外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 胜任力模型研究

2．2激励实例举一个关于“赡养问题”的简单例子，它为我们提供了一个背景，来说明在我们系统中动态委托代理模型和激励模型的主要步骤。

这个例子在其描述中，我们放弃了很多的有利于专业词汇的通用语言，反映了我们在委托代理公司探索的兴趣，它并没有词汇的限制。

然而，它限制了我们的模型和结果的适用性，在本节结束时提供指导文献，来研究我们现有的模型和结果。

初步方案制定：考虑一台关键的机器设备，有两种可能的状态，一种是运行状态，另一种是没有运行的状态，只有那种处于运行状态的机器能够给他的所有者（我们称之为“她”）带来利润，所有者者委托经营者（我们称之为“他”）对设备进行维修的职责，管理者会去维修处于运行状态的机器。

无论机器是处于高效运行还是低效运行，这种战略把这些机器设备在每个时期的运行情况作为一种维护策略。

当成本维护转移概率较高时，这些机器设备就会高负荷运转，那些处于运行状态的，管理者会进行非自由裁量权预防性维护活动。

作为所有者不会显示管理者在非操作状态下的努力，但是她会观察机器的状态。

因此，她可能会面临以下的问题：设计一个基于绩效的薪酬计划，将激励基于对管理者的绩效的实际观察，这将激励他付出积极的行动，最大限度地实现所有者期望的预利润能超过最低限额这一目标。

我们制定和分析所有者的问题之前，我们必须首先对双方的爱好指定一个模型。

管理者假设选择一些维护策略去解决他工作过程中的消耗磨损，这个问题类似于金融经济中的消费和投资问题。

它主要的功能如下：在每一时期，管理者的行为和消耗基于给他提供有价值的信息，以争取他的预期效用最大化，管理者的实用工具是随着时间的推移指数和加法可分离，消耗方面的增加和在修复方面的减少。

此外，管理者尽可能确保他银行账户的收入和在同一账户用于消耗金之间的金额转移消耗，这个账户的利息在每个周期是固定的、彼此平衡的负数。

反映贷款，或是积极的，或迎合所有者的喜好，这个模型假设是一个经典的预期利润最大化。

Human resource management more and more drives value. Under the system that economy development mature, human resource management have to match with fight for the best resources performance, if out of character of the manpower form couples out of character of post, the resources performance be not only whole have no, or may have already exhaust. The modern economy stress balance and match, promote management effect and quality vegetable, will human resource match with make balance, the inside contents establish human resource structure frame, use most in keeping with of the person do most in keeping with of work. Establishment human resource terrace is a communication and collection information way, everyone's opinion comprehensive, give up short take long, with processing salary, welfare etc. affair. Human resource most the importance be a training and development, human resource development have to investment at training aspect, with exertive each stratum of human resource potential.人力资源管理愈来愈被重视。

外文翻译原文The practice of competency modelingMaterial Source: Personnel Psychology Author: Schippmann, Jeffery S The purpose of this article is to define and explain a trend that has caused a great deal of confusion among HR researchers, practitioners, and consumers of HR-related services: competency modeling. The Job Analysis and Competency Modeling Task Force, a work group jointly sponsored by the Professional Practice Committee and the Scientific Affairs Committee of the Society For Industrial and Organizational Psychology, has recently concluded a 2-year investigation into the antecedents of competency modeling and an examination of the current range of practice. Competency modeling is compared and contrasted to job analysis using a conceptual framework (reflected in a 10-dimension Level of Rigor Scale) that practitioners and researchers may use to guide future work efforts, and which could be used as a basis for developing standards for practice. The strengths and weaknesses of both competency modeling and job analysis are identified and, where appropriate, recommendations are made for leveraging strengths in one camp to shore-up weaknesses in the other.The business environment today is characterized by incredible competition and change (D'Aveni, 1994; Hamel & Prahalad, 1994). In response, organizations are flattening, relying on self-managed teams with greater frequency, becoming highly matrixes, and otherwise reconfiguring the structure of work (Ashkenas, Ulrich, Jick, & Kerr, 1995; Howard, 1995; Keidel, 1994). Accompanying these changes has been a growing concern that traditional job analysis procedures may be unable to continue to play a central role in the new human resource management environment (Barnes-Nelson, 1996; Olian & Rynes, 1991; Sanchez, 1994). It is with this backdrop that the practice of competency modeling has exploded onto the field of human resources over the past several years. Today, surveys of competency-based practice indicate between 75% (Cook & Bernthal, 1998, based on a survey of 292 organizations) and 80% (American Compensation Association, 1996, based on asurvey of 426 organizations) of responding companies have some competency-driven applications currently in place.Given the turbulent practice environment, and the magnitude and pace of the growth of competency modeling, it is not surprising that practitioners and consumers of human resource services alike are looking for some meaningful reference points to guide their work. To aid in this effort, the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) commissioned a task force in September 1997 to investigate and review the practice of competency modeling. The members of the SIOP-sponsored Job Analysis and Competency Modeling Task Force (JACMTF) (n1) have conducted an extensive literature search, interviewed 37 subject matter experts (SMEs) from varying backgrounds in the development and use of competency models, and have drawn on a rich base of personal experiences to shed light on questions.The purpose of this article is to communicate the descriptive findings of the task force, and to offer suggestions for guiding research and improving practice in both competency modeling and job analysis. These suggestions are framed around a conceptualization of evaluative criteria that could eventually serve as a basis for standards for practice.Literature SearchesBoth computer-based and manual searches of published research and reviews focusing on competencies were conducted. The computer databases of the American Psychological Association, UMI Proquest Direct, Harvard Business Review, and the American Management Association were used to identify articles, dissertations, and book chapters that included analyses or discussions of the concept of competencies. The manual review included examining the proceedings from conferences devoted to competencies or competency modeling, government technical reports, conference presentations, books, consulting publications and materials, and unpublished research and reviews.What Is A Competency?To begin with, the word "competencies" today is a term that has no meaning apart from the particular definition with which one is speaking (Zemke, 1982). Some examples of efforts to define the term from SMEs representing each of the groups in the sampling plan include:•"The knowledge, skills, and attributes that differentiate high performers from average performers."•"Competencies are not fundamentally different from traditionally defined KSAOs (i.e., knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics)."•It is a construct that helps "define level of skill and knowledge."•"Observable, behavioral capabilities that are important for performing key responsibilities of a role or job."•"Mishmash of knowledge, skills, and abilities and job performance requirements."•"I can't."Clearly, there is a wide range of definitions, even among a fairly homogeneous expert population, underscoring the difficulty of pinpointing a standard definition of the term. This lack of consensus shouldn't be too surprising, given the multiple domains in which the terms "competent" or "competency" are prevalent. For example, the extensive use of these terms just in the early psychological literature is evident from the large number of hits (over 1,300) returned from a search for "competency" in the pre 1966 PsychInfo databases. In part, these words have their origins in law and, later, in clinical psychology, where the term evolved to define legal standards of mental capacity and awareness, the ability to care for oneself or others, and/or the ability to function in multiple activities of "daily living." Subsequently, the term "competency" was embraced in the vocational counseling profession to define broad areas of knowledge, skills, and abilities linked to specific occupations. The word also has an extensive history in the field of education with an emphasis on broader traditional "knowledge" areas (e.g., mathematics, English). Early industrial psychologists also used the term "competent" to describe successful individuals in specific professions. In all of the above contexts--legal, clinical psychology, vocational, educational, and industrial psychology--the term "competence" defines "successful" performance of a certain task or activity, or "adequate" knowledge of a certain domain of knowledge or skill.Individual differences and educational psychology. The study and examination of individual differences is as old as modern civilization. Aiken (1988) cites attempts from the Bible and ancient history to identify and label differences in human behavior and to use those differences for a specific purpose. In the history and systems of psychology, two major approaches characterize the conceptualization of human performance. McLagan (1996) describes these approaches as the differential psychology approach and the educational/behavioral approach. The former focuses on capabilities or characteristics that are relatively enduring andmanifested early. In the late 19th and early 20th century, Galton and Cattell pioneered the development of objective techniques to measure human abilities and characteristics. These early efforts focused on a means to measure intellect and, in particular, focused on identifying specific sensory and psychomotor abilities underlying intellectual functioning. The science of individual differences through the 1950s and beyond quickly expanded to multiple and sometimes overlapping research domains: physical, intellectual, information processing, motivation, personality, values, and more recently, emotional characteristics (see Guilford, 1956; Fleishman & Quaintance, 1984; Rokeach, 1973). Each domain was studied using a wide variety of methodologies and techniques, but all were based (in whole or in part) on inferences from behavioral manifestations. These manifestations were in turn grouped and labeled through judgment or quantitative methodology, or some combination of the two.Although the differential approach focuses primarily on innate abilities, the primary emphasis from the educational psychology perspective is on performance outcomes and shaping behaviors so that people can be successful. Researchers in this camp have been concerned with creating educational strategies to develop successful performance. Bloom's work (1956, 1967; Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia, 1964) to create taxonomy of educational objectives, and Gagno's (1975) efforts to use taxonomies for clarifying objectives for individual development are examples of work in this area. In most cases, the goal is to operationally define the taxonomic categories with illustrative, observable behaviors, which is the same tack taken in most competency modeling approaches.Of course, the field of industrial and organizational psychology relies heavily on an assumption inherent in both of the approaches described above--namely, that an individual's standing on many of the above-mentioned individual difference dimensions and/or knowledge, skills and abilities (learned, acquired, or enhanced) have the potential to predict job performance or success.Leadership research and assessment centers. The identification and assessment of characteristics underlying successful management performance and leadership behavior has a rich and varied history (Bass, 1990; Bentz, 1963; Laurent, 1961; 1962; 1968; Spreitzer, McCall, & Mahonney, 1997; Taylor, 1960). Within this context, the assessment center approach is one of the many procedures that have been developed to satisfy the interests and requirements of business and industry for selecting managers and leaders (Bray, 1982). According to Thornton and Byham(1982), military assessment programs in World War I and World War II (OSS, 1948), early personality research, and leadership/supervision job analysis research all served as the basis for the development of the management assessment center, which was originated in the AT&T management progress study. The original dimensions were selected based on a review of the management literature and the judgments of AT&T personnel staff.An interesting observation that can be made upon reviewing the assessment center literature is the almost controlling influence the original set of dimensions derived from the AT&T research had on the assessment center field; resulting in a curious homogeneity across organizations in the dimension-level taxonomies used to represent job content in different assessment centers (Schippmann, Hughes, & Prien, 1987). The implicit assumption seemed to be that there was a great deal of similarity in management functions across organizations and levels of management. Further, an additional consistency in the assessment center programs, which in part is due to the fact that the taxonomies were homogeneous in the first place, is that the dimension categories are very broad and generic. These dimensions seemed to serve as labels for clusters of "attributes," "characteristics," and "qualities" judged to be critical for job success and resemble what are conventionally called "constructs" (e.g. drive, planning, creativity, and flexibility). In many ways, the dimensional structure of assessment centers, and the resulting operational definitions of the broad, generic individual difference dimensions using behavioral statements, was a portent of things to come in the realm of competency modeling.译文胜任力建模实践资料来源：员工心理学2000,11作者：Schippmann,JefferyS.本文的目的是定义和解释一种趋势。

文献综述一、前言胜任力的研究和实践起源于美国，在20世纪70年代开始有学者投入到胜任力特征的探究和模型的构建中来。

我国最早在上世纪90年代引入了胜任力模型，后经我国学者研究努力，在对国外已有研究成果的基础上充分结合我国国情，对该理论在人员招聘领域也有了初步的探究，为进一步的发展奠定了研究基础。

