Tutoral 5 Segmentation targeting & positioning

全球市场营销重要知识点罗列（中英文）Global marketing Chapter one掌握：营销概念：Although marketing is universal, marketing practice, of course,varies from country to country.了解：The market conceptThe New concept of marketing and the Four Ps: shifted the focus of marketing from the product to the customer.The strategic 1.concept of marketing: shifted the focus of marketing from the customer or the product to the customer in the context of the broader external environment.2.the strategic concept of marketing has shifted the focus of marketing from a microeconomics maximization paradigm to a focus of managing strategic partnerships and positioning the firm between vendors and customers in the value chain with the aim and purpose of creating value for customers.掌握：THE THREE PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING1.Customer value and the value equationThe task of marketing is to create customer value that is greater than the value created by competitors./doc/1312473186.html,petitive or differential advantageThe advantage can exist in any element of the company’s offer: the product, the price, the advertising and point-of-sale promotion, or the distribution of the product.V=B/P3.FocusThe third marketing principle is focus, or the concentration of attention.掌握：全球本土化概念（global localization）：it means asuccessful global marketer must have the ability to “think globally and act locally”掌握：MANAGEMENT ORIENTATION1.Ethnocentric (母国中心)---------international companyHome country is superior, sees similarities in foreign countries2.Polycentric（东道国中心）-----------multinational companyEach host country is unique sees differences in foreign countries3.Regiocentric（区域中心）----------global companySees similarities and differences in the world region; is ethnocentric or polycentric the rest of the world.4.Geocentric （世界中心）-------------transnational companyWorldview, sees similarities and differences in home and host countries.了解：Leverage定义：Leverage is simply some type of advantage that a company enjoys by virtue of the fact that it conducts business in more than one country.类型：1.experience transfers(经验移植) 2.Scale economies （规模经济：可降低成本）3.resource utilization （资源利用）4.global strategy（全球化战略）Chapter two了解ECONOMIC SYSTEMS1.Market allocationA market allocation system is one that relies on consumers to allocate resources.Consumers“write” the economic plan by deciding what will be produced by whom./doc/1312473186.html,mand or centralplan allocationIn a command allocation system, the state has broad powers to serve the public interest.These include deciding which products to make and how to make them.3. Mixed allocation了解STAGES OF MARKET DEVELOMENTUsing GNP as a base , we have divided global markets into four categories.1.low-income countries(also known as preindustrial countries)2.lower-middle-income countries(also known as less developed countries or LDCs)3.upper-middle-income countries(also known as industrializing countries)4.high-income countries(also known as advanced , industrialized, postindustrial countries) chapter three 了解：BASIC ASPERTS OF SOCIETY AND CULTURE①It is learned, not innate②The various facts of culture are interrelated, influence or change one aspect of a culture and everything else is affected.③It is shared by members of groups and defines the boundaries between different groups.掌握：High and low context cultures强交际环境文化和弱交际环境文化的对比(看73页表) In low context cultures,①messages have to be explicit.②A person's word is not t o be relied on.③Paperwork is important.In high context cultures,①less information is contained in the verbal part of message.② A person's value, position, background are crucial.掌握：Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 马斯洛需求层次理论①physiological 生理需求②safety 安全需求③social 社交需求④esteem 尊重⑤self-actualization 自我实现掌握：Hofstede Framework 霍夫斯诺德构架（看细节）①individualism versus collectivism 个人主义与集体主义②power distance 权力距离③uncertainty avoidance 不确定性规避⑤masculinity versus femininity 男权主义相对女权主义了解：THE SELF-REFERENCE CRITERION AND PERCEPTION As we have shown, a person’s perception of market needs is framed by his or her own cultural experience.了解：ENVIRONMENTAL SENSITIVITY(了解80页表格)Environmental sensitivity is the extent to which products must be adapted to the culture-specific needs of different national markets. （对环境中最敏感的东西是food）Chapter four了解POLITICAL RISK （经济发达阶段和政治风险的关系，经济越不发达政治风险越高）了解征用（EXPROPRIATION）定义：Expropriation refers to governmental action to dispossess a company or investor.没收（CONPENSATION）定义：compensation is generally provided to foreign investors,although not often in the “prompt effective ,and adequate”manner provided for by international standard.国有化（NATIONALIZATION）定义：Nationalization occurs ifownership of the property or assets in question is transferred to the host government.了解：Differences of the two systems in solving commercial disputes两种法律体系在解决商务纠纷中的区别common law versus civil law(code law)①Under common law, commercial disputes are subjected to either civil or commercial laws. Under code law, commercial disputes are subjected to the commercial code.②Under common law, industrial property right based on proof of agreement.Under code law, industrial property right based on notarization or registration③Under common law, Performance of contract: Act of God/act of nature means extraordinary happenings not reasonably anticipated.Under code law, Performance of contract: Act of God is extended to include unavoidable interferences such as strike or riots (Force Majeure)掌握：Three bases for jurisdiction in resolving private international disputes处理国际争端的3种基本司法程序①negotiation调解协商②Arbitration仲裁③Litigation 诉讼Chapter five掌握：DIFFUSION THEORY(传播理论)（AIETA）Five stages of the adoption process 对新产品接纳过程的五个阶段①Awareness 知晓阶段②Interest 感兴趣阶段③Evaluation 评价阶段④Trial 试用阶段⑤Adoption 采纳阶段Five types of adopter categories 新产品接纳者的5种类型②innovators②early adopters(Early adopters are the most influential people in their communities,even more than the innovators. Thus. The early adopters are a critical group in the adoption process )③early majority④late majority⑤laggards (落后者)掌握：Characteristics of innovations(创新的特征)1.Relative advantage（相对优势）/doc/1312473186.html,patibility（兼容性）/doc/1312473186.html,plexity（复杂性）4.Divisibility（可分性）/doc/1312473186.html,municability（可交流性）Chapter six了解Information subject agenda （理解168页表格）了解SCANNING MODES（搜寻模式）: SURVEILLANCE AND SEARCH监视的两种类型Surveillance include: viewing and monitoring 了解营销信息的主要来源（sources of market information）：1.human sources (人)2.documentary sources（文档资源）3.internet sources（因特网来源）4. Direct perception（直接感知）了解FORMAL MARKETING RESEARCH（正式的市场调研）Step 1: Identifying the research problemStep 2: Developing a research planStep 3: Collecting data (看细节secondary data, primary data, survey research)Step 4: Analyzing research dataStep 5: Presenting the findingsChapter seven掌握市场细分的定义: Market segmentation is the process of subdividing a market into distinct subsets of customers that behave in the same way or have similar needs.