Chapter 1--Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1. What is linguistics? 什么是语言学?1.1 definition 定义Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学是对语言进行科学研究的学科。

Languages in general 针对所有语言而言A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言进行科学地研究最根本的是要对语言材料进行系统的调查研究,并在语言结构的一般理论指导下进行。

The linguist has to do first is to study language facts, i.e. to see how language is actually used; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure.语言学家首先必须研究语言材料,即要观察一般情况下语言的使用方法,继而对语言的结构具体地提出一些假设。

A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.一套语言学理论是说明语言的本质内容以及这些语言是如何发挥作用的。

1.2 The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.把语言学作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。

Chapter One: Introduction1. Linguistics and English linguistics1) As the name suggests, linguistics is the study of language in general and of particular languages, their structure, grammar, history, culture, and so on.2) According to John Lyons（约翰·莱昂斯），linguistics is divided into types: general linguistics（普通语言学）and descriptive linguistics (描述语言学).A. Differences:i. General linguistics deals with language in general, or the whole human language. Descriptive linguistics studies particular languages.ii. General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of human language in general. Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish models that describe the rules of particular languages like Chinese, German, English, etc.B. Relationship:They explicitly or implic itly depend on each other.i. On the one hand, general linguistics provides descriptive linguistics with a general framework in which a particular language can be analyzed and described.ii. On the other hand, the descriptions of particular languages, in turn, supply empirical evidence which may confirm or refute the model(s) put forward by general linguists. Thus, general linguistics and descriptive linguistics are complementary to each other.3) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics. It deals with a particular language --- English, for the purpose of constructing a model to represent the unconscious linguistic knowledge possessed by a fluent English speaker.Actually the study of any particular language is a kind of descriptive linguistics.2. The nature of language(s)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, which is creative, double-structured and changeable.1) Language is a system.i. Every language consists of a set of rules, including phonological rules, morphological rules, syntactic rules, semantic rules, grammatical rules, and so on. These rules underlie people's actual speech or writing.ii. In de Saussure's（索绪尔）term, the system of language is called langue（语言体系）and the speaker's speech is called parole (言语).iii. According to Chomsky（乔姆斯基）, competence（语言知识）is "the speaker-hearer's knowledge of his language"，while performance（言语行为）is "the actual use of language in concrete situations".iv. Langue or competence is abstract and not directly observed, while parole or performance is concrete and directly observable. It has to take in a definite time and place, and in a particular situation.2) Language is symbolic.i. What is a symbol? How many parts does a symbol consist of?A symbol is essentially made up of two parts: a concrete object or form, and the meaning or the idea that it conveys.ii. There are a few words which cannot be classified as symbols such as the, a, an, etc.3) Language is a system of vocal symbols.i. Two types: visual symbols, auditory symbolsii. Not all sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols. For example, sneezes, coughs and so on usually do not have symbolic value.iii. Language is primarily speech, and not the written form. Three reasons: A. Biolog ically speaking, children begin to learn to speak much earlier than to learn to read and write. B. Functionally speaking, the spoken form is used more frequently than the written form in our daily life. C. Historically speaking, all human languages were spoken before they were written and there are still many languages in the world today which have not been written down.4) Language is arbitrary.i. The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is arbitrary.ii. By saying language is arbitrary, we mean that we cannot give a reason why a certain linguistic form should represent a certain meaning and why a certain meaning should be represented by a certain form.iii. It does not imply that any individual speaker has the freedom to determine the pronunciation of a word.5) Language is creative.i. Every