二、国外相关研究成果胜任力，在国外常常又被译为competency。

在20世纪70年代以来，国外对于胜任力以及模型建立和应用日臻成熟。

现今大家认可的胜任力定义，最早起源于戴维·麦克利兰（David McClelland）博士（1973）为美国国务院设计的甄选驻外联络官的项目中的应用。

在该项目中他将心理学和管理学相结合，认为绩效优者拥有某些特有的知识与行为使得他获得更高的工作成就，因此将胜任力定义为与工作绩效或生活中其他重要成果直接相似或相联系的知识、技能、特质和动机。

在研究中他发展了确定胜任力的一些关键的方法和和理论，如“行为事件访谈法”（BEI）。

戴维·杜波依斯（David Dubois）（1993）将胜任力定义为是一个人在其工作岗位上获得出色成绩的潜在特征。

提出了绩优者的胜任力特征，主要包括6个方面：目标和行动管理、领导、人力资源管理、指导下级技能、其他、特殊知识。

莱尔·斯宾塞（Lyle Spencer）（1994）和麦克利兰对胜任力做了全面定义。

能够明确卓越绩效者和平庸者可准确测量的个体特征。

他们创建了冰山模型来形象的说明，包括了五个层次：知识、技能、自我概念、特质和动机,。

冰山上的技巧和知识是显性部分，而冰山下的部分为隐性部分。

而对于胜任力模型的建立和应用，最早始于1970年McBer和美国管理协会(AMA)进行了一次胜任力项目研究，该研究旨在比较一般绩效这和绩优者的行为，以此来找出管理者成功的五个重要能力特征：专业知识、心智成熟度、企业家成熟度、人际间成熟度、在职成熟度这五个关键能力特征，只有专业知识是优秀管理者和一般管理者都有的。

原文：New Competencies for HRWhat does it take to make it big in HR? What skills and expertise do you need？Since 1988, Dave Ulrich, professor of business administration at the University of Michigan，and his associates have been on a quest to provide the answers. This year，they've released an all—new 2007 Human Resource Competency Study (HRCS）。

The findings and interpretations lay out professional guidance for HR for at least the next few years.“People want to know what set of skills high-achieving HR people need to perform even better,” says Ulrich, co—director of the project along with Wayne Brockbank, also a professor of business at the University of Michigan.Conducted under the auspices of the Ross School of Business at the University of Michigan and The RBL Group in Salt Lake City，with regional partners including the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM）in North America and other institutions in Latin America, Europe, China and Australia, HRCS is the longest—running，most extensive global HR competency study in existence。

Employee Motivation: A Powerful New ModelBy Nitin Nohria, Boris Groysberg & Linda-Eling Lee 2008-08-01 How to create the best employee performance is manager for a long time of challenge. In recent years, the neural science, biology and evolution of interdisciplinary research areas such as psychology, humans have told us four basic emotional needs, and the force driving or what we all the basis of their behavior. The empirical research shows that, but the employee can create better performance. Therefore, to motivate employees, managers should understand the driving force and can take what measures to meet the driving force.Acquirement: Get people always try to get some things, to increase the scarcity of his happiness. When the force satisfied, we will feel happy. Conversely, it will feel dissatisfied. This force is often the relative (we always compare themselves with others), and it was difficult to satisfy (we always want more).Combination: Many animals are combined with their parents and relatives or close relationship between population, but establish the relationship between human expanded into larger groups, such as organization, community and nation. "Driving", people will generate loving, caring, strong positive emotions, etc. Conversely, it will appear as negative emotional loneliness cynical. In the work environment, when the staff for oneself is a member of the organization are proud of their motivation and will greatly improve, And when they had rebelled against their will and morale.Understand: We are eager to understand about the world around them, and then put forward various theories to explain all things, and put forward the reasonable action and countermeasures. When things seem pointless, we will feel frustrated, While looking for answers to questions, the challenge will let us full of passion. In the working environment, workers work done if challenging, and allows them to grow and learn, they will be incentive, And when they do look no value or no future, will be demoralized.Defense: In the face of threats defense, to protect themselves, to protect our property and achievements, family and friends, thoughts and beliefs, it is natural to us.This force is rooted in the "fight but fled" basic response, this is common, but most animals to humans, it not only the offensive or defensive behavior, but also to build a system to promote seek justice, clear goals and intention, and allow people to speak freely. These forces have been fulfilled, people think and self-confidence otherwise will fear and hate strong negative affection.These four driving are independent of each other, no secondary, also cannot substitute mutually. To fully motivate employees, managers must satisfy all four driving force. In fact, every emotional force can use different organizations leverage to satisfy the most effectively.Reward System: "gain" the most easily through the organization of driving system of rewards. Of course, it also depends on the organization's reward system can effectively define employee performance, will reward with different performance, and give the best chance of promotion of personnel.Culture: If it meet the "combination" force among employees, cultivating strong friendship, the most effective way is to establish a promote teamwork, cooperation, open and friendly culture.Post designing: It is satisfied with “understanding” force that it is the optimal way to design a meaningful and have fun and challenging positions.Performance management and resource allocation process fairness, credible, transparent, performance management and resource allocation process, help satisfy people's "defensive driving".In addition, the direct supervisor for employees and motivational degrees plays an important role as organizational policy. Although do not expect to staff the whole company boss incentive system, culture, post design or management system exerting significant effect, but they clearly superior in their influence within the scope of a certain power. For example, in recognition, managers can select and tasks, the rewards and employee performance.In the organization of managers only under the condition of the utmost efforts to satisfy all four driving force, the employee can most effectively improve the incentive effect on employees, improve the organizational performance.reserved.Talent "flow" and "left"By Peter Cappelli 2003-05-01For other company employees openly, it rarely occur in the past, but now it is already used the enterprise. The rapidly changing demands of the market rapidly changing constantly updated the organization. However, no one is willing to see his talent was away. Once the excellent employees leave, the enterprise will hit. If hope to help enterprises package and career development plan, training programs, like tinkering with the free flow of his talent market today, affirmation in isolation. Now, we have a choice: that is attractive to market-oriented strategy. This strategy, long-term, defies generalizations for employee loyalty is neither possible nor necessary, the enterprise can definitely need to keep employees and leave them what how attractive scheme, will focus on the talent to keep up.Today, many enterprises in staff loyalty are dependent on salary, but many attractive salary is a kind of mechanism. Other personnel loss can be used to reduce the method is: the post to design - the United States through the heavy UPS tedious work load from the driver package for other employee, stripping there was more to keep the driver, To cultivate employees work or specific project team loyalty, Hire skills in talent market demand is not high on the staff, The staff in the work place much temptation job-hopping, And other companies to provide staff into pairs across the company's career path. If there is no way to prevent loss of personnel, the enterprise can also use outsourcing, strengthen job, work will hire employees and standardization, cross training around the short-term organizational work, etc.If the past management methods of retaining staff to maintain a fixed water dam, so the new management methods are more like a flowing rivers, dredge its goal is to prevent water flow, but the flow direction and speed control.reserved.Let who evaluate staffBy Frederick F. Reichheld & Paul Rogers 2005-11-01In the era of wooden, transport and the crew that recruits the appropriate command them to the same direction with traces the OARS will not be easy. In the past, the captain of the common approach is waving the whip crew. Now, in this business, enterprise how to motivate employees when?Recently, in order to solve the problem of all kinds of organization is a constant headache, some companies began to staff’s compensation and team performance hook, let the customer and employee's supervisor to assess performance instead. These examples:In the enterprise, the branch managers, employees want to get promotion, they belong to the service quality team to achieve or exceed the average company, or any single people could not get a promotion. This company USES the performance index called "enterprise rental company service quality index", its meaning for customer service in asking whether satisfaction, what percentage of people playing a full five points.Applebee restaurants have difference to finding the best performance, 20% of the staff is divided into general 60%, performance and 20% of the worst performance, and separately calculated the loss. If managers can successfully hold the top 80% of the employee performance, it can obtain the reward. If the 20% of employees for worst performance, the managers will not be punished accordingly.Copyright © 2005 Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation. All rights reserved.员工激励的“四力模型”作者：尼廷・诺里亚，鲍里斯・格鲁斯伯格，琳达－埃琳・李发表于：2008-08-01如何让员工创造出最佳绩效是管理者长久以来面临的严峻挑战。

２４８《商场现代化》２００８年１１月（上旬刊）总第５５６期胜任力概念由麦克利兰（１９７３）提出后，胜任力的理论研究和实际应用随即风靡美国、英国等欧美发达国家。

许多著名的公司，如ＡＴ　＆Ｔ、ＩＢＭ等都建立了自己的胜任力体系。

胜任力系统的合理使用，可以降低员工离职率，从而节约经营成本，由于它具有动态性，还可应付组织突如其来的变化，最重要的是，它可以激发员工的潜能、提高绩效、给组织带来最大的价值。

因此，胜任力模型是２１　世纪一个非常重要的工作发展体系，胜任力模型正迅速地成为本世纪工作发展的标准和业绩管理标准。

一、胜任力及胜任力模型的基本内涵１．胜任力的含义１９７３年，ＭｃＣｌｅｌｌａｎｄ在美国《心理学家》杂志上发表了题为《Ｔｅｓｔｉｎｇ　ｆｏｒ　Ｃｏｍｐｅｔｅｎｃｅ　Ｒａｔｈｅｒ　ｔｈａｎ　ｆｏｒ　Ｉｎｔｅｌｌｉｇｅｎｃｅ》（《测试胜任力而非智力》）的文章，提出用胜任力取代传统的智力测量，强调从第一手材料入手，直接发掘那些能真正影响工作业绩的个人条件和行为特征，为提高组织绩效和促进个人事业成功做出实质性的贡献。

同时。

他还提出进行基于胜任能力的有效测验的六个原则。

这篇文章的发表，提出了胜任能力的概念，标志着胜任能力运动的开端，也为胜任力理论的诞生奠定了基础，随后掀起了人们对胜任力研究的热潮。

Ｚｅｍｋｅ（１９８２）认为：胜任力是个难以下定义的术语，因为这个问题不是来自其他方面，而是来自一些基本程序和哲学的不同。

从ＭｃＣｌｅｌｌａｎｄ最早提出胜任力定义开始，学者们又提出了许多不同的定义，但是至今学术界都没有一个统一的定义。

以下表是对各学者提出的胜任力定义的汇总。

表　胜任力定义汇总汇总上述众多学者对胜任力的定义，可以发现有的偏重特质，有的偏重行为，但这些不同定义都有一定的共同点：与特定工作相关，具有动态性；以绩效标准为参照；包含一些个人的特征，是个人潜在特性或行为，如：知识、技能、自我概念、特质和动机等。