掌握全球市场细分的定义：Global market segmentation is the process of dividing the world market into distinct subsets of customers that behave in the same way or have similar needs.掌握全球市场的主要细分的标准（criteria）(知道归属)：1.Geographic segmentation2.Demographic segmentation3.Psychographic segmentation4.Behavior segmentation5.Benefit segmentation掌握全球目标市场确定的定义：T argeting is the act of evaluating and comparing the identified groups and then selecting one or more of them as the prospect(s) with the highest potential.掌握选择目标市场的标准（criteria）:1.current segment size and growth potential2.potential competition/doc/1312473186.html,patibility and feasibility掌握选择目标市场的策略：1.standardized global marketing2.concentrated global marketing3.differentiated global marketing掌握全球产品定位（Global product positioning）定义:Positioning is the location of your product in the mind of your customer.Chapter eight掌握出口市场选择的六大标准（MARKET SELECTION CRITERIA）：1.market potential(市场潜量)2.market access (市场潜入因素)3.shipping costs(运输成本及时间)4.potential competition(潜在竞争)5.service requirement(服务要求)6.product fit(产品适应性)了解ENTRY AND EXPANSION DECISION MODEL(进入和扩张决策模型，第237页)掌握依托营销（Piggyback Marketing）的定义：The manufacturer using the piggyback arrangement does so at a cost that is much lower than that required for any direct arrangement. Successful piggyback marketing requires that the combined product lines be complement. They must appeal to the same customers, and they must not be competitive with each other.掌握许可贸易（licensing）的定义:Licensing can be defined as a contractual arrangement whereby one company(the licensee) makes an asset available to another company(the licensing) in exchange for royalties, license fees, or some other form of compensation. The licensed asset may be a patent, trade secret, or company name.其中，Franchising is a form of licensing了解Joint Ventures（第247页）了解市场扩张战略（5 MARKET EXPANSION STRATEGIES）:1.Strategy one: concentrates on a few segments in a few countries.2.Strategy two: country concentration and segment diversification3.Strategy three: country diversification and market segment concentration4.Strategy four: country and segment diversificationChapter nine了解全球战略联盟的三个特点：1.The participants remain independent subsequent to the formation of the alliance2.The participants share the benefits of the alliance as well as control over the performance ofassigned tasks.3.The participants make ongoing contributions in technology, products, and other key strategicareas.了解全球战略同盟的六个特性（attributes）（第265页）在日本，战略联盟被称为综合商社在韩国，战略联盟被称为财阀Chapter ten掌握影响产业竞争的五种力量（Forces Influencing Competition in a Industry）：1.Thread of new entrants2.Rivalry Among Existing Competitors3.Bargaining Power of Suppliers4.Bargaining Power of Buyers5.thread of Substitute Product or Services掌握新加入者的五种威胁（thread of new entrants）：1.Economies of scales(规模经济)2.Product differentiation(产品差异性)3.Capital requirements(资本要求)4.Switching costs(转换成本)5.Access to distribution channels(获取分销渠道的途径)/doc/1312473186.html,ernment policy(政府政策)7.Established firms may also enjoy cost advantages independent of the scale economies(老公司享有的与规模经济无关的成本优势)掌握Porter’s basic thesis(Porter’s diamond): four national attributes of a nation shape the environment in which local firms compete.波特钻石理论中认为决定一国本地公司竞争环境的四大特征：①factor condit ions②demand conditions③related and supporting industries④firm strategy, structure, rivalryAnd two influencers: Governments and chance其中，了解要素来源（factor conditions）的分类1.Human resources2.Physical resources3.Knowledge resources4.Capital resources5.Infrastructure resources掌握要素资源的类型1.Basic versus advanced factors（基本要素与高级要素）2.Generalized（通用要素是前提条件）versus specialized factors（专门要素是企业真正竞争要素的来源）掌握创造竞争优势的一般战略：1.Broad market strategy 大市场战略Cost-Leadership Advantage（成本领先）Differentiation（差异化）2.Narrow target strategies（缩小目标范围）Focused differentiation （差异专注）Cost focus（成本专注）了解日本人创新性竞争的策略：/doc/1312473186.html,yers of advantage （优势层）2.Loose bricks（松动的砖头）3.Changing the rules（改变规则）4.Collaborating（合作）5.Hypercompetition （超级竞争）CHAPTER11了解产品含义（了解产品属于哪类）Local products(本土产品)：A local product is available in a portion of a national market. National products（国家产品）: A national product is one that, in the context o a particular company is offered in a single national market.International products(国际产品): international products are offered in multinational,regional markets.Global products（全球产品）：global products are offered in global markets了解产品与品牌的不同（了解334页的全球品牌的特征--------地球图）A global product differs from a global brand in one important respect: it does not carry the same name and image from country to country.掌握产品定位（product positioning）的定义：product positioning is a communications strategy based on the notion of mental "space": positioning refers to the act of locating a brandin customers' minds over and against other products in terms of product attributes and benefits that the brand does and does not offer.掌握产品定位的一般策略（general strategies for positioning products）1.attribute or benefit （属性与性能）2.Quality/price（质量价格）/doc/1312473186.html,e/user （使用和使用者）4.High-tech positioning （高科技定位）5.High-touch positioning （高感性定位）掌握产品设计的四个因素（Product design considerations）Global market need to consider four factors when making product design decision:1. Preferences （偏好）2. Cost （成本）3. Laws and regulations（法律法规）4. Compatibility（兼容性）5. Labeling and instructions （标签以及用法说明）了解原产国的态度的（coo：country of origin）定义：Country of origin (often abbreviated to COO), is the country of manufacture, production, or growth where an article or product comes from. There are differing rules of origin under various national laws and international treaties掌握产品地理扩张的主要策略（5个）Strategy1:product/communication extension(dual extension) Strategy2:product extension/communication adaptationStrategy3:product adaptation/communication extensionStrategy4:dual adaptationStrategy5:product invention理解公司的三个阶段（How to choose a strategy）1.cave dweller.