as to the points to be assigned, the supervisor should convey it to all the scorers concerned.6. Identify candidates by number, not nameScorers inevitably have expectations of candidates that they know.Except in purely objective testing, this will affect the way that they score. Studies have shown that even where the candidates are unknown to the scorers, the name on a script (or a photograph) will make a significant difference to the scores given.e.g.A scorer may be influenced by the gender or nationality of a name into making predictions which can affect the score given. The identification of candidates only by number will reduce such effects.7. Employ multiple, independent scoringAs a general rule, and certainly where testing is subjective, all scripts should be scored by at least two independent scores. Neither scorer should know how the other has scored a test paper. Scores should be recorded on separate score sheets and passed to a third, senior, colleague, who compares the two sets of scores and investigates discrepancies. Reliability and validityTo be valid a test must provide consistently accurate measurements. It must therefore be reliable. A reliable test, however, may not be valid at all.For example, as a writing test we might require candidates to write down the translation equivalents of 500 words in their own language. This could well be a reliable test; but it is unlikely to be a valid test of writing.In our efforts to make tests reliable, we must be wary of reducing their validity. This depends in part on what exactly we are trying to measure by setting the task. If we are interested in candidates‟ ability to structure a composition, then it would be hard to justify providing them with a structure in order to increase reliability. At the same time we would still try to restrict candidates in ways which would not render their performance on the task invalid.There will always be some tension between reliability and validity. The tester has to balance gains in one against losses in the other.。