２．胜任力模型的含义胜任力模型指的是担任某一特定任务角色所需要具备的胜任力的总和，它是胜任力的结构形式。

Research on Competency Model:A Literature Review andEmpirical StudiesAbstractWestern countries have applied competency models to addressing problems existed in their administrative and managerial systems since 1970s，and the findings is positine and promising. However, competency model hasn’t been introduced to China until 1990s and it is still unknown and mysterious to many Chinese managers. This paper aims to uncover the mysterious veil of competency model in order to broaden the horizon of Chinese managers and boost China's human resource development as well as management.Keywords:Competency，Competency Models，Empirical Studies of Competency ModelsIt has been more than 30 years since competency model was utilized to human resource management.In western countries，competency model first displayed its effectiveness in government administration, meanwhile many multinationals and their branch companies applied the competency model to their daily business management and their business was a great success. As the notion of competency is gradually come to light and accepted by people all around the world，more and more enterprises have been trying to build their own competency model under the help of professional consultant firms. As a result，competency model has gradually been a very fashionable phrase in the field of management and quite a few enterprises are thus benefited from it. In recent years, competency model has become a hot spot in the Chinese academia as well as big-，middle- and small-sized enterprises alike，many relevant writings and books have also been translated and published. However, competency and competency model are still mysterious to many Chinese scholars, business managers as well as government administrators.Purpose and Significance of the StudyThe purpose of the study aims to make a critical literature review of the competency model，clarify some confusion related to it and explore its application. The following questions are employed to guide this study:What is competency? What is competency model? What are the theoretical and empirical findings related to competency model?The study illustrates how we could take advantage of competency model in our harmonious society building. On one hand，the study will delineate competency and competency model in order to clarify confusions related to it since it is still strange and mysterious to many Chinese managers and administrators;on the other hand，thestudy would enrich Chinese HRD&HRM in the field of government administration and business management both theoretically and empirically.Research MethodThe present study has utilized qualitative analysis, induction and deduction. Since this research is a literature review in some sense, qualitative analysis will be an indispensable research method; Induction and deduction are applied to both theoretical and empirical studies.In order to enhance the credibility of present research，only the authoritative publications on competency model are reviewed，including books and papers written by foreign and Chinese scholars and HRDHRM practitioners. By searching for the keywords "competency" "competency model" and "competency model building" as well as "empirical studies on competency models"，books and papers written by well-known foreign scholars such as McClelland D. C.，Lyle M. Spencer, Anntoinette D. Lucia, Richard Lepsinger etc.，are available; by the same token，books and papers written by Chinese scholars such as Zhi-gong He，Jianfeng Peng, Shaohua Fang, Nengquan Wu，etc.，could be consulted. All the books and papers are published between 1950s and 2007. In addition, many data cited in this paper comes from empirical studies at home and abroad.FindingsIn this part，a literature review of competency is firstly carried out;then competency model as well as its evolution，development and innovation is delineated;finally empirical studies are reviewed. Empirical studies mainly focus on competency model building and its application to human resource development and management.Understanding CompetencyIn 1973，American scholar David C. McClelland published his paper Testing for Competency Rather Than Intelligence which cited a large amount of research findings to illustratethe inappropriateness of assessing personnel qualities by abusing intelligence tests. Dr. McClelland further explained that some factors (personality, intelligence, value，etc.)which people had always taken for granted in determining work performance hadn't displayed their desired result. As a result，he emphasized that people should ignore those theoretical by pothese and subjective judgements which had been proved groundless in reality. He declared that people should tap directly those factors and behaviors which could really impact their performance (McClelland, 1973). These factors and behaviors were named "competency" by McClelland. The publishing of this paper symbolized the debut of competency research. From then on，many scholars started getting involved into the research on competency and they conceptualizedcompetency from different perspectives as shown in the following table: The above ten concepts of competency have a lot in common:①Competency is motive, trait，value，skill，self-image, social role，knowledge;②Competency is a combination;③Competency should be measurable, observable, instructional，phasic and hierarchical;④Competency is a determinant to outstanding performance.Thus competency is an underlying combination of individual characteristics such as motive, inner drive force, quality, attitude，sole role，self-image, knowledge and skill，it is causally related to criterion-referenced effective and/or superior performance in a job or situation and it is measurable，observable and instructional.Besides，many scholars and consultancy firms believe that competency could be explained under the help of three different models:Iceberg Model. This model treats competency as an iceberg, the part above the water represents behavior, knowledge and skills which are easy to measure and observe，while the part under the water symbolizes underlying qualities such as value，attitude，social role, self-image，traits which are hard to assess，and the deepest part under the water represents the most latent qualities such as inner drive force，social motive, etc. which are most difficult to observe and measure.Onion Model. This model treats competency as an onion, the outer layer represents skills and knowledge which are liable to acquire，the inner layer refers to qualities such as self-image，social role，attitude and value which are relatively difficult to appraise, while the core of the onion symbolizes traits and motives which are most difficult to cultivate and develop.Brain Model. This model stems from the brain mechanism. It presupposes that the brain could be divided into four parts. Each part functions differently. The upper-left part is in charge of competency such as analysing capacity, calculation, strong logic ability; the upper-right part is in charge of competency such as innovation and intuition;the bottom left part is in charge of competency such as organizing ability, planning ability; and the bottom-right part is in charge of competency such as communication ability，perception, etc. Different parts will exert corresponding influence on competency development.Conceptualizations of Competency ModelFew foreign scholars have directly put forward conceptualizations of competency model. By contrast，many Chinese scholars have expressed their opinions on it. The present paper only cites those concepts that have been published by authoritative publishing houses.Jianfeng Peng, a professor in Ch;na Renmin University，together with his students, has studied how to build competency models for effective HR management since 2003. He thought competency model was the combination of differentqualities which were necessary for people to successfully finish a job or achieve superior performance，these qualities included different motives，traits, self-images and social roles as well as knowledge and skill (Jianfeng Peng, 2003). Prof. Peng believed that a competency model was composed of 4-6 competencies that were closely related to performance. Competency models could help managers judge and distinguish key factors that led to superior performance or underperformance. As a result，competency model could be treated as a foundation to improve performance.Professor Nengquan Wu from Sun Yat-sen University published his book Competency Model:Design and Application in 2005，according to his understanding, competency model refers to "proficiencies that people define core competencies of different levels, delineate corresponding behaviors，determine key competencies as well as f inish certain work.”(Nengquan Wu，2005). Prof. Wu conceptualized competency model from the perspective of methodology. He believed that competency model was a unique HRM thinking mode, method and operation flow. On the basis of organizational strategy, competency model could be utilized to enhance organizational competitiveness and improve performance.Shaohua Fang, a senior HRM consultant and expert，provided us with the following definition:"Competency model is to conceptualize and describe the necessary knowledge,skills，qualities and abilities which an employee should have in order to finish work (Shaohua Fang, 2007)”.By taking advantage of definitions of different levels and related behavioral descriptions, people could determine the combination of core competencies and required proficiency to finish work. Hc} pointed out these behaviors and skills must be able to measure，observe and instruct and they should exert a great influence upon personal performance and business success.International Human Resource Institute(IHRI) has also defined competency model:"The so-called competency model is the standardized description and explanation of competencies that could actualize superior performance.”(·IHRI, 2005)IHRI declared that a competency model should include 6^-1 2 competencies.In summary, the first concept mentioned above attaches an importance to the composition of competency model and its function, while all of the rest three concepts emphasize cognitive abilities as well as criterion-referred performance. Thus competency, model is a combination of different competencies which could be observed，delineated，explained and calculated on one hand，and could facilitate superior performance on the other hand.Development and Evolution of Competency ModelIn early 1970, top officials in U. S. Department of State believed that theirdiplomats' se- lection based on intelligence test was ineffective. It was an upset situation for them to find that many seemly excellent people fail to live up to their expectations regarding their work performance. Under such circumstances, Dr. McClelland was invited to help Department of State design an effective personnel selection system which could appraise the actual performance of employees. In that program，McClelland and his colleague Charles Dailey adopted the method of Behavioral Event Interview (BEI) to collect information in older to study factors that influenced the diplomats' performance. Through a series of summaries and analyses, McClelland and Dailey found out the differences between an excellent diplomat and a mediocre diplomat as far as their behaviors and modes of thinking were concerned. In this way, competencies that a diplomat should possess were found out. This program is the earliest empirical application of competency model. And the research findings were two papers: Improving Officer Selection for the Foreign Service (McClelland&Dailey，1972) as well as Evaluating New Methods of Measuring the Qualities Needed in Superior Foreign Service Information Officers(McClelland& Dailey，1973).Mcber and American Management Association (A'MA) also started their research on competency model in the same year. They focused on providing the answer to the question:what kind of competencies should be displayed by successful managers rather than unsuccessful ones? AMA spent 5 years observing 1 800 managers. By comparing the performance of excellent managers and mediocre ones, AMA defined their competencies based on their traits. The research results showed that all the successful managers shared the following 5 competencies:professional knowledge，maturity of mentality, maturity of .entrepreneurship，people relations and maturity of the profession. Of which，only professional knowledge were shared by excellent and mediocre managers (Mcber&.AMA, 1970).Then Prof. Bray carried out 8 years research at AT&T based on technique of assessment center. From the aspectives of abilities, attitudes and traits, etc.，he built a competency model composed of 25 competencies such as interpersonal relations, expression ability, social sensitivity, creativity，flexibility，organizational ability，planning ability, decision-making ability, etc(Bray and Grant，1978).In China，however, researches on competency model are relatively much late.Chinese scholars Chongming Wang and Minke Chen published their paper about competency model in Psychological Science in 1992. They studied 220 senior and middle-level managers of 51 enterprises in 5 cities. After examining and testing the competency model for senior managers on the basis of factor analysis and structural equation modelling, they compiled "Key Managerial Behavior Assessment Scale" (Chongming Wang&Minke Chen，2002).Scholars such as Kan Shi, Jicheng Wang and Chaoping Li took advantage of Behaviocal Event Interview to assess the competency model for senior managers in the industry of telecommunication (Kan Shi，Jicheng Wang&Chaoping Li，2002). Jicheng Wang designed 5 universal competency models for technical personnel，sales people, community service personnel，managers as well as entrepreneurs respectively.Jianfeng Peng and his postgraduate student Xiaojuan Xing built 4 universal competency models for business managers，business technical personnel，marketing personnel as well as HR managers (Jianfeng Peng，2003 ).The above domestic studies illustrate that competency models for middle-level and senior managers have been built based on in-depth interview and questionnairing. Most publications only focus on conceptualizing competency model，its development，behavioral event interview as well as competency model building，most of the findings are theoretical rather than empirical. By contrast，foreign studies are much maturer both theoretically and empirically.Empirical StudiesEmpirical studies highlight the application of competency model to enterprises, governments and other institutions.Nowadays，empirical studies on competency models mainly focus on the following 4 aspects:Staffing and Selection. Besides job standards and skills prescription, more and more businesses have carried out their personnel staffing and selection in light of the candidates' competencies which are crucial to their future performance. This competency-based personnel staffing and selection has connected business strategies and targets to business employees themselves. As a result，the quality of staffing and selection is greatly improved.Performance Management. Businesses which have built their competency models are more interested in the competency rather than the result itself in their performance management. As a result, their performance management style has been competency-driven rather than result-driven. Managers haven’t attached an importance to short-term performance, but current and long-term performances. In such a managerial system，outstanding performance has been easily actualized. Each employee has made most of their core competencies and expertise to make a contribution to their business.Compensation Management.After the competency-based compensation management system is set up, businesses have concentrated on their employees’future development and potential value, which has stimulated employees and managers of all ranks to improve themselves both menetuacy and teconologcal. Competency oases compense lion management system has helped enterprises attract and retain moretalents. In a word，competency model has endowed employees with a sense of respect and creativity.Training and Development. Enterprises which have built their competency models tend to determine core competencies in light of business strategies，environments, employee development planning and performance appraisal. Enterprises decide their training and development priorities on the basis of competency model.Future TrendsDespite that there is a growing body of literature on competency model，research on competency model is still in a premature stage and many questions still remain unanswered. Therefore, further research is required to address several important issues.First of all，although there are growing studies on the impacts of the competency model on organizational outcomes，antecedents of competency model need to be identified and academically explored. Future studies are needed to examine the relationships between the features of competency model and its key antecedent variables such as organizational sttracture.leadership and external environment. For example，it can be reasoned that the features of competency model are likely to be positively correlated with the structures of enterprises, governments as well as other institutions. Secondly，the impact of competency model on performance needs to be thoroughly explored. More studies are needed to examine whether the features of competency model or organizational culture，has direct or indirect impacts on organizational performance. While quite a few HRD and HRM researchers and practitioners have demonstrated that the concept of competency model has a positive impact on organizational performance, however，such impact may be mediated by other important organizational variables. Finally, it is also important to consider the relationships of competency model and other important HR variables such as career development, managerial coaching as well as employee training.Conclusions and DiscussionsIn conclusion，competency model has increasingly exerted profound influence on human resource development and management. While this concept has received an increase in both academic and management fields，there are increasing empirical studies designed to examine the nature of the construct and its relationships with other important organizational variables. More studies are needed to enhance the theoretical and empirical foundations of competency model.胜任力模型研究：文献综述和实证研究摘要20世纪70年代以来，西方国家已经利用胜任力模型来解决存在于行政和管理系统中的问题，其结果是积极且有前途的。