（洞穴居住着）2.Naive nationalist（天真的国家主义者）3.Globally sensitive（全球性敏感者）了解新产品开发的几层含义（New products in global marketing）:Newness can be assessed in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e p r o d u c t i t s e l f,t h e o r g a n i z at i o n,a n d t h e m a r ke t.1.an entirely new invention or innovation2. a line extension3.newness may also be organizational4.an existing product that is new to a company may be new to a particular market了解新产品开发的几个步骤：1.Identifying new-product ideas2.New-product development location3.Testing new products in national marketsCHAPTER 12掌握环境对定价决策的影响（Environmental influences on pricing decisions）1.Currency fluctuations（货币的不稳定性）2.Exchange rate clauses（汇率条款）3.Pricing in an inflationary environment（在通货膨胀的环境里定价）/doc/1312473186.html,ernment controls and subsidies（政府控制和补贴）/doc/1312473186.html,petitive behavior （竞争行为）6.Price and quality relationships（价格与质量的关系）掌握全球定价目标及战略（Global pricing objectives andstrategies）1. 掌握市场撇脂（Market skimming）定义：the market skimming pricing strategy is a deliberate attempt to reach a market segment that is willing to pay a premium price for a product.2. 掌握渗透式定价（Penetration pricing）定义：penetration pricing uses price as a competitive weapon to gain market position.3. 掌握市场保持（Market holding）定义：the market holding strategy is frequently adopted by companies that want to maintain their share of the market.4. 掌握成本加成价格升级Cost plus/price escalation掌握价格升级的定义：Price escalation is the increase in a product’s price as tr ansportation, duty, and distributor margins are added to the factory price.掌握灰色市场（Grey market goods）条件和定义定义：gray market goods are trademarked products that are exported from one country to another, where they are sold by unauthorized persons or organizations.条件：The marketing opportunity that presents itself requires gray market goods to be priced lower than goods sold by authorized distributors or domestically produced goods.了解倾销(Dumping) 定义：Dumping is an important global pricing strategy issue.了解转移定价（TRANSFER PRICING）的定义：transfer pricing refers to the pricing of goods and services bought and sold by operating units or divisions of a single company.了解几种转移定价的方法：The alternatives are(1)cost-based transfer pricing,(2).market-based transfer pricing（目的基于市场竞争需要的转移定价）Market-based transfer price了解定义：a market-based transfer price is derived from the price required to be competitive in the international market.(3).negotiated prices.掌握三种定价策略（GLOBAL PRICING-THREE POLICY ALTERNATIVES）1.Extension/ethnocentric2.Adaptation/polycentric3.Invention/geocentricCHAPTER 13掌握分销渠道（Channel of distribution）的定义：Channel of distribution American marketing association defines channel of distribution as"an organized network of agencies and institutions which, in combination, perform all the activities required to link producers withusers to accomplish the marketing task."掌握分销(marketing channels)的目的: The purpose of marketing channels is to create utility for customers.掌握渠道的效用：The major categories of channel utility are place (the availability of a product or service in a location that is convenient to a potential customer);time(the availability of a product or service when desired by a customer);form(the product is processed, prepared, and ready to use and in proper condition);and information(answers to questions and general communication about useful product features and benefits are available).了解两种渠道：1.Direct involvement2.Indirect involvement掌握影响渠道因素（CHANNEL OBJECTIVES AND CONSTRAINTS）1. customers characteristics2. products characteristics3. middlemen characteristics4. environment characteristics掌握中间商（Middleman characteristics）的定义：Channel strategy must recognize the characteristics of existing middlemen. Middlemen are in business to maximize their own profit and not that of the manufacturer. They are notorious for cherry picking.了解cherry picking的定义：that is, the practice of taking orders from manufacturers whose products and brands are in demand to avoid any real selling effort for a manufacturer’s products that may required push.DISTRIBUTION CHANNELS:TERMINOLOGY AND STRUCTURE 掌握消费品（CONSUMER PRODUCTS）的主要渠道1.DOOR-TO-DOOR SELLING2.MANUFACTURER-OWNED STORE3.FRANCHISE OPERATIONS/doc/1312473186.html,BINATION STUCTURES掌握工业产品（INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS）的主要渠道1.M-manufacturer2. W-wholesaler3. MSF-manufacturer's sales force4. D or A-distributor or agentCHAPTER 14掌握全球广告的定义：Global advertising is the use of the same advertising appeals, messages,art, copy, photographs, stories, and video segments in multiple-country markets.了解global advertising content: the extension versus adoption debate了解选择广告代理商的主要因素：In selecting an advertising agency, the following issues should be considered: Company organization, Area coverage, Buyer perception.CHAPTER 15（重点看选择题）掌握几种主要的促销方式（GLOBAL PROMOTION）Advertising（广告）Public Relations and Publicity （公共关系与公众度）Personal selling （个人推销）Sales promotion (营业促销)Direct Marketing（直复营销）Trade Shows and Exhibitions（贸易展示和展会）Sponsorship Promotion （赞助促销）了解公共关系的主要作用：foster goodwill and understanding among constituents both inside and outside the company.还有宣传的特征:Publicity is a nonpaid form of communication (unearned media)掌握推销(personal selling)的定义: personal selling is two-way,personal communication between a company representative and a potential customer as well as back to the company. 掌握推销的主要过程:The selling process is typically divided into several stages:prospecting, preapproaching, aaproaching, presenting, problem solying, handing objections, closing the sale, and following up.了解SALES PROMOTIONTrade promotions are designed to increases productavailability in distribution channels.了解DIRECT MARKETINGThe use of direct marketing is growing rapidly in many parts of the world due to increased use of computer databases, credit cards, and toll-free numbers, as well as changing life-styles.了解TRADE SHOWS AND EXHIBITIONSTrade shows and exhibitions are other promotion vehicles that are increasingly important in the promotional mix, especially for industrial products and in the international marketplace.了解SPONSORSHIP PROMOTION特点：Sponsorship can be used to increase awareness and esteem, to build the brand identification, to enhance the brand’s positioning and sales,and to circumvent advertising restrictions in some countries.。