language contains an infinite number of sentences, which, however, are generated by a small set of rules and a finite set of words.ii. The length of a sentence has no limit in theory.6) Language is double-structured.Two levels: grammatically --- meaningful and sound --- meaningless7) Language is changeable.Language has changes in three systems: sound system, lexical system and grammatical system.3. Scientific method3.0 Definition: Generally speaking, a scientific method is the procedure adopted by scientists in conducting their investigation and establishing their conclusion.3.1 Scientific method in generalFour stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions3.2 Scientific method in linguisticsFour stages: gather data, construct a tentative rule, examine the tentative rule, finalize the ruleAn important principle --- objectivity3.2.1 ObjectivityThree common linguistic biasesA. Some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced.B. Only the standard variety is the pure form of a language.C. Change is not natural for living languages and such a change is a sign of corruption and decay.3.2.2 Sources of dataA. Collecting data is the initial work for any linguistic description.B. If the linguist describes a language that he does not know himself, he may find a suitable native speaker of that language as his informant（（为语言学调查）提供资料的本地人），who is usually a bilingual.3.2.3 Rules constructionA. The essential task of linguistic description is to construct rules which may account for a native speaker's implicit knowledge about the language.B. How does a linguist construct a rule?Step 1: the linguist starts with collecting data.Step 2: based on the data collected, he may construct a very simple rule as a tentative version.Step 3: then he examines the tentative rule against further data. If the additional data do not agree with it, he has to modify it.Step 4: he keeps on testing the rule and, accordingly, revising the rule until the rule can account for all the relevant data collected.Attention: very likely, the data gathered are not complete. Thus, the rule formed is open to further modifications.4. The goal of linguistics4.0 Definition: the goal of linguistics is to establish a model of a native speaker's competence.4.1 Modeli. There are two kinds of models:A. a physical or literal model --- it can be used to investigate the function and construction of the real object.B. a conceptual or theoretical model --- it can be used to examine something unobservable such as the nature of economy.Which type does a model of the competence of a native speaker belong to? --- The latter.ii. Two features of an adequate model of competence: explicitness（明确性）and generativeness（生成性）A. By saying a model is explicit, we mean that the rules of the language the model contains are clearly defined.B. By saying a model is generative, we mean that we can use a finite set of rules to generate an infinite number of sentences.4.2 CompetenceA native speaker has four types of linguistic knowledge: phonological knowledge（音位知识）, morphological knowledge（词法知识）, syntactic knowledge（句法知识）and semantic knowledge（语义知识）i. Phonological knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about the sounds and sound patterns of his language.ii. Morphological knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about how a word is formed.iii. Syntactic knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.iv. Semantic knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about the meaning of language.5. Sub-branches of linguistics1) Phonetics（语音学）is the study of speech sounds of all human languages. It deals with questions like how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived, how English sounds are classified and described.2) Phonology （音系学）is the science that deals with the sound system of a language.3) Morphology（词法、形态学）deals with word formation and the internal structure of words.4) Syntax（句法）is concerned with how words are combined to form phrases and how phrases are combined by rules to form sentences.5) Semantics（语义学）is the study of the meaning of words and sentences6. Saussure: The Father of Modern Linguistics1) When did modern linguistics start? --- At the beginning of the 20th century.2) What are the most influential schools of modern linguistics? --- Structural linguistics（结构语言学）and Transformational-generative Grammar (TG Grammar)（转换生成语法）3) Who is commonly acknowledged as the father of modern linguistics? --- Ferdinand de Saussure4) Why is he regarded as the founder of modern linguistics?Answer:1。