国内外关于胜任力模型的研究综述引言胜任力是指个体在特定领域内具备的技能、知识和能力，可以使其成功完成所需的工作任务。

胜任力模型是通过研究和定义一系列影响胜任力的因素，以及它们之间的相互关系，从而帮助组织和个体理解和评估胜任力的框架。

本文旨在综述国内外关于胜任力模型的研究成果，以期对胜任力模型的理论和实践提供一定的指导。

胜任力模型的发展历程胜任力模型的研究始于20世纪70年代，当时主要关注的是个人的技术和职业技能。

随着研究的深入，学者们逐渐意识到胜任力不仅包括技术技能，还包括认知能力、人际沟通能力和领导力等。

因此，胜任力模型逐渐发展成为一个多维度的概念框架。

国内外的研究学者在胜任力模型的研究中提出了不同的观点和模型。

美国心理学家斯宾塞和斯宾塞提出了一种三维模型，将胜任力分为技术技能、问题解决能力和人际能力。

另外一些学者则提出了更多维度的模型，如加拿大学者查芬和奥康纳提出的胜任力四要素模型，包括社交胜任力、认知能力、人格特质和动机特质。

胜任力模型的维度分析在胜任力模型的研究中，学者们对胜任力的不同维度进行了分析。

一种常见的分类是将胜任力分为专业技能和通用能力两类。

专业技能指的是在特定领域内所需的具体知识和技能，如计算机技术、会计知识等。

通用能力则是指跨领域的一些基本技能，如沟通能力、决策能力等。

此外，胜任力模型中还包括了一些其他的维度，如认知能力、人际影响、领导力等。

认知能力是指个体在处理信息、解决问题和推理方面的能力。

人际影响则描述了个体对他人的合作、社交和领导能力。

而领导力则是指个体在组织中的角色和责任，包括指导团队、管理资源和决策制定等。

胜任力模型的应用胜任力模型在实践中被广泛应用于人才招聘、人才培养和绩效管理等方面。

通过评估候选人或员工的胜任力，组织可以更好地匹配人员和岗位，提高员工的绩效和满意度。

胜任力模型还可以用于个体的职业规划和发展，在个人成长的不同阶段提供指导和反馈。

对于胜任力模型的应用，学者们提出了一些改进和建议。

外文翻译译文标题：胜任力模型--人力资源专业人员的方法资料来源: volume 36.issue 1.pages 9–15,Spring 1997作者：Richard S. Mansfield引言大多专业数HR人员负责为员工提供一系列的工作及分配的制度（系统）和服务。

这些系统和服务大概包括薪酬制度，绩效考核，绩效管理，员工的选择，或自我发展计划。

某些特定的HR项目（例如，薪酬系统，接班人规划和职业发展），也可能涉及到区分不同职业的要求，对他们目前的工作以外的工作要求，评估个人胜任力与特定职位的要求或分配是否吻合。

发展单一性工作胜任特征模型的方法第一个胜任力模型是为了单一的工作而开发的，也是研究大多数胜任力模型的一般方法。

发展发展一个单一工作胜任力模型首先要鉴别一个在直线管理中或HR专业人员看来是需要更好的选择或开发在职员工来胜任的关键性工作。

数据收集通常需要资源座谈小组或一个由工作持有者或/和他们的管理者组合成的专门小组对在职员工进行面谈来收集。

在数据集中阶段也可能需要与客户的面谈，直接的报告，对另外的在职者的调查，对在职员工的直接观察。

当收集完成即可进行下一步，即分析数据，提炼出有效数据放入胜任力模型，一般包含10-20个性能或技巧，每一个都要求有其定义和用来描述其绩效的殊定行为，并且要说明如何达成有效结果。

举例，以下职能出自一个高科技公司的客户代表胜任力模型：建立关系定义：与客户建立强大、稳固、积极的工作关系。

•通过问题，找出与客户的连结（共同的兴趣，背景，共同的朋友等）。

•通过即有关系，获得与其他重要人士特别是社会上层人士认识的机会。

•发展起与行政秘书积极的电话往来关系，获得他们的帮助，好把与其老板直接接触的事项提上日程。

•花更多的时间决策者接触，而非停留在与执行人员来往的业务水平。

•向客户证明你与他或她的关系对她活他来说是很有价值的。

•花时间了解账户水平较低的客户。

•与客户/消费者组织内部员工发展庞大的关系网。

关于胜任力构建的经典文献
以下是一些关于胜任力构建的经典文献，供你参考：
1. "Competency-Based Human Resource Management" by Richard Boyatzis (1982)：这本书介绍了胜任力的概念和应用，提出了基于胜任力的人力资源管理方法。

2. "Competence at Work: Models for Superior Performance" by Spencer & Spencer (1993)：本书详细讨论了胜任力模型的开发和应用，提供了实际的案例和指导。

3. "The HR Scorecard: Linking People, Strategy, and Performance" by Dave Ulrich, et al. (2001)：这本书将胜任力与绩效管理联系起来，强调了人力资源管理对组织战略的重要性。

4. "Building Competency Models: A Practitioner's Guide" by Mary Ellen Giacalone and Anthony J. Knapp (2003)：本书提供了构建胜任力模型的详细步骤和方法，是一本实用的操作指南。

5. "Employee Competencies:测量、建模与应用" by Wayne Cascio and Uma S. Krishnan (2008)：本书探讨了员工胜任力的测量、建模和应用，包括在人才管理和绩效评估中的应用。

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：The Mediating Effects of Psychological Contracts on the Relationship Between Human Resource Systems and Role Behaviors: A Multilevel AnalysisAbstractPurpose The purpose of this study was to examine the mediating effect of the psychological contracts on the relationship between human resource (HR) systems and role behavior.Design/Methodology/Approach Multilevel analyses were conducted on data gathered from 146 knowledge workers and 28 immediate managers in 25 Taiwanese high-tech firms.Findings Relational psychological contracts mediated the relationship between commitment-based HR systems and in-role behaviors, as well as organizational citizenship behaviors. Transactional psychological contracts did not significantly mediate these relationships. In addition, the results also indicated that commitment-based HR systems related positively to relational psychological contracts and negatively to transactional psychological contracts.Practical Implications Commitment-based HR systems could elicit a wide range of knowledge workers’ behaviors that are beneficial to the goals of the firms. Furthermore ,our findings also provide insight into, how HR systems potentially elicit employees’ role behaviors. Organizations could elicit e mployees’ in-role behaviors by providing financial and other non-financial, but tangible, inducements and facilitate employees’ extra-role behaviors by providing positive experiences, such as respect, commitment, and support.Originality/Value The study is one of the primary studies to empirically examine the mediating effect of psycho-logical contracts on HR systems and employee behaviors.IntroductionHuman Resource (HR) systems create and support employment relationships. Thus, psychological contracts can be treated as employees’ beliefs stemming from the HR system.Furthermore, psychological contracts represent employees’ beliefs about mutual employment obligations.Employees tend to perform what they believe, that is, according to their psychological contracts. Thus, psycho-logical contracts are positively related to employees’ role behaviors, turnover intentions, commitment, and trust. In other words, psychological contracts are not only formulated by HR systems but also influence employee behaviors. Consequently, psychological contracts can be viewed as the linking mechanism between HR systems and employee behaviors.In the past decade, most psychological contract research has focused on identifying the components of psychological contracts and the effects of the fulfillment or the violation of psychological contracts by employers. For example, Robinson et al. (1994) found that the components of psychological contracts included expectations of high pay,pay based on the current level of performance, training,long-term job security, and career development. Based on these findings, Robinson and Morrison (1995) further pro-posed that employees are less likely to engage in civic virtue behavior when these expectations were violated. In summary, researchers have confirmed that violated psychological contracts negatively influence employees’ role behaviors while fulfilled psychological contracts have positive influences. However, no studies have empirically examined psychological contracts as a linkingmechanism between HR systems and employee behaviors.Accordingly, the goal of this study is to empirically examine psychological contracts as a mediator of the relationship between HR systems and role behaviors. Our results will provide insights regarding the reason for HR sy stems having an effect on employees’ role behaviors. Based on these insights, HR practitioners will gain a better under-standing of how to facilitate employees’ role behaviors (e.g.,by offering them specific inducements). Subsequently, we provide a brief review of psychological contract research, discuss relationships between HR systems and psychological contracts, and propose psychological contracts as mediators of the HR system–employee behavior relationship. HR systems are considered as an organizational level variable, whereas psychological contracts and role behaviors are both considered as individual level variables. Thus, relationships between HR systems and these variables are considered cross-level relationships and will be tested accordingly.Psychological ContractsInitially, a psychological contract was defined as an implicit, unwritten agreement between parties to respect each other’s norms and mainly used as a framework that referred to the implicitness of the exchange relationship between an employee and his/her employer. It did not acquire construct status until the seminal work of Rousseau in the 1990s. According to Rousseau (1989, 1995), a psycho-logical contract is an individual’s belief regarding the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between employees and employers. Furthermore, psycho-logical contracts include different kinds of mental models or schemas, which employees hold concerning reciprocal obligations in the workplace.In accordance with MacNeil’s (1985) typology of promissory contracts, Rousseau (1990) also categorized psychological contracts into two types: transactional and relational. Based on Rousseau and McLean Parks’ (1993) framework, transactional and relational psychological contracts differ on the followi ng five characteristics: focus ,time frame, stability, scope, and tangibility. Specifically, transactional contracts focus on economic terms, have a specific duration, are static, narrow in scope, and are easily observable. Relational contracts simultaneously focus on both economic and socio-emotional terms, have an indefinite duration, are dynamic, pervasive in scope, and are subjectively understood.In summary, transactional psychological contracts refer to employment arrangements with short-term exchanges o f specified performance terms and relational psychological contracts refer to arrangements with long-term exchanges of non-specified performance terms. Empirical evidence supports not only the existence of these two different types of psychological contracts, but also the movement between them. For example, Robinson et al.(1994) found that as contracts become less relational, employees perceived their employment arrangements to be more transactional in nature.Hypothesis 1 Commitment-based HR systems will positively relate to relational psychological contracts.In contrast, when an organization applies a low commitment-based HR system, such as narrowly defined jobs,limited training efforts, relatively limited benefits, and lower wages, employees will perceive that the organization has committed to offer them little to no training or career development. These perceptions will shape employees’transactional psychological contracts, which primarily focus upon the economic aspects of their short-term reciprocal exchange agreement with the organization. Accordingly, we hypothesize that commitment-based HR systems will negatively relate to transactional psychological contracts.Hypothesis 2Commitment-based HR systems will negatively relate to transactional psychological contracts.The Mediating Effects of Psychological Contracts on the Relationship Between HR Systems and Role Behaviors.Organizations and their employees can be considered as the parties in the social exchange relationships. Based on the organization’s actions, such as HR systems, employees will generate their own perceptions, which in turn will determine their role behaviors in reciprocation to their organizations. In other words, employees’ perceptions regarding the exchange agreement between themselves and their organizations mediate the relationships between HR systems and employees’ role behaviors. Consequently, psychological contracts are expected to mediate the relationships between commitment-based HR systems and role behaviors.Role behavior refers to the recurring actions of an individual appropriately inter-correlated with the repetitive activities of others, to yield a predictable outcome. There are two types of role behaviors: in-role and extra-role behavior. In-role behaviors are those behaviors required or expected within the purview of performing the duties and responsibilities of an assigned work role (Van Dyne et al. 1995). Since they are required for the work role, employers adopt formal reward systems which provide financial and other non-financial, but tangible inducements in exchange for employees’ in-role behaviors.The exchange of financial and tangible inducements is a key feature of economic exchange (Blau 1964) and, thus, the exchange relationships between commitment-based HR systems and employees’ in-role behaviors could be treated as a kind of economic exchange. In other words, commitment-based HR systems elicit employees’ in-role behaviors by shaping perceptionsregarding the economic terms of the exchange agreement between themselves and their organizations. Since both relational and transactional psychological contracts focus on economic terms of exchange relationships (Rousseau and McLean Parks 1993), employees with transactional or relational psychological contracts will perform in-role behaviors in order to exchange those higher salaries and more extensive benefits in commitment-based HR systems. Accordingly, we hypothesize that both relational and transactional psychological contracts will mediate the relationships between commitment-based HR systems and in-role behaviors.Hypothesis 3Both relational and transactional psychological contracts will mediate the relationships between commitment-based HR systems and in-role behaviors.In contrast, extra-role behaviors, such as organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB), are those behaviors that benefit the organization and go beyond existing role expectations (Van Dyne et al. 1995). OCBs are not required for the work role, and employers do not formally reward them. For this reason, employees perform OCBs to reciprocate only when they have had positive experiences, such as involvement, commitment, and support, with the organization (Organ 1990; Robinson and Morrison 1995).Since commitment-based HR systems are labeled ‘‘commitment maximizers’’ (Arthur 1992, 1994), they are likely to facilitate employees’ OCBs by offering those positive experiences.The reciprocation of these positive experiences is a kind of social exchange (Cropanzano and Mitchell 2005). In other words, to elicit employe es’ OCBs, socio-emotional terms need to be in the exchange agreement between employees and their organizations. Since transactional psychological contracts do not focus on socio-emotional terms of exchange relationship (Rousseau and McLean Parks 1993), they are not expected to mediate the HR system–OCBs relationship. Accordingly, we hypothesize that relational psychological contracts mediate the relationship between commitment-based HR systems and OCBs.MethodsSample and ProcedureThe solid strength of Taiwanese high-tech industries is a critical factor in the global economy (Einhorn 2005).Knowledge workers,such as R&D professionals and engineers, have been viewed as a core human resource for high-tech firms, and these firms would like to adopt commitment-based HR systems in managing their knowledge workers (Lepak and Snell 2002).Since personal contacts significantly facilitate company access in Chinese societies (Easterby-Smith and Malina 1999), we accessed high-tech companies through personalcontacts and a snowballing technique. All of these companies are publicly held companies or have employees numbering over one hundred. We distributed 75 survey packages to 60 high-tech firms. Each survey package contained an immediate manager questionnaire and five knowledge worker questionnaires. A cover letter for immediate managers attached to each survey package explained the objective of the survey, assured respondents of the confidentiality of their responses, and asked them to randomly select five subordinates to complete the knowledge worker questionnaires. Thirty-two survey packages were returned for a response rate of 42.67%. Specifically,we received questionnaires from 32 immediate managers and 146 knowledge workers from 25 high-tech firms. After deleting incomplete questionnaires and records with unmatched supervisor-worker dyads, we had data from 28 immediate managers and 127 knowledge workers from 25 high-tech firms,representing effective response rates of 47 and 42 percent.Eighty-seven percent of immediate managers were male. The average age was 40 years old, and respondents had on average 11 years (SD = 7.67) of experience in a high-tech field. Twenty-six percent of them had PhD degrees, 52% had master’s degrees, 9% had bachelor’s degrees, and 13% had vocational school diplomas. Compared to immediate managers, 68 percent of knowledge workers were male. The average age of the knowledge worker was 33 years old, with 80 months of work experience. Sixty-four percent of them were engineers, and 29% were R&D professionals. Ten percent had PhD degrees,42% had master’s degrees, 34% had bachelor’s degrees,and 14% had vocational school diplomas.MeasuresCommitment-based HR SystemLepak and Snell’s (2002) twenty-item scale was adopted to measure the extent to which an organiza tion’s HR system nurtured employee involvement and maximized the organization’s return on its HR investment. The original scale was in English. It was translated into Chinese and then back-translated into English (Brislin 1980) by two Chinese bilingual academics. We then gave the English and Chinese versions of the questionnaires to yet another Chinese academic (a professor of HRM) to check whether the Chinese version was accurate. The response scale ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). These employees perform jobs that empower them to make decisions.DiscussionOur study contributes to both the human resource management and psychological contract literature in a number of ways. Research results indicated that commitment based HR systems would be significantly and positively associated with their in-role behaviors and OCBs, addingto our understanding of the relationship between HR systems and role behaviors. The results further indicated that relational psychological contracts mediate the relationship between commitment-based HR systems and role behaviors. In other words, when a firm adopts a commitment-based HR system concerning its knowledge workers, the knowledge workers might perceive that they have open-ended employment arrangements based upon mutual trust, thereby, are willing to perform higher level in-role behaviors and OCBs. This finding not only empirically supports Wright and Boswell’s (2002) contention that psychological contracts can be best viewed as the linking mechanism between HR systems and employee behaviors, but also provides a possible explanation as to how a commitment-based HR system influences knowledge workers’ role behaviors.译文：心理契约关于人力资源与行为角色的中介作用：多层次的分析摘要目的：这个研究的目的是剖析心理契约关于人力资源与行为角色的中介作用。