Segmentation, Targeting, and PositioningSegmentation, targeting, and positioning together comprise a three stage process. We first (1) determine which kinds of customers exist, then (2) select which ones we are best off trying to serve and, finally, (3) implement our segmentation by optimizing our products/services for that segment and communicating that we have made the choice to distinguish ourselves that way.Segmentation involves finding out what kinds of consumers with different needs exist. In the auto market, for example, some consumers demand speed and performance, while others are much more concerned about roominess and safety. In general, it holds true that “You can’t be all things to all people,” and experience has demonstrated that firms that specialize in meeting the needs of one group of consumers over another tend to be more profitable.Generically, there are three approaches to marketing. In the undifferentiated strategy, all consumers are treated as the same, with firms not making any specific efforts to satisfy particular groups. This may work when the product is a standard one where one competitor really can’t offer much that another one can’ually, this is the case only for commodities. In the concentrated strategy, one firm chooses to focus on one of several segments that exist while leaving other segments to competitors. For example, Southwest Airlines focuses on price sensitive consumers who will forego meals and assigned seating for low prices. In contrast, most airlines follow the differentiated strategy: They offer high priced tickets to those who are inflexible in that they cannot tell in advance when they need to fly and find it impractical to stay over a Saturday. These travelers—usually business travelers—pay high fares but can only fill theplanes up partially. The same airlines then sell some of the remaining seats to more price sensitive customers who can buy two weeks in advance and stay over.Note that segmentation calls for some tough choices. There may be a large number of variables that can be used to differentiate consumers of a given product category; yet, in practice, it becomes impossibly cumbersome to work with more than a few at a time. Thus, we need to determine which variables will be most useful in distinguishing different groups of consumers. We might thus decide, for example, that the variables that are most relevant in separating different kinds of soft drink consumers are (1) preference for taste vs. low calories, (2) preference for Cola vs. non-cola taste, (3) price sensitivity—willingness to pay for brand names; and (4) heavy vs. light consumers. We now put these variables together to arrive at various combinations.Several different kinds of variables can be used for segmentation.•Demographic variablesessentially refer to personalstatistics such as income,gender, education, location(rural vs. urban, East vs.West), ethnicity, and familysize. Campbell’s soup, forinstance, has found thatWestern U.S. consumers onthe average prefer spiciersoups—thus, you get adifferent product in the samecans at the East and Westcoasts. Facing flat sales ofguns in the traditional maledominated market, amanufacturer came out withthe Lady Remmington, a morecompact, handier gun moreattractive to women. Takingthis a step farther, it is alsopossible to segment onlifestyle and values.”•Some consumers want to beseen as similar to others,while a different segmentwants to stand apart from thecrowd.•Another basis forsegmentation isbehavior. Some consumersare “brand loyal”—i.e., theytend to stick with theirpreferred brands even when acompeting one is onsale. Some consumers are“heavy” users while othersare “light” users.Forexample, research conductedby the wine industry showsthat some 80% of the productis consumed by 20% of theconsumers—presumably arather intoxicated group.•One can also segment onbenefits sought, essentiallybypassing demographicexplanatory variables. Someconsumers, for example, likescented soap (a segment likelyto be attracted to brands suchas Irish Spring), while othersprefer the “clean” feeling ofunscented soap (the “Ivory”segment). Some consumersuse toothpaste primarily topromote oral health, whileanother segment is moreinterested in breathfreshening.In the next step, we decide to target one or more segments. Our choice should generally depend on several factors. First, how well are existing segments served by other manufacturers? It will be more difficult to appeal to a segment that is already well served than to one whose needs are not currently being served well. Secondly, how large is the segment, and how can we expect it to grow? (Note that a downside to a large, rapidly growing segment is that it tends to attract competition). Thirdly, do we have strengths as a company that will help us appeal particularly to one group of consumers? Firms may already have an established reputation. WhileMcDonald’s has a great reputation for fast, consistent quality, family friendly food, it would be difficult to convince consumers that McDonald’s now offers gourmet food. Thus, McD’s would probably be better off targeting families in search of consistent quality food in nice, clean restaurants.Positioning involves implementing our targeting. For example, Apple Computer has chosen to position itself as a maker of user-friendly computers. Thus, Apple has done a lot through its advertising to promote itself, through its unintimidating icons, as a computer for “non-geeks.”The Visual C software programming language, in contrast, is aimed a “techies.”Michael Treacy and Fred Wiersema suggested in their 1993 book The Discipline of Market Leaders that most successful firms fall into one of three categories:•Operationally excellent firms,which maintain a strongcompetitive advantage bymaintaining exceptionalefficiency, thus enabling thefirm to provide reliableservice to the customer at asignificantly lower cost thanthose of less well organizedand well runcompetitors. The emphasishere is mostly on low cost,subject to reliableperformance, and less value isput on customizing theoffering for the specificcustomer. Wal-Mart is anexample of thisdiscipline. Elaboratelogistical designs allow goodsto be moved at the lowestcost, with extensive systemspredicting when specificquantities of supplies will beneeded.•Customer intimate firms,which excel in serving thespecific needs of theindividual customerwell. There is less emphasison efficiency, which issacrificed for providing moreprecisely what is wanted bythe customer. Reliability isalso stressed. Nordstrom’sand IBM are examples of thisdiscipline.•Technologically excellentfirms, which produce themost advanced productscurrently available with thelatest technology, constantlymaintaining leadership ininnovation. These firms,because they work with costlytechnology that need constantrefinement, cannot be asefficient as the operationallyexcellent firms and oftencannot adapt their products aswell to the needs of theindividual customer. Intel isan example of this discipline. Treacy and Wiersema suggest that in addition to excelling on one of the three value dimensions, firms must meet acceptable levels on the othertwo. Wal-Mart, for example, does maintain some level of customer service. Nordstrom’s and Intel both must meet some standards of cost effectiveness. The emphasis, beyond meeting the minimum required level inthe two other dimensions, is on the dimension of strength.Repositioning involves an attempt to change consumer perceptions of a brand, usually because the existing position that the brand holds has become less attractive. Sears, for example, attempted to reposition itself from a place that offered great sales but unattractive prices the rest of the time to a store that consistently offered “everyday low prices.”Repositioning in practice is very difficult to accomplish. A great deal of money is often needed for advertising and other promotional efforts, and in many cases, the repositioning fails.To effectively attempt repositioning, it is important to understand how one’s brand and those of competitors are perceived. One approach to identifying consumer product perceptions is multidimensional scaling. Here, we identify how products a re perceived on two or more “dimensions,” allowing us to plot brands against each other. It may then be possible to attempt to “move” one’s brand in a more desirable direction by selectively promoting certain points. There are two main approaches to multi-dimensional scaling. In the a priori approach, market researchers identify dimensions of interest and then ask consumers about their perceptions on each dimension for each brand. This is useful when (1) the market researcher knows which dimensions are of interest and (2) the customer’s perception on each dimension is relatively clear (as opposed to being “made up” on the spot to be able to give the researcher a desired answer). In the similarity rating approach, respondents are not asked about their perceptions of brands on any specific dimensions. Instead, subjects are asked to rate the extent of similarity of different pairs of products (e.g., How similar, on a scale of 1-7, is Snicker’s to Kitkat, and how similar is Toblerone to Three Musketeers?) Using a computer algorithms, the computer then identifies positions of each brand on a map of a given number of dimensions. The computer does not reveal what each dimension means—that must be left to human interpretation based on what the variations in each dimension appears to reveal. This second method is more useful when no specific product dimensions have been identified as being of particular interest or when it is not clear what the variables of difference are for the product category. DemographicsDemographics are clearly tied to subculture and segmentation. Here, however, we shift our focus from analyzing specific subcultures to trying to understand the implications for an entire population of its makeup.Some articles of possible interest:Coffee, Lipsticks, and the EconomyThe 2008 Tax Rebate and Consumer BehaviorGasoline Prices and Consumer BehaviorSeveral issues are useful in the structure of a population. For example, in some rapidly growing countries, a large percentage of the population is concentrated among younger generations. In countries such as Korea, China, and Taiwan, this has helped stimulate economic growth, while in certain poorer countries, it puts pressures on society to accommodate an increasing number of people on a fixed amount of land. Other countries such as Japan and Germany, in contrast, experience problems with a "graying" society, where fewer non-retired people are around to support an increasing number of aging seniors. Because Germany actually hovers around negative population growth, the German government has issued large financial incentives, in the forms of subsidies, for women who have children. In the United States, population growth occurs both through births and immigration. Since the number of births is not growing, problems occur for firms that are dependent on population growth (e.g., Gerber, a manufacturer of baby food).Social class is a somewhat nebulous subject that involves stratifying people into groups with various amounts of prestige, power, and privilege. In part because of the pioneering influence in American history, status differentiations here are quite vague. We cannot, for example, associate social class with income, because a traditionally low status job as a plumber may today come with as much income as a traditionally more prestigious job as a school teacher. In certain other cultures, however, stratification is more clear-cut. Although the caste system in India is now illegal, it still maintains a tremendous influence on that society. While some mobility exists today, social class awareness is also somewhat greater in Britain, where social status is in part reinforced by the class connotations of the accent with which one speaks.Textbooks speak of several indices that have been used to "compute" social class in the United States, weighing factors such as income, the nature of one’s employment, and level of education. Taken too literally, these indices are not very meaningful; more broadly speaking, they illustrate the reality that social status is a complex variable that is determined, not always with consensus among observers, by several different variables.。