怎样了解自己英语作文范文Chapter 1: Introduction (200 words)The purpose of this paper is to explore strategies for better understanding and assessing one's own English composition writings. Writing in a second language can often be challenging, and it is crucial for language learners to develop a methodical approach to self-assessment. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive framework for evaluating and analyzing one's own English composition writings, enabling learners to identify their strengths and weaknesses, and ultimately improve their writing skills. The following chapters will delve into various techniques and strategies to achieve this goal.Chapter 2: Pre-Writing Stage (250 words)Before starting any writing activity, it is essential to engage in pre-writing activities that facilitate brainstorming and organization. One helpful technique is creating a mind map, which involves jotting down ideas, themes, and relevant vocabulary to develop a coherent structure for the composition. Another useful strategy is to create an outline or a rough draft, which helps in organizing thoughts and ensuring a logical flow of ideas. By extensively pre-writing, individuals can set a clear direction for their composition and reduce the chances of getting stuck or losing track during the writing process.Chapter 3: Writing Stage (300 words)During the actual writing stage, learners should focus on building a strong foundation for their compositions. They should pay attention to grammar, vocabulary usage, sentence structure, and paragraph development. Firstly, proofreading and revising areparamount to identifying and rectifying errors. One should also be attentive to the appropriate use of punctuation and capitalization, which adds clarity and coherence to the composition. Additionally, incorporating rich and varied vocabulary is vital for creating well-rounded compositions. Utilizing transition words and phrases can enhance the coherence and cohesion of the writing, allowing the readers to follow the writer's train of thought. Lastly, sentence structure, namely employing a mix of simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences, adds depth and variety to the writing.Chapter 4: Post-Writing Stage (250 words)The final chapter focuses on the post-writing stage, which involves critically analyzing and evaluating one's own composition. Firstly, individuals need to assess the overall organization and coherence of the piece. Is the main argument clearly presented? Are the supporting points well-developed and properly linked? Additionally, the paper suggests utilizing tools such as computer grammar checkers and online language learning platforms to identify grammatical and vocabulary errors and seek suggestions for improvements. Peer review can also be valuable, as it provides an external perspective and constructive feedback. Lastly, reflecting on the writing process as a whole can help identify areas of strength and weakness and guide further improvement.In conclusion, this study aimed to provide learners with strategies to better understand their own English composition writings. By engaging in pre-writing activities, focusing on essential aspects during the writing stage, and critically assessing their compositions in the post-writing stage, learners can gain valuable insights intotheir writing abilities and consequently enhance their written communication skills in English.Chapter 5: Strategies for Creating Engaging Introductions (300 words)In this chapter, we will explore strategies for creating engaging introductions to captivate readers from the beginning. The introduction sets the tone for the entire composition and should grab the reader's attention. One effective technique is to begin with a compelling anecdote or a provocative statement that sparks curiosity. For example, if writing an essay on the effects of climate change, one could start with a personal story about witnessing the devastating impact of a natural disaster caused by climate change. Another way to engage readers is by asking a thought-provoking question that stimulates their thinking and encourages them to continue reading to find the answers.Additionally, providing relevant background information or context can help the reader understand the significance of the topic. This can be achieved by including relevant statistics, historical facts, or expert opinions. However, it is crucial to ensure that the information provided is concise and does not overwhelm the reader.Furthermore, incorporating a clear thesis statement at the end of the introduction is essential. This enables the reader to understand the writer's main argument or objective and sets the stage for the rest of the composition. The thesis statement should be specific, concise, and assertive, clearly expressing the writer's stance on the topic.Chapter 6: Techniques for Developing Coherent Body Paragraphs (350 words)In this chapter, we will discuss techniques for developing coherent body paragraphs that effectively support the main argument. Each body paragraph should focus on a single main idea and contain supporting evidence or examples. An effective technique is to start each paragraph with a topic sentence that introduces the main idea of the paragraph. This topic sentence acts as a roadmap for the reader, guiding them through the writer's thought process.To develop a coherent body paragraph, it is important to provide sufficient evidence or examples to support the main idea. This can be done through the use of relevant facts, statistics, expert opinions, or personal anecdotes. It is vital to ensure that the evidence provided is credible and properly cited.Moreover, using transitions within and between paragraphs adds coherence and facilitates the flow of ideas. Transitions such as "furthermore," "however," and "on the other hand" help connect ideas and create a smooth progression of thoughts. This makes the composition more readable and helps the reader understand the writer's argument more easily.Chapter 7: Strategies for Creating Effective Conclusions (250 words)The final chapter focuses on strategies for creating effective conclusions that leave a lasting impression on the reader. The conclusion should summarize the main points discussed in the composition and restate the thesis statement. However, it is important to not simply repeat what has already been said.One effective technique is to end with a call to action or a thought-provoking statement that leaves the reader thinking beyond the composition. For example, if writing an essay on the importance of recycling, the conclusion could end with a call to action urging readers to start implementing recycling practices in their daily lives.Additionally, the conclusion should provide a sense of closure by bringing the composition to a logical and satisfying end. This can be done by synthesizing the main points discussed and reinforcing the significance of the topic. It is important to avoid introducing new ideas in the conclusion, as this may confuse or distract the reader.In conclusion, by employing strategies for creating engaging introductions, developing coherent body paragraphs, and crafting effective conclusions, learners can enhance the overall quality and impact of their compositions. These techniques, combined withpre-writing activities, diligent writing practices, and thoughtfulself-assessment, can empower learners to continually improve their English composition skills.。