国内外关于胜任力模型的研究综述摘要：本论文旨在对胜任力模型的研究进行综述，并分析国内外对于胜任力模型的理解和应用。

本文首先对胜任力模型的概念进行了阐述，随后对胜任力模型的历史与发展进行了回顾，接着对国内外学者对于胜任力模型的研究及应用进行综述，分析了国内外应用场景的差异。

在探讨胜任力模型的实践应用中，本文着重讨论了胜任力模型在企业招聘、员工招募、绩效管理以及人才发展等方面的应用。

最后，本文指出了当前胜任力模型面临的挑战，并展望了胜任力模型的未来发展方向。

关键词：胜任力模型；企业招聘；员工招募；绩效管理；人才发展正文：一、胜任力模型的概念胜任力模型是指对一个职位或职能所需的胜任要素进行细致描述和明确量化，并以此为基础开展招聘、培训、绩效管理等人力资源管理活动的一种工具。

它通过对某一职位需要的各项能力与绩效标准的明确界定，以便于评估员工能力、确定岗位培训提升计划、补充人才等方面进行应用。

二、胜任力模型的历史与发展关于胜任力模型的历史和发展，起源于20世纪50年代的美国航空公司波音公司在对于职务招聘时借鉴了世界上第一套胜任力模型，该模型着眼于航空工程师人才的招募，其内容主要涉及到个人所具备的技能、专业知识、经验、教育背景等方面。

此后，胜任力模型应用范围不断扩大，并逐渐被广泛运用于企业人力资源管理的各个领域。

三、国内外胜任力模型的研究与应用在国内外学者对于胜任力模型的研究与应用中，发现各国应用胜任力模型的场景和侧重点存在明显的不同。

在国外，主要运用于人力资源管理活动的招聘和绩效管理上，员工二次职业发展和组织变革是更为普遍的场景；而在国内，尤为突出的是通过胜任力模型辅助招聘和优化用工等方面。

胜任力模型在国外企业的应用中侧重于提高员工素质水平，而在国内企业应用更加注重降低招聘成本和提高人才招募成功率。

四、胜任力模型的实践应用胜任力模型在企业人力资源管理活动中，其广泛应用涵盖了企业招聘、员工招募、绩效管理以及人才发展等方面。

The Dilemma of Performance AppraisalPeter Prowse and Julie Prowse Measuring Business Excellence，Vol。

13 Iss：4，pp。

69 — 77AbstractThis paper deals with the dilemma of managing performance using performance appraisal。

The authors will evaluate the historical development of appraisals and argue that the critical area of line management development that was been identified as a critical success factor in appraisals has been ignored in the later literature evaluating the effectiveness of performance through appraisals。

This paper willevaluatethe aims and methodsof appraisal， thedifficulties encountered in the appraisalprocess。

It also re-evaluates the lack of theoretical development in appraisaland move from he psychological approachesof analysistoamorecritical realisation ofapproaches before re-evaluating the challenge to remove subjectivity and bias in judgement of appraisal。