在任何一本關於企業戰略或行銷戰略的教科書上，哈佛大學教授邁克爾·波特的“五力模型”都是必不可少的內容。

在其1980年出版的“競爭三部曲”第一部《競爭戰略》中，波特詳細分析了下面這個產業競爭框架，一舉奠定了他在戰略管理領域的大師地位。

這一分析框架重在研究影響一個產業利潤水準的結構因素，同行銷學中的“4P”一樣，它在邏輯上是經得起推敲的，因此一經提出就被廣泛接受。

然而，它在學術界受到推崇是一回事，但在實際應用中卻並不盡如人意。

菲利普·科特勒（Philip Kotler）在《行銷管理》一書中，將“五力競爭模型”作為評估細分市場吸引力的工具，但也只是簡單地介紹了一下細分市場上激烈競爭的威脅、新競爭者的威脅、替代產品的威脅、購買者討價還價能力加強的威脅和供應商討價還價能力加強的威脅五個方面的競爭因素，對行銷者怎樣應用“五力競爭模型”卻只字未提。

問題出在哪呢從行銷的角度看，這個模型是從企業自身出發並且完全是競爭導向的，由於競爭瞬息萬變，競爭行為難以預測，需要考慮的方面太多，分析不可避免地趨向複雜化，而且競爭越激烈，資訊的蒐集越困難，等到需要的資訊蒐集齊全時，市場情況已經發生了變化，結果這一戰略分析工具必然陷在悖論裏難以自拔。