Chapter One Introduction“炎黄子孙”Chinese descent,“四大发明”the four great inventions (of ancient China);“三十六计, 走为上计”the best thing to do now is to quit ;“苛政猛于虎” A bad government is more fearful than a tiger.“to meet one’s Waterloo”遭遇失败as poor as a church mouse 一贫如洗，穷到极点“临时抱佛脚”make effort at the last moment/ last-minute efforts抽象词具体化异化译法cowboy牛仔Trojan horse特洛伊木马(源于希腊神话《木马屠城记》)golden age黄金时代soap opera肥皂剧(通常指一出连续很长时间的、虚构的电视剧节目，每周安排为多集连续播出，因此又称系列电视连续剧)dark horse黑马（出人意外获胜的赛马或参赛人）；（美）“黑马”候选人（常因各方妥协而意外获得提名或当选）hot dog热狗sour grape酸葡萄（形容妒忌而贬低自己得不到的东西）honeymoon蜜月Pandora’s box潘朵拉的盒子forbidden fruit禁果bottleneck瓶颈ivory tower象牙塔double-edged sword双刃剑（指对双方皆不利的局面，或敌我不分的计谋）；armed to the teeth武装到牙齿crocodile tears鳄鱼眼泪(利用眼眶中专门处理盐分的器官功能，把多余的盐分浓缩起来，借道眼睛，像泪珠似的流出来)walls have ears隔墙有耳new wine in old bottles旧瓶装新酒铁饭碗the iron rice-bowl (铁饭碗是名词，意指长期安稳而没有失业风险的工作，因为它的永久性和稳定性，使工作本身如铁一般的坚硬，所以便有铁饭碗这一称号。