外文文献A Competency Model for Project Construction Team and Project Control TeamTai Sik Lee, Du-Hwan Kim, and Dong Wook LeeReceived August 12, 2010/Accepted October 19, 2010Abstract：This study focuses on developing a competency model for project construction team and project control team service, which are the essential responsibilities of construction companies, in order to provide a basic framework for manpower development including employment, education, performance measurement, and organizational ability improvement. Together, these attributes comprise the basics of human resource management and reflect the key characteristics of construction companies. This study analyzed several previous competency model studies, and derived job competency items from a questionnaire-based survey of corresponding job performers centering on various existing competency items established with respect to the characteristics of construction companies.In addition, through interviews with a specialist group, this study derived weights for setting competency levels and facilitating competency evaluation and formulated a project construction team and project control team affair competency model for construction companies. This study tested the validity of the formulated model by analyzing its correlation with the performance of actual construction projects.Key words: competency model, core competency by job, high performer competency model1. Introduction1.1 Background and ObjectivesDuring the course of many adversities, ranging from the worldwide economic depression in 1998 to the current global economic crisis caused by the recent subprime meltdown and resulting financial problems, most industries in the world desperately have searched for various ways to survive. The construction industry in Korea is no exception, and is currently faced with a number of difficult financial issues. In the present slackened market situation, because construction companies also experience decrease in revenues, it becomes essential to increase efficiency and improve profitability by decreasing costs. Consequently, the paradigm of company management has switched from growth to optimization. As is the case for many other industries, construction companies have introduced information systems and office automation in accordance with the new management paradigm, and have made efforts to improve work efficiency by redesigning work processes using BPR (Business Process Reengineering). These changes have resulted in short- term improvements in efficiency; the reduction of fixed costs such as those associated with labor, appear to improve the efficiency of company management. The efforts to reduce labor costs, however, have resulted in laying off employees, hiring temporary workers instead, reducing employee training costs by hiring only people with previous work experience, and outsourcing various business functions. Although these management optimization activities produced the expected effects of saving on fixed costs and making leaner organizations, they have generated negative side effects such as loss of core competencies, whichcomprise the intangible assets of a company.In general, the number of workers a company needs is determined by labor productivity per sale per person, and has been managed separately from various human resource management activities including education. Recently, however, with the growing importance of flow-centered human resource management that integrates the inflow, management, and outflow of human resources, it has become clear that there is a need for methods that clarify the relations among activities composing human resource development and management plans, including employee education. One such method is to utilize a competency model as a part of human resource management.The present study aimed to provide a basic framework for human resource development for construction companies. Because hiring, educating, and retaining employees are the basics of human resource management, a well-developed framework can help the construction industry to build a competency model that reflects the characteristics of the core functions of construction companies. Using this competency model, the industry could improve performance measurement and efficiency.1.2 Research Scope and MethodologyThis study developed a competency model with specific foci on project construction team and project control team affair services, rather than a general model of competency including a job classification system. Because project construction team and project control team affair services and core functions of construction companies, the competency model focusing on these functions can be more readily and commonly applicable to construction companies.•Stage 1 identified major competency factors after examining the qualities of key members of construction companies, reviewing elements of other general competency models, and conducting one-on-one interviews with top-management team members or supervisors in top-tiers.• Stage 2 conducted a survey study with people who had worked at construction companies for more than 5 years and held their current jobs for more than 3 years. The survey data provided information on the relative importance of each competency factor. Additionally, interviews were conducted with top managers and the interview data were used to assign grades to each competency factor.•Stage 3 finalized the competency model, integrating all the information gathered from the stages 1 and 2. The competency model specified core competency elements for each job or task type.• Stage 4 tested the validity of the competency model by applying the model to targeted groups and examining the extent to which competency factors were related to performance measures.2. Competency Model2.1 Definition of CompetencyAs mentioned above, Korean construction companies have faced with numerous external challenges, and consequently, have hastily made performance-oriented reforms during these times of hardship. Such reforms produced positive short-term results, but now they appear to damage long-term performance.In this regard, it has become increasingly important for companies or individuals to materialize and manage their competencies, as these are the sources of high performance. The lexical meaning of “competency” is “an ability to do a work or the degree of the ability”. In 1973, David McCelland, a psychologist at Harvard University, first defined competency specifically in the context of human resource management (Boyatiz, 1982; Dubios, 1993; Jacobs, 1989). Throughout the 1980s, many scholars in various areas of research have redefined the concept of competency. Among these definitions, core competency in many human resource management areas commonly refers to the consistently observed characteristics and inner quality of high performers’ behavior compared with those of average performers’ behavior. That is, core competency is a behavior that produces successful results through the combination of knowledge, skill, attitude and value (Lee et al., 2003).Based on similar concepts of competency established by many scholars, Sparrow in 1996 divided competency into different, but closely interconnected, categories: namely, core competency (organizational competency), management competency, and job competency (individual competency). More specifically, core competency refers to an organization’s general resources and the ability for those resources to be shared by all members of an organization. Management competency refers to individual jobs, specifically competency related to knowledge, skill and behavior that can be utilized in other companies. Finally, individual com petency is one’s competency with respect to their job performance. Among Sparrow’s categories, this study examined the individual job performance aspect of competency and focused on construction and public affair services that arespecific to construction companies and are applicable to human resource management.2.2 Definition of Competency ModelCompetency, as defined above, reflect differences in the skill sets necessary for the relevant tasks. In general, performing a given job effectively can require a number of different competencies. Accordingly, a competency model needs to specify all the competencies essential for a job or a task and lay out each competency in a readily applicable form for various human resource management activities.A competency model can take on various forms, depending on what the model is for and what stage of human resource development is in need of the model. This study developed a competency model specifically for project construction team and project control team affairs.2.3 Procedure for Building the Project Construction Team and Project Control Team Affair Competency Model Competency is composed largely of obvious qualities, such as skill, knowledge, and attitude, and hidden qualities, such as beliefs, personality, motives, value system, characteristics, and mission. In general, companies set goals for such obvious qualities because they are, by definition, relatively easy to evaluate. On the other hand, hidden qualities are hard to change or acquire, and are managed at the stage of recruitment by screening applicants. The competency model developed in this study included both external and internal competencies and covered the entire process from the stage of recruitment to the stage of operation for construction projects.In addition, the competency model included basic characteristics necessary for all models. High performer competency models need a group of high performers as a reference group, and a core competency model should be preceded by the understanding of a company’s originality. Further, process competency models need to be improved in the company’s work process, and a specific job competency model requires a job classification system.Developing a competency model also requires a competency classification system and a level definition for each classified competency. In our model, the level definition was similar to job description and used as a criterion for competency evaluation. It was necessary to determine the weight of each competency for competency evaluation, and this weight was used to evaluate an individual or a project by integrating evaluated competencies.This competency model in this study did not require the creation of a separate classification system because it was formulated for project construction team and project control team affair services, both of which are typical components of construction projects. Conducting a survey study enabled competency classification and weight calculation. Competency level definitions were based on interviews with employees with high performance records.3. Core Competencies of Construction CompaniesThe core competencies of construction companies can be divided into three main types of competencies; 1) competency relevant to construction ability evaluation, 2) competency pertaining to company evaluation, and 3) competency focusing on intangible asset evaluation. First, core competenciesrelevant to construction ability evaluation have to do with the necessity of evaluating, a construction company for its construction abilities when contracting a construction work. Due to the characteristics of the construction industry, the evaluation of construction ability is considered as objective and essential information about a company’s competencies. In general, evaluation of construction ability includes performance evaluations of previous construction works, management, and technological abilities, which are heavily influenced by the company’s performance or financial shape. That is, a company’s performance or financial shape does not represent the company’s internal competencies. Because the current study focuses mainly on internal competencies in relation to human resource management this study did not include competencies relevant to construction ability evaluation in its model.Second, the core competencies of a company’s operation get evaluated in two ways: 1) evaluation done during the period of raising funds from financial institutions or mutual aid associations, and 2) credit evaluation in order to see if the company has ability to repay its issued corporate bonds. Since evaluations of a company’s operation should be objective, many of the evaluation items are related to tangible assets, although a good number of items touch upon the company’s internal value, such as feasibility, management skills, and technological power. Thus, the current study included the measurement indexes relevant to company evaluation.Lastly, major competency items related to a company’s members and their jobs are generally evaluated based on intangible assets. The management of such intangible assets is critical to a company’s management. The intangible value of a company is generally evaluated through a Balanced Score Card (BSC), Scandia model, and Sveiby model.4. Core Competencies of Major Jobs4.1 Setting the Scope of Core Competency Factors by JobThis study derived common competency factors from general competency models, and derived competency factors for each job from the core competencies of construction companies. In addition, this study derived competency factors for each job based on interviews with high-ranking officials.This study generated a total of 183 competency items by analyzing four general competency models proposed by scholars and six competency models used by major companies. The general competency models proposed by scholars included about 20 to 35 competency items. On the other hand, most of the models used in companies only have 10 to 14 competency items. This difference may occur because general competency models reflect all possible factors, but those used in companies tend to either exclude many items due to a company’s peculiarities or restrict the number of competency factors in order to achieve a more convenient operation.Because this study used general models mostly when generating the 183 competency items, many items appeared redundant with one another. By using information obtained from interviews with a group of 10 specialists who had carried out project construction team and project control team services at companies for over 5 years, this study identified the redundantitems and removed them. Then, this study restructured the competency factors into 36 items and used information from.As shown in Table 2, this study derived the competency factors of a construction company from the job-based core competencies in construction company’s valuation models.As mentioned above, it was difficult to derive competency factors for each job because the items associated with construction ability evaluation were mostly related to performance and financial conditions. However, by using company evaluations, we were able to derive items such as the development of competent persons, change management, motivation, problem solving, and the utilization of total systems. Job competency items included intangible asset valuation, the development of competent persons, role and responsibility allotment, cost management, technology information collection management, practical application ability, QSE management, customer relation management, and the development of new customers. In this study, as one of major methods for building a competency model, we conducted additional interviews with 10 well performing employees who had over 5 years of experience with their current job.As a result, in addition to the job competency items derived from the general competency models and company competency models, we derived several new items to incorporate construction concerns such as contract management, process management, public complaint management, construction experience, image management, adaptability, presentation ability, and administrative reporting ability. Most of these items show the characteristics of the construction industry and construction projects and provide a means to improve the applicability of the competency model.4.2 Deriving Competency Factors by JobIn order to utilize the core competency and job competency factors, we divided the competencies into general competencies, special competencies, internal competencies, and external competencies.Depending on their characteristics, competencies were divided into 1) general competencies usable in construction companies’ ordinary jobs and 2) special competencies specific to project construction team and project control team affair services of construction projects. This division was expected to be highly useful in making employment or education & training plans based on a company’s competency evaluation.In addition, division of internal and external competencies was based on whether a competency was independently useful and whether it worked through interaction with the outside.Accordingly, internal competencies have a surface characteristic, and external competencies include a partial internal characteristic and are somewhat difficult to manage and develop. This division may function as a criterion for the development of the competencies of existing members and the inflow of competencies from the outside.General-internal competency, which exists commonly in jobs and has a surface characteristic, was composed of 12 detailed competencies regarding thinking ability, personality, and self management. General-external competency was composed of 10 detailed competencies in the organization development and organization management competency groups. Likewise, special competency, which reflects the peculiarities of a given job, was composed of 12 detailed competencies in the skill, general, project management competency groups and 12 detailed competencies in the customer management and communication management competency groups.5. Development and Validation of a Project Construction Team and Project Control Team AffairCompetency Model5.1 Development of a Project Construction Team and Project Control Team Affair Competency Model.This study proposed a competency model for project construction team and project control team services which can be used in selecting workers appropriate for a job and training them for the job. Competency items were derived for each job, and competency levels were established based on responsibility and role.5.2 Test of the Applicability of Project Construction Team and Project Control Team Affair Competency Model.The established competency model was tested in three ways.Among the three methods tested, this study used simultaneous construct validation to test the established competency model. In order to validate the competency model, we tested 62 people in charge of project construction team andproject control team affairs working at one of 13 construction sites at S Construction Company, which this study used as the subject company to calculate the weight of core competencies for each job.The test hypothesized that project (construction work) organization competency would be proportional to the sum of individuals’ competencies, and that organization competency would have an effect on project performance. Through the procedure in Fig. 3, the hypothesis was tested by examining the correlation between the measurements of project performance using plans/results from an organization and the competency of that organization calculated through the evaluation of the competencies of each employee.6. ConclusionsThe present study developed and tested a competency model for project construction team and project control team affair services in order to provide a basic framework for manpower development and human resource management at construction companies, including employment, education and performance measurement, and organization ability improvement. To this end, we reviewed previous competency model research and derived job competency items for construction companies by administering questionnaire to employees.Furthermore, through interviews with a group of specialists, we derived the weight of competency items and established a project construction team and project control team affair competency model for construction companies. Then, we tested the validity of this model by analyzing its correlation with the performance of actual construction projects.The results of this study are as follows:1. Competencies derived for executing project construction team were judgment, professionalism, role and responsibility allotment, cooperation with other organizations, practical application ability, construction experience, QSE management, cost management, process management, record management, public complaint management, and persuasion ability. Among these competencies, judgment, professionalism, practical application ability, construction experience, and public complaint management required a high-level of competency, which referred to competency pertaining to the top 30% of job performers.2. Competencies derived for executing project control team affair services were logical thinking, judgment, morality, cooperation with other organizations, construction experience, planning ability, cost management, contract management, and bargaining ability. Among these competencies, logical thinking, morality, cooperation with other organizations, planning ability, and cost management required a high-level of competency.3. The competency of individual employees affected the organization’s competency and, consequently, the organization’s project performance.Information about human resource management of a given company, particularly information regarding evaluations, is confidential. Because of the confidentiality issue, the present study has limitations in building and testing the competency model, surveying cases, and sampling subjects.In order to overcome these limitations, it will be necessary to form a joint effort among large-size construction companies to develop common competency models for academic and industrial use.Furthermore, in order to enhance the validity of the model proposed in this study, we need to apply the model to various construction projects and generalize the model accordingly. Empirical case studies should be conducted in order to adapt this competency model for employment, career planning, succession planning, education and training, performance evaluation and management, and reward management.中文翻译胜任力模型在项目施工和控制团队中的应用李大植，金杜焕，李董旭摘要：本研究着重于开发一个项目的施工队伍和项目控制团队的服务，这是建筑公司的重要职责。