要是哪個企業有雄心非要把它搞個透徹，就只能眼看著競爭對手甩開大步走向未來了。

競爭模型，讓專家玩去吧!《孫子兵法》曰：勝兵先勝而後求戰。

要讓企業一開始就處於有利位置，“未戰而廟算”是必要的，只是分析要簡單實用。

軍事理論家馮·克勞塞維茨說：“戰略上最重要而又最簡單的準則是集中兵力……我們要嚴格遵守這一準則，並把它看作是一種可靠的行動指南。

”那麼，找出唯一決定競爭勝負的關鍵要素、集中力量攻擊它就是商戰的不二法門了。

這個攻擊點在哪呢？消費者的大腦。

這裡才是競爭決勝的最終戰場。

事實上，在消費者的大腦裏，並不存在產業。

消費者買的不是產業，而是品類。

波特的產業分析模型，放在消費者的大腦裏，就是品類競爭模型，如下一頁圖所示。

Final Exam 33/40Question 1Professor Kahn demonstrated the use of a Value Map. According to the Fair Value framework and to the lecture, what should companies try to do?Your Answer Score ExplanationOffer better than fair value on all three bundles.Offer fair value on all three bundles.Offer fair value on two bundles and offer better than fair value on the otherbundle.Correct 1.00Total 1.00 / 1.00Question 2In the STP framework, what does "STP" stand for?Your Answer Score ExplanationSizing; tabulating; positioningSizing; targeting; pricingSegmentation; targeting; positioning Correct 1.00Segmentation; targeting; pricingTotal 1.00 / 1.00Question 3The Gillette Sensitive portfolio (pictured below) "combines outstanding shaving performance and comfort to address the significant unmet need of 70% of men who say they have sensitive skin." What is the point ofdifference in this positioning statement?Your Answer Score ExplanationOther razorsOutstanding shaving performance and comfort Correct 1.00Men with sensitive skinTotal 1.00 / 1.00Question 4In Nike's brand mantra "Authentic Athletic Performance," which of the three words is the emotional modifier?Your Answer Score ExplanationAuthentic Correct 1.00PerformanceAthleticTotal 1.00 / 1.00Question 5Liza goes to buy a coffee maker. There are 47 available models in the world. Liza has heard of 9 of these models, of which she's only willing to buy 3. In this example, how many products are in her "consideration set?"Your Answer Score Explanation9473Correct 1.00Total 1.00 / 1.00Question 6If a product is frequently promoted and put on sale, consumers tend to _________ their _________ reference point for the item.Your Answer Score ExplanationLower; externalLower; internal Correct 1.00Raise; internalRaise; externalTotal 1.00 / 1.00Question 7Disney, started by brothers Roy and Walt Disney, is one of the world's most famous mass media corporations. Whattype of name is Disney?Your Answer Score ExplanationMetaphorInventedSurname Correct 1.00BlendedTotal 1.00 / 1.00Question 8In Professor Kahn's lectures, she discussed the two axes of color. What were the two axes?Your Answer Score ExplanationBrightness & WarmthArousal & Affect Correct 1.00Familiarity & ExcitementTotal 1.00 / 1.00Question 9Which color is known for royalty, wealth, success, and wisdom?Your Answer Score ExplanationWhiteBlackBluePurple Correct 1.00Total 1.00 / 1.00Question 10A lot of designer clothing companies will send free clothes to celebrities with hopes that the celebrities will wear their clothing in public and attract more customers to the brand. What mode of endorsement are these clothing companies trying to achieve?Your Answer Score ExplanationImperative modeImplicit modeCo-present mode Correct 1.00Explicit modeTotal 1.00 / 1.00Question 11The image below, which displays Nivea's packaging since 1963, is an example of the ____________, which is when companies use tiny little tweaks to make sure their packaging and brand stay modern.Your Answer Score ExplanationJust-noticeable differenceButterfly effect Inorrect 0.00Consumer packaged goods modernization theoryTotal0.00 / 1.00Question 12If your attrition rate is 10%, then your typical customer lifetime is:Your Answer Score Explanation1 year40 years10 years Correct 1.005 yearsTotal 1.00 / 1.00Question 13Due to massive customer heterogeneity, Professor Fader would say there’s more opportunity to “move the needle” via ___________ than ___________.Your Answer Score ExplanationAcquisition; development Correct 1.00Retention; developmentDevelopment; acquisitionRetention; acquisitionTotal 1.00 / 1.00Question 14Tesco and Harrahs rose to prominence in their industries by exploiting which “crack in product centricity”?Your Answer Score ExplanationGlobalizationCustomer-level tracking Correct 1.00CommoditizationInnovationTotal 1.00 / 1.00Question 15In a customer-centric approach, which customers should you be most concerned with?Your Answer Score ExplanationThe customers who are most engaged with your products/servicesThe customers that have historically been most valuableThe customers with the greatest degree of social influenceThe customers that are likely to be most valuable Correct 1.00Total 1.00 / 1.00Question 16When Joe was working in finance, he bought all of his suits at Macy’s, a department store. Once Macy’s finds out about Joe’s plans to return to business school, what customer-centric approach would Professor Fader recommend that Macy’s takes with Joe?Your Answer Score ExplanationShow Joe that he’s still important to them by extending a store discount tohim that will apply during his time as a studentCorrect 1.00Give him incentives to refer his friends to Macy’sSend a thank-you note to Joe to thank him for shopping at Macy’s for somany yearsInvite Joe into a VIP customer loyalty program once he graduates fromschoolTotal 1.00 / 1.00Customer centricity requires zooming in on your important customers. As you do so, which of the following strategies do you want to focus on?Your Answer Score ExplanationTry to turn all of the less valuable customers into highly valuable onesTry to treat all of your customers equally wellDrop the least valuable customers, so you can focus your resources on yourmost valuable customersKeep the less valuable customers because they provide stability androbustness to your customer mixCorrect 1.00Total 1.00 / 1.00Question 18What is the correct overall expected lifetime of this customer base? Your Answer Score Explanation20.9 years4.9 years12.3 years Inorrect 0.007.6 yearsTotal0.00 / 1.00Sometimes at the hair salon, the receptionist will ask if you also want to get a manicure while you’re there. What is this an example of?Your Answer Score ExplanationUp-sellingCustomer needs assessmentCustomer referral programCross-selling Correct 1.00Total 1.00 / 1.00Question 20In a product-centric company, rewards would be measured on metrics like all of the following EXCEPT:Your Answer Score ExplanationMarket shareNumber of new productsPercentage of revenue from products less than two years old Inorrect 0.00Share of walletTotal0.00 / 1.00Question 21In a customer-centric