The Development of Human Resource Management In China IntroductionWith the advent of the 21st century, Human Resource Management, as a relatively new management subject, is playing a more and more important role in today’s business activities. This report mainly discusses 3 questions about today’s human resource management. The first section discusses the changing function of human resource management in terms of 3 aspects which are staff-company relations, HR model development and HR strategies. The second section describes the exploring stage of HRM in China. System building, recruitment and motivation are the three aspects to support the opinion. The third section discusses the new challenges that HR managers in China may face. In this part, challenges from the changing business age, HR managers’ abilities to deal with uncertainty and ambiguity and solitary to collective activity are discussed.Question 1Human resource management, as the quickly developing subject, without doubt, has changed a lot in its function in many fields. This section will mainly discuss the HRM’s change and expansion in the aspect of staff-company relations, HR model development and HR strategies as the following.In the aspect of the staff-company relations, the changing functions will be discussed from 3 aspects which are power factors, employees and motivational method. First, in terms of the power factors, 10 years ago the relationship between employees and the company was regarded as ‘Labor and Enterprise’ while nowadays more companies show understanding and respect for the human spirit. For example, Google China places a piano in the hall of the company and even set a kitchen and the washing machine for their employees (Jim Westcott, 2005). Second, in terms of the employees, employees are considered as thinking and rational beings around 10 years ago. The reason why they chose this company was the satisfactory salary. But today, staffs are considered as fully evolved, completely satisfied, mature human beings. Third, in the motivational methods aspect, the change is really huge. A decade ago, companies often drove employees through basic needs such as a big bonus. While therole seems to highlight people’s social and intellectual needs.In the aspect of HR model development, some human resource management functions have expanded during the past decade. One of the new products of human resource management is the HR outsourcing which support the core HR activities and business processes associated with HR administration. Outsourcing HR functions or processes is a viable decision for businesses, particularly those whose internal HR department has reached the limit of its effectiveness; businesses that want to access new programs or services (but don't want to incur the required investment), or those that want to focus on core competencies. The advantage of HR outsourcing is obvious: Obtaining access to (internally) unavailable expertise, skills, technologies; increased flexibility; reducing costs/reduce investment. This way has achieved great success in some countries, for example, Canada. Spending on HR outsourcing in Canada, is forecast to increase by more than 13%, on average, every year between 2005 and 2009 (Jim Westcott, 2005).The majority of HR strategies have been developed over the last decade. Twenty per cent of respondents indicate that an HR strategy has been in place at their institution for less than three years, 60% report that the HR strategy was developed in the past three to seven years and 20% indicate that the strategy is ten or more years old. These data reinforce the notion that HR management has taken on a much more strategic role within the past decade. The HR strategy in recruitment and retention can be discussed in long-term goals as well as shorter-term operational procedures. In terms of recruitment and retention some institutions are primarily concerned with short-term objectives. For example, one Canadian respondent stated that their HR strategy involves ‘an annual recruitment and retention plan that g overns academic staff hiring and retention for the following academic year’ (Ronold G Ehrenbdeg, 2005). Other responses highlight long-term objectives and broader issues relating to staff development and performance as well as policy and strategic planning for future institutional growth. For example, one Australian institution states that their HR strategy is concerned with ‘workforce planning, age profiling, attraction and retention issues, and reengineering the recruitment process’. The general focus of this strategyis on strategic planning for successive generations.Question 2With China's entering the WTO, modern enterprise management concept has been gradually accepted by Chinese enterprises and, human resources management has been developed and promoted in the majority of enterprises. However, as a management skill that gets access to China less than 30 years and faced with the cultural conflict, HRM in China still stays in the exploring stage.In the aspect of system building, human resources management system in China is imperfect still. According to the recent report of HR in China, less than forty percent of the enterprises have established the business development strategy combining with human resources management system. Furthermore, only 12.9% of them can really implement this strategy. What is more, employees’ career development planning, staff representation system, and the staff Rationalized suggestion are the 3 strategies that are not completed enough. Only 9% of the researched enterprise s establish and implement the employees’ career development planning (Zhao Yin, 2007).In terms of the recruitment, the forms of recruitment in Chinese enterprises are not diversified enough. Although the modern enterprises can recruit through more and more channels such as networks, an executive search firm, job fairs, campus recruitment, advertising media and so many ways that can provide companies with human resources information, the majority of the companies still choose form as job fairs. However, ac cording to the ‘2007 Human Resource Report’, the percentage of the surveyed companies which have been tried to recruit through network was 35%, which was 12% higher than that of the year 2006. Secondly, the technologies during the recruitment that the companies use are still in a growing stage. Only half of the enterprises plan to use professional test tool to find suitable staff. Ways like knowledge test, psychological test and presentation are introduced in China recently and are welcomed.The motivation in China is at a developing stage. Most Chinese companies have motivation strategies. Quite a few of them prefer to choose short-term and directmotivating strategies like paying. At present, China has 70% of the enterprises in accordance with different types of personnel to set different pay scales (Zhao Yin, 2007). Paying is a common kind of economic motivation. Paying incentives for executives directly show in their steady growth of income - wages, which is very intuitive. However, with the raise of exe cutives’ social status and overall ability, material and money are no longer the key point of motivation. Research from China Database, one of the most authority databases, show that 19.6% of the surveyed enterprises use virtual equity of the company as the long-term motivation methods and 18.9% of them use the form of giving share options as the long-term motivation, while 78.2% of the enterprises have not implemented the long-term motivation. As one of the ways to motivate staff, long-term also includes creating a platform for employees which may attract employees since they can exert their abilities fully. Question 3As the functions of human resource have changed since the 21st century, challenges are coming to the human resource managers in China. For China is still in the exploring stage mentioned in question 2, the challenges should be more than those in developed human resource management countries. In the information era, the economic era and the knowledge, the challenges for Chinese HRM managers are mainly from these three fields.The first challenges for HRM is the changing role of organizations from the Industrial Age to the Information Age. Work performed in factories by machines is being replaced by work in offices or at computer terminals. And instead of working with things, people increasingly work with ideas and concepts. Information and knowledge have replaced manufacturing as the source of most new jobs. Thus, taking charge of thousands of workers in a factory is not the typical functions of modern human resource managers. Although the numbers of employees may decrease, but the extent of difficulty will not decrease since employees are more knowledgeable and informative.Like the popular saying nowadays ’The only thing that doesn’t change is change’, with the development of the technologies, tools that human being use speed up thepace of people’s life. Thus the second challenge which may face the human resource manager is the abilities to deal with uncertainty and ambiguity. Static, permanent organizations designed for a stable and predictable world are giving way to flexible, adaptive organizations more suited for a new world of change and transformation. Emphasis on permanence, tradition and the past is giving way to creativity and innovation in the search for new solutions, new processes, and new products and services. Maintaining the status is less important than a vision of the future and the organization's destiny. We are used to dealing with certainty and predictability. We need to become accustomed to dealing with uncertainty and ambiguity.The next challenges will be the ability of HR managers to adapt from muscular to mental work (Alexandria, 1997). Repetitive physical labor that doesn't add value is increasingly being replaced by mental creativity. Routine and monotony are giving way to innovation and a break with tradition. In the past, people were considered to be merely workers, an old concept that associated people with things. Now people are considered purveyors of activities and knowledge whose most important contributions are their intelligence and individual talents. We are used to dealing with physical, repetitive manual labor; we need to become accustomed to dealing with mental, creative, and innovative work.What is more, another problem that may challenge HR managers in China is to organize employee to finish projects from solitary to collective activity (FangCai, 2005). With the rising difficulty of complex and technology, it is almost impossible for only one person to finish a project. Thus teamwork is supplanting individual activity. The old emphasis on individual efficiency (on which the total efficiency of the organization depended) is being replaced by group synergy. It's a matter of multiplying efforts, rather than simply adding them. We are used to individualized, isolated work; we need to change to high-performance teamwork. Thus the function of human resource managers is to offer the company the suitable person and coordinate the relationship among the team, especially in China, a country that highlights relationship and harmony very much.ConclusionThis article first analyses the changed functions of human resource management nowadays. In terms of the staff-company relations, a trend of closer and humane relationship between staff and companies emerges. The model of HR outsourcing is showing its strong competitiveness and may become one of the main way that HR management to use. Secondly, this article states that China today still stays in the exploring stage of human resource management. The uncompleted HRM system building, the single form of recruitment, the growing interview technologies and the lack of long- term motivation in Chinese enterprises, all these facts shows that China has a long way to go in the development of HRM. Thirdly, Challenges for HRM managers in China are tough and numerous. Changes from the Industrial Age to the Information Age, stability to change, muscular to mental work lead the challenges for Chinese HRM managers. To sum up, it is a long way to go for the development of human resource management in China.人力资源管理在中国的发展导言随着二十一世纪的到来，人力资源管理作为一个相对较新的管理问题，扮演了一个越来越重要的作用在当今的商业中。

外文文献：Confounded by Competencies? An Evaluation of the Evolution and Use of CompetencyModelsLeanne H. MarkusPerformance Group International Ltd., AucklandHelena D. Cooper-ThomasDepartment of Psychology, University of AucklandKeith N. AllpressCentranum Ltd., AucklandOver the last ten years there has been a world-wide expansion in the use of competency models as a major underpinning of Human Resources (HR) strategy. The use of the competency approach is promoted by consultants and software vendors on the basis that this will improve both individual job performance and organizational effectiveness. Yet there is a substantial, and largely unquestioned, gap between the many claims and the actual benefits measurably delivered by competency initiatives. Industrial and Organizational (I/O) Psychologists are often involved in developing and implementing competency models, yet there is little research validating the approach. As scientist-practitioners, we should be concerned about this.This article will review the theoretical perspectives that have informed the competency movement, review our experience of the use of competency models in New Zealand, and critically examine the assumptions that underpin their use. The research that exists is reviewed with particular reference to the outcome measures used to substantiate the value of competency models. Finally we identify various research areas and questions that should clearly be investigated by I/O psychologists if they are to be involved in the promotion, development and implementation of competency models in an organizational setting.What is a competency? Three main approachesThe numerous published definitions can be grouped into three distinct approaches: educational standards, behavioral repertoires, and organizational competencies.1. The Educational Approach (The development of skills, achievement of standards, award of credentials)The modem competency movement originated from the educational discipline. In the US'competencies' were based on functional role analysis and described either role outcomes, or knowledge, skills and attitudes, or both, required for role performance, and assessed by a criterion, usually a behavioural standard. In the UK, industry bodies especially those requiring trades and technical skills, developed standards of occupational competence based on expected work outcomes (Fletcher, 1992). A 'competence' was defined narrowly as an action, behaviour or outcome to be demonstrated, or a minimum standard, with different levels of mastery defined by different statements (Bourke et al., 1975, Elam, 1971).2. The Psychological Approach- (Behavioural repertoires)In 1973 David McClelland, working in the educational field in the US, wrote a paper suggesting that personal competencies, which he defined as motives and personality traits, are a better means of predicting occupational success than traditional psychometrics such as IQ and aptitude tests.McClelland's work was to be enormously influential. Of particular interest was the idea that the factors or inputs associated with individual success could be identified, and then taught to others. McClelland and Boyatzis (1980) developed a methodology for identifying competencies, based on the skilled behavioural repertoires of recognised star performers within particular organisations. They defined competencies as "a generic body of knowledge, motives, traits, self images and social roles and skills that are causally related to superior or effective performance in the job." (p.369, italics added).3. The Business Approach (Organisational competencies for competitive advantage)The concept of competencies was taken up by business strategists in the late 1980s. Hamel and Prahalad (1989) advanced the idea of "Core Competencies" and "Capabilities". Their definition of core competencies as the "collective learning" of the organization has been much cited, and contributes to the current interest in "competencies" (Shipmann et al., 2000). Thus Sparrow (1995) suggests that practitioners should aim at defining "higher level" future oriented organisational competencies.What are the potential benefits of the Competency approach?Performance benefits are promised by the various definitions which include the causal or instrumental relationship of competencies and job performance (Boyatzis 1982) and competencies and organisational performance. (Organ, 1988; Hamel & Prahalad, 1989).In addition, Sparrow (1995) has observed that the competency literature includes a hugerange of claimed benefits specific to HR processes in organisations. In summary, these are: • improved recruitment and selection practices through a focus on required competencies;• improved individual, organisational and career development programmes;• improved performance management processes due to improved assessment; and lastly • improved communication on strategic and HR issues through a common language.What is a competency model?Organizations adopting a competency approach must create or utilize a competency model, at minimum a simple list or catalogue, specifying desirable competencies. The structure of this model must support the use of competencies across the selected HR functions.Models designed for selection and educational purposes usually describe technical competencies in terms of their antecedent skills and knowledge, at a detailed level. Those designed to promulgate behavioural repertoires and citizenship behaviours or organizational competencies typically describe competencies at a much higher level. Regardless of approach, a competency model should provide an operational definition for each competency and subcompetency, together with measurable or observable performance indicators or standards against which to evaluate individuals.How do competencies link to other constructs used in I/O Psychology?As pointed out by Shippmann et al. (2000) competency modelling is a huge trend in HR. While job analysis focuses mainly at the individual level, examining the specific knowledge, skills, abilities and other attributes required for individual job performance, much competency modelling represents an attempt to identify dimensions of performance applicable to many different roles and situations. Relevant to this is the extensive literature in I/O psychology representing many decades of research into factors associated with both job performance and organizational effectiveness.O’Reilly and Chatman (1986) suggested that two distinct variables relate to job performance; firstly the in-role behaviours required in the job, and secondly prosocial behaviours which are not specifically prescribed in a particular role. Brief and Motowidio (1986) identified 13 aspects of prosocial organisational behaviour (POB) defined as behaviours aimed at promoting the welfare of other individuals or groups within the organisation. Prosocial behaviour is hypothesised to improve communications, job and customer satisfaction, and thereforeorganizational effectiveness. Aspects of both in-role and prosocial behaviours may be included within competency models. Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) is a similar construct which has spawned a considerable literature. Organ (1988) defined OCBs as individual behaviours, beyond that required in the role or job description, which, in the aggregate, contribute to organizational effectiveness.Similar to O’ Reilly and Chatman's model (1986), Motowidio et al. (1997) have identified two elements of overall job performance; task performance, and contextual performance. The latter is essentially the socialisation, application and effort required to facilitate task performance, and is equivalent to OCB (Organ, 1997). Motowidio et al. suggest that the activities involved in task performance are most likely to vary between roles, while those involved in contextual performance are often similar. Further, they propose that the antecedents or predictors of task performance are more likely to involve cognitive ability, while personality is more likely to affect contextual performance. Task performance includes the application of technical and task knowledge, and task habits, defined as characteristic responses to task situations (Borman et al 2001). Contextual performance includes behaviours and traits such as persistence and effort, volunteering, helping and cooperation, loyalty, policy and procedural compliance, endorsement and promotion of organisational objectives, initiative and self development (Borman & Motowidio 1997). The many generic competency models and catalogues emphasise aspects of contextual rather than task performance.Personality has also been related to job performance. The Five Factor Model of Personality includes a multidimensional factor of Conscientiousness, which describes aspects of effort and application (Anastasi 1997). This factor has been found to correlate with contextual performance, particularly in the aspect of Job-Task Conscientiousness, with overall performance across a wide range of jobs, (Tett and Burnett 2003), and with career advancement (Viswesvaran & Ones 2000). This raises the question of whether investment in extensive competency models, addressing primarily contextual performance, provides any incremental utility.The literature on organizational commitment distinguishes between three types of commitment, attitudinal commitment; belief in the organisation, instrumental commitment, given on the basis of perceived costs and benefits, and normative commitment, the result of socialisation procedures. (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990). This is relevant to the use of competency models to promote and reward behaviours which exemplify desired organisational values and core competencies.Perceived organizational support (POS) is the extent to which employees believe that they are valued by the organisation. It is related to organisational commitment, and job performance. Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002) found fairness to be the most important factor in POS, followed by supervisor support. Colquitt et al (2001) summarise the elements of organisational justice as consistency of treatment between individuals and over time, the absence of bias, the accuracy of information, conformance to current ethical standards, a voice for affected individuals and groups, and a mechanism to review and correct flawed decisions. It is therefore important that competency models used for assessment and performance appraisal purposes are perceived by employees as fair.How should competency models be implemented?In an attempt to quantify the quality of competency models, Shippman et al. (2000) proposed a 10 point level of rigor scale in establishing competency taxonomies from job or competency analysis. This covered effective data collection methods, competency descriptor development procedures and quality requirements, links to business strategy, validation procedures, and documentation.Attempts at model definition often canvas ideas from the wider organisation in order to create buy in. Since there are potentially many ways of defining and phrasing competencies, this can lead to a long drawn out costly process, with results subject to the Abilene effect - you get what no-one disagreed with, not necessarily the best definitions.The alternative, buying an off-the-shelf system, is likely to be cheaper up front, but may require ongoing effort from users to adapt it to fit their situation. Either way, once implemented, the competency assessment process carries a significant administrative burden, and organisations need to be assured that such investments are worthwhile.Yet there are major validity issues with the use of competency models, and as yet little evidence to support their claimed benefits.Issues with the Competency approach1. Construct validity- What is a competency- can a competency be operationalised so that it can be observed and measured?The aim of construct validity is to assess whether a measure of an individual trait or characteristic actually measures what it is meant to. As with many psychological constructs,there is no real world aspect of competencies (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955). Establishing construct validity therefore requires finding a suitable proxy criterion of the construct (Ghiselli, Campbell, & Zedeck, 1981). This is clearly a problem for competencies, with a number of studies documenting disagreement between managers, staff and even experts asked to categorise operational definitions of competencies, usually example behaviours (American Management Association, 2003; Horton et al., 2002). This also illustrates the difficulty in using competency models to communicate, promote and reward organisational norms.1a. Content and Face validity - are competencies credible in organisations?A major problem with the use of competency models is the lack of agreement on what is meant by the term 'competency'. Sparrow (1995) has suggested that the interchangeable use of the various competency approaches encourages organisations to "build and integrate HRM systems on a bed of shifting sand" (p. 168).So what should competency models comprise - that is, how can we be sure of their content and face validity? Content validity means that the descriptors of competencies are a representative sample of the universe of interest. Face validity means that the competencies themselves feel accurate and appropriate, as judged by their users. For any particular competency model, content and face validity are essentially subjective judgements. All those to whose roles they are applied are in a position to judge whether the competencies match their role. Thus content and face validity issues may arise despite the use of subject matter experts and regardless of how systematic information gathering methods may be.Hayes et al. (2000) argue that it may be impossible to break down a competency into an exhaustive list of elements. This suggests that competency models will always be incomplete. They cite examples of studies where managers have not been able to describe all the competencies required for a role. Certainly the few behavioural statements in most generic competency models could not be regarded as exhaustive.Associated with this is the difficulty in arriving at a suitable structure for a competency model. In defining competencies, Stuart (1983) highlights the trade off between universality and specificity, the bandwidth – fidelity problem, and between complexity and simplicity (see Table 1). Universal or generic competencies are those which are applicable across roles and organisations, whereas specific competencies are those particular to roles and organisations. Universal or generic competencies run the risk of being so broadly defined that they are not perceived by individuals as relevant. Competencies can be defined simply, as a headline plus afew sample behaviours, or they can be designed to cater for multiple levels of detail and mastery. While complex models permit more accurate communication of requirements, and evaluation, they can become an administrative burden.In practice, the universal or generic approach is the most commonly adopted. As an example Tett et al. (2000) attempted to identify and validate a "hyper dimensional taxonomy of managerial competence". The many proprietary generic competency catalogues, also corresponding to Stuart's (1983) universal competencies, typically include management and OCB factors. Many of these competencies are so broadly defined that they subsume a mix of personality factors, motivation and cognitive abilities (Bartram, 2004). In a recent international survey, of the 28% of larger firms which had a competency catalogue, almost half were using proprietary software with generic competency libraries (Metagroup, 2004). Yet the one size fits all approach of generic competencies is unlikely to be appropriate for organisations working with different settings, different products and different customers (Chiabaru, 2000). As Stuart (1983) suggested, the more simple and the more universal the competency model, the less the perceived relevance at the individual level.1b. Criterion validity – Can competencies be accurately measured?An associated issue is that many competencies, especially those related to contextual performance, are defined in very broad terms, and with few performance indicators. In these cases it is unlikely that accurate evaluation is possible. This has implications for perceptions of organizational justice (Colquitt et al 2001), and perceived organisational support (Rhoades & Eisemberger 2002) which impact employee commitment to the organisation.Apart from the inadequacy of measurement criteria, competencies are usually evaluated using self and supervisor ratings, and sometimes by peers as well. Thus, the assessment of competencies is likely to suffer from all the same reliability problems, such as rater bias, that the extensive literature records for performance appraisal in general (Fletcher, 2001).Yet accurate measurement of competencies is a key issue, especially when evaluations are used in pay for performance schemes. A major pre-occupation of organisations is to accurately discriminate between different levels of success in order to ensure that "top talent" feels valued and is rewarded appropriately. For example, Hunter et al. (1990) found that in complex roles such as professional services, individual output can vary by a factor as much as 12 to 1 between best and worst performers.Table 1. An illustration of competency modelling options using Stuart's (1983) framework2. V alidation of the competency modelA second major issue is the way that organisations have implemented competency models; that is adoption without validation (Shippman et al., 2000). Validation is important because competencies describe normative behaviours, behaviours the organization wishes to promote and develop to enhance organizational effectiveness.3. Predictive validity –do improved competencies predict improved individual Job performance and/or improved organisational performance?The third and major issue is the lack of evidence for benefits that result from adopting a competency approach. The underlying assumption of all competency initiatives is that individual skill development, exemplified by particular behaviours, will lead to improved job performanceand, in turn, organisational performance. Barrett and Depinet's (1991) review of the research into competency measurement provided little empirical support for McClelland's (1980) claim that competencies are better predictors of job performance than traditional psychometric tests of mental ability.Later Laber and O'Connor (2000) highlighted the lack of empirical research into the effectiveness of competency models. Our search of the literature reveals only a handful of studies investigating the link between competencies and objective job performance, leaving the situation largely unchanged four years later.One of the many criticisms of the competency movement is the implicit confusion of competency and job performance. We suggest that this confusion has arisen through the language associated with the competency movement; the confusion of behaviours, knowledge and personality traits which are inputs to the job, with results or outcomes, objective job performance. Thus competencies are assessed by "performance" of behaviours deemed to be criteria of competence/competency. Illustrating this confusion, Campbell (cited in Bartram, 2004, p.5) states "Performance is behavior. It is something that people do and is reflected in the actions that people take... Performance is not the consequence(s) or result(s) of action; it is the action itself (see also Hackett, 2002).This confusion of terminology has created an inherent circularity in the use of competency models. Competencies are identified using a variety of information gathering methods, behavioural criteria are defined, and then in the absence of objective measures of job outputs or performance, the subjective evaluation of the occurrence of these behaviours is assumed to equate to (job) performance and validate the competency construct itself. As an illustration, Mayer (2003) reports on a study examining whether health workforce competencies are predictive of essential service performance. He measured the relationship of self-assessed core competency levels and self-assessed service performance, defined as frequency of performance of public health Job tasks, at a US metropolitan health department. He found that competency level had only a very modest association with what are essentially service performance inputs.Hunter and Schmidt (1996) point out that there is little correlation between OCBs and objective output-based measures of individual job performance. However when supervisors estimate job performance, there is a high correlation between ratings of OCBs and their subjective ratings of overall job performance. They suggest this is because supervisors tolerate poor task performance in people with high levels of OCBs. Thus any association of genericcompetencies with job performance may be due to the weighting given by supervisors to OCBs (Johnson, 2001).外文文献译文：对于胜任力感到迷惑？一份胜任力模型的进化和应用评估琳恩H.马库斯海伦娜 D.库珀-托马斯凯斯N.奥普瑞斯在最近的十年间，作为人力资源策略的主要基础的胜任力模型的应用正在世界范围上扩张。