company, sales bias is on the side of the ____________ in a transaction.Your Answer Score ExplanationBrokerSeller Inorrect 0.00BuyerUltimate consumerTotal0.00 / 1.00Question 22The thought process for a ________-centric company is “How many possible uses of this product?” The thought process for a ________-centric company is “What combination of products is best for this customer?”Your Answer Score ExplanationProduct; productProduct; customer Correct 1.00Customer; customerCustomer; productTotal 1.00 / 1.00Question 23Jack recommends his new Keurig coffee machine to his friend Jill. Jill buys her own Keurig and loves it - studies show that she is now significantly more likely to recommend the Keurig coffee machine to another person. What is this effect called?Your Answer Score ExplanationMarketing effectTreatment effectSelection effectReferral effectTotal0.00 / 1.00Question 24Choose the best answer. Claire just heard that her friend Jack lost his job. In order to help with his search for a new job, she suggests that he sign up for LinkedIn, a social networking website for people in professional occupations. Jack signs up, finds LinkedIn to be very helpful, and ends up becoming an active user for the next ten years. This is an example of the:Your Answer Score ExplanationTreatment effect Inorrect 0.00Marketing effectReferral effectSelection effectTotal0.00 / 1.00Question 25During the product life cycle, which of the following groups adopts a new product or service during the “Maturity” phase?Your Answer Score ExplanationInnovatorsEarly majorityEarly adoptersLaggardsLate majority Correct 1.00Total 1.00 / 1.00Question 26In the context of the product life cycle, which of the following is NOT true about the “Laggards” group?Your Answer Score ExplanationThey usually appear during the “Decline” stage of a product’s life cycleThey are at the opposite end of the product life cycle as the InnovatorsPeople who are laggards for one product will be laggards for all products Correct 1.00They are the last people to adopt a new product or serviceTotal 1.00 / 1.00Question 27Which adage best sums up the concept of “homophily?”Your Answer Score ExplanationOpposites attractBirds of a feather flock together Correct 1.00The early birds gets the wormYou can't teach an old dog new tricksTotal 1.00 / 1.00Question 28Six degrees of separation is the idea that everyone is six or fewer steps away from any other person in the world. In terms of influence, however, the influence you have over other people will generally not exceed _____ steps.Your Answer Score Explanation3 Correct 1.00462Total 1.00 / 1.00Question 29In one of the studies that Professor Bell discusses, he looks at the influence different "friends" have on a user in a certain social network. Which of these effects is a result of "homophily?"Your Answer Score ExplanationGirls were influential over guys, whereas the same was not true for guys overgirlsOn average, someone who has been in a social network for a longer periodof time has a greater influence on other usersPeople who indicate they're looking to date people have less influence overother usersPeople who are from the same ethnic/culture background, on average,have more influence over each otherCorrect 1.00Total 1.00 / 1.00Question 30Which of the following is a non-digital attribute?Your Answer Score ExplanationThe fit of a pair of shoes Correct 1.00Delivery timeLength of a bookPriceTotal 1.00 / 1.00Question 31According to one of the studies Professor Bell discussed, which of the following Product Life Cycle groups is more driven by better information on a product’s non-digital attributes that is spread through communication with existing customers of the product?Your Answer Score ExplanationInnovatorsLaggardsEarly adopters Inorrect 0.00Total0.00 / 1.00Question 32According to Professor’s Bell lecture, changing which of the following had the greatest impact on operating profits?Your Answer Score ExplanationPrice Correct 1.00VolumeFixed costsVariable costsTotal 1.00 / 1.00Question 33Which of the following best represents the idea of price elasticity?Your Answer Score ExplanationIf I drop the price by 1%, by how much does demand drop?If I drop volumes by 10%, by how much does the price adjust?If I raise volumes by 10%, by how much does the price adjust?If I raise the price by 1%, by how much does demand drop?Correct 1.00Total 1.00 / 1.00Question 34When you buy a computer from Apple, they ask whether you want to purchase the AppleCare Protection Plan, which is an integrated service and support plan that is backed by Apple. You can purchase the protection plan in store, but you c an also wait and buy it anytime in the year following your purchase. According to what you’ve learned in the course, which of the following is NOT a good reason for why a lot of people end up buying the protection plan in-store?Your Answer Score ExplanationYou are only buying one computer, and small volume users tend to be moreCorrect 1.00price sensitive.There are Apple employees who are there to explain the benefits of the program.The protection plan is much less expensive than the laptop, and buyers tend to be less price sensitive when the focal component is a smaller part of total costs.Total 1.00 / 1.00Question 35In the context of mental accounting, how should you treat gains and losses (i.e. good news and bad news)?Your Answer Score ExplanationSeparate losses and combine gainsSeparate gains and combine losses Correct 1.00Integrate gains and lossesSeparate gains and lossesTotal 1.00 / 1.00Question 36Which of the following is NOT one of the four inputs to the pricing process?Your Answer Score ExplanationMarginal revenue Correct 1.00Distributor marginsCompetitive pressuresMarginal costWillingness to payTotal 1.00 / 1.00Question 37Which of the following is NOT a strategic advantage of direct channels?Your Answer Score ExplanationErecting barriers to entry against other competitorsQuality of direct market feedbackAbility to bundle with high margin products/servicesEfficiency from a smaller number of transactions required Correct 1.00Total 1.00 / 1.00 Question 38Integrating, franchising, and monitoring are all strategies of managing __________ conflict. Your Answer Score ExplanationVertical Correct 1.00HorizontalTotal 1.00 / 1.00Question 39Which of the following is not one of the 7Ms?Your Answer Score ExplanationMissionMarketMeasurementMoneyMessage contentMessage designMotivation Correct 1.00。

Segmentation模块分割评价指标随着计算机视觉和图像处理技术的不断发展，图像分割技术作为计算机视觉领域的重要研究方向之一，受到了广泛关注。

图像分割是指将数字图像划分成若干个具有独立语义的区域，其目的是对图像进行更精细的理解和分析。

在图像分割技术中，分割评价指标是对分割结果进行客观评价的重要依据，本文将对segmentation模块分割评价指标进行详细介绍。

1. 分割准确率（Segmentation Accuracy）分割准确率是评价分割结果的重要指标之一，它是指在所有像素中，正确分割的像素占总像素的比例。

分割准确率可以通过以下公式来计算：分割准确率 = （TP + TN）/ (TP + TN + FP + FN)其中，TP表示真正例（True Positive），指被正确标记为正例的样本数；TN表示真负例（True Negative），指被正确标记为负例的样本数；FP表示假正例（False Positive），指被错误标记为正例的样本数；FN表示假负例（False Negative），指被错误标记为负例的样本数。

分割准确率是衡量分割结果好坏的重要指标之一，较高的分割准确率意味着分割结果更加精准。

2. 目标检测率（Detection Rate）目标检测率是评价分割结果的另一个重要指标，它是指真实目标在分割结果中被正确检测的比例。

目标检测率可以通过以下公式来计算：目标检测率 = TP / (TP + FN)其中，TP表示真正例，指被正确标记为正例的样本数；FN表示假负例，指被错误标记为负例的样本数。

目标检测率是衡量分割结果中目标检测能力的重要指标，较高的目标检测率意味着分割结果能够更准确地检测到目标。

3. 误分率（Misclassification Rate）误分率是评价分割结果的重要指标之一，它是指被错误标记的像素占总像素的比例。

误分率可以通过以下公式来计算：误分率 = (FP + FN) / (TP + TN + FP + FN)误分率是衡量分割结果中误分的程度的重要指标，较低的误分率意味着分割结果中误分的情况较少。

模块五酒店STP战略1. 引言在酒店行业竞争日益激烈的环境下，制定一个有效的STP （Segmentation, Targeting, Positioning）战略对于酒店的长期发展至关重要。

该文档旨在探讨模块五酒店的STP战略，并提供相关的市场分析和推荐策略，以帮助酒店在市场上取得竞争优势。

2. 市场分析在制定STP战略之前，首先需要对酒店市场进行全面的分析。

根据市场研究数据和趋势分析，以下是模块五酒店所处市场的主要特点：2.1 受众细分模块五酒店的受众主要集中在商务旅客和休闲度假旅客。

商务旅客通常具有较高的收入水平，追求高品质的住宿体验和便利的商务设施。

休闲度假旅客则注重舒适度和便利性，希望能够享受到酒店提供的休闲设施和服务。

2.2 市场竞争模块五酒店所处市场竞争激烈，存在许多中档和高档酒店品牌。

这些品牌在价格、服务质量和设施方面与模块五酒店竞争。

2.3 市场趋势近年来，酒店行业出现了一些重要的市场趋势。

例如，随着互联网的普及和在线旅游平台的兴起，消费者对于价格的敏感度增加，他们更倾向于通过在线渠道预订酒店，以获取更好的价格优势。

此外，环保和可持续发展也成为了酒店行业的重要关注点。

消费者越来越意识到环保问题的重要性，他们更愿意选择那些注重环保的酒店品牌。

3. STP战略3.1 客户细分通过对市场分析的基础上，模块五酒店可以采取以下策略进行客户细分：•商务旅客细分：根据商务旅客的需求和偏好，将客户分为不同的子群。

可根据收入水平、出行目的、入住频率等因素进行细分。

•休闲度假旅客细分：根据休闲度假旅客的需求和偏好，将客户分为不同的子群。

可根据年龄、兴趣爱好、旅行目的等因素进行细分。

3.2 目标市场在细分客户群之后，模块五酒店需要选择目标市场，并制定相应的营销策略。

根据对市场分析的结果，模块五酒店可以选择以下目标市场：•高端商务旅客：这个市场是模块五酒店最主要的目标市场之一。

这些客户通常具有较高的收入水平，追求高品质的住宿体验和便利的商务设施。