Chapter 1 - I ntroductionEcho sounding is a technique for measuring water depths by transmitting acoustic pulses from the ocean surface and listening for their reflection (or echo) from the sea floor. This technique has been used since the early twentieth century to provide the vital depth input to charts that now map most of the world’s water-covered areas. These charts have permitted ships to navigate safely through the world’s oceans. In addition, information derived from echo sounding has aided in laying trans-oceanic telephone cables, exploring and drilling for off-shore oil, locating important underwater mineral deposits, and improving our understanding of the Earth’s geological processes. Until the early 1960s most depth sounding used single-beam echo sounders. These devices make a single depth measurement with each acoustic pulse (or ping) and include both wide and narrow beam systems. Relatively inexpensive wide-beam “unstabilized” sounders detect echoes within a large solid angle under a vessel and are useful for finding potential hazards to safe navigation. However, these devices are unable to provide much detailed information about the sea bottom. On the other hand, more expensive narrow-beam “stabilized” sounders are capable of providing high spatial resolution with the small solid angle encompassed by their beam, but can cover only a limited survey area with each ping. Neither system provides a method for creating detailed maps of the sea floor that minimizes ship time and is thus cost-effective. The unstabilized systems lack the necessary spatial resolution, while the stabilized systems map too little area with each ping.In 1964, SeaBeam Instruments—at the time the Harris Anti-Submarine Warfare Division of General Instrument Corporation—patented a technique for multiple narrow-beam depth sounding. The first such systems to use this technique were built by SeaBeam for the US Navy and were known as Sonar Array Sounding Systems (SASS). SASS employed two separate sonar arrays oriented orthogonal to one another—one for transmitting and one for receiving—an arrangement called a Mills Cross Array. The arrays and the associated analog electronics provided 90 1°-wide unstabilized beams. Roll and pitch compensation produced 60 1°-wide stabilized beams, which permitted mapping a 60° “fan” of the sea floor with each ping. This system allowed survey vessels to produce high-resolution coverage of wide swaths of the ocean bottom in far less ship time than would have been required for a single-beam echo sounder, greatly reducing the costs of such mapping endeavors.Figure Chapter 1 - -1: Contour Map of Perth CanyonMost multibeam bathymetry systems still use the Mills Cross technique for beam forming. However, as faster computers and Large Scale Integrated (LSI) digital chips have become available, most of the signal processing, including beam forming, moved from analog signal processing into the digital (discrete) signal processing (DSP) domain using digital signal microprocessor (DSPµP) chips. The availability of fast DSPµPs has also permitted the implementation of sophisticated detection algorithms. As a result, survey vessels today can do on-board real-time multibeam processing and display of bathymetry data in a manner impossible only a few years ago. Figure Chapter 1 - -1 shows a sample of a high-quality ocean floor map produced by a SEA BEAM 2100 Multibeam Survey System, the latest generation of multibeam sonar from SeaBeam Instruments.The SEA BEAM 2100 system represents the culmination of over a third of a century of design, development, and production experience by SeaBeam Instruments in the area of multibeam bathymetric systems. With added sophistication, this latest generation multibeam sonar system has added capabilities and complexity. It is necessary to have a basic theoretical understanding of the way multibeam bathymetry systems in general, and the SEA BEAM 2100 in particular, work in order to both:•Operate the system in a manner that maximizes coverage and data quality•Evaluate the system performance for signs of system degradationOrganization of this DocumentThis manual provides a general explanation of the way a multibeam sonar system works and describes in detail the implementation of multibeam technology represented by the SEA BEAM 2100 system.Chapter 2, “Sonar Concepts,” introduces the concepts and definitions involved in echo sounding, using a description of a simple single-beam echo sounder as an example. Characteristics of the creation and transmission of acoustic pulses in water and their echoes off the ocean bottom are discussed. This chapter also explains some of the limitations of a single-beam sonar.Chapter 3, “Introduction to Multibeam Sonar: Projector and Hydrophone Systems,” describes the Mills Cross technique, including the processes of beam forming and beam steering and how it is applied to sonar and to the SEA BEAM 2100 in particular. The chapter discusses how systems that employ the Mills Cross technique can make up for many of the short-comings of single-beam echo sounders.Chapter 4, “Detection Processing and Range Calculation,” describes how the SEA BEAM 2100 extracts signals and determines the location of the sea floor from multibeam echoes. The processes used for ship motion compensation and the formation of stable beams and the implementation of sound velocity profiles are discussed.Chapter 5, “Sidescan Sonar,” discusses sea floor imaging using sidescan sonars and how the SEA BEAM 2100 can be used simultaneously as a depth-finding and sidescan sonar.A glossary of the terminology of multibeam sonar technology is included as an appendix. Scope of this DocumentMultibeam technology involves a number of disciplines including underwater acoustics, digital signal processing, and detection theory statistics. Many excellent texts are available that provide in-depth mathematical treatment of each of these fields. The purpose of this document is not to cover all related topics in rigorous mathematical detail, but instead to present you with a simple, clear understanding of the fundamental concepts required to develop the full potential of a multibeam sonar system. Ideas are presented in a graphical and descriptive way, with minimal use of complex mathematics. Where appropriate, references to texts are provided so you can pursue topics in greater detail. While directed at users of the SEA BEAM 2100 system in particular, most of the concepts explained in this document are common to all multibeam sonars, so much of this information can be applied to any commercially available multibeam system.。

考研英语100篇作文范文Chapter 1: IntroductionIn recent years, the number of candidates taking the postgraduate entrance examination, commonly known as the "gaokao," has continued to rise. With the increasing competitiveness, candidates are looking for effective ways to improve their English writing skills, as it plays a significant role in the exam. Therefore, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of 100 sample essays for the postgraduate entrance examination in English, covering four essential chapters. By examining these essays, candidates can gain insights and guidance on how to improve their own essay writing abilities.Chapter 2: Essay Structure and OrganizationThis chapter focuses on the structure and organization of the 100 sample essays. The essays will be categorized into various types, such as argumentative, narrative, descriptive, and expository essays. Each type will be explained in detail, highlighting the distinctive features and writing techniques used. The chapter will also provide valuable tips on how to structure an essay effectively, including the introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion. By understanding the proper organization of essays, candidates can enhance their ability to communicate their ideas clearly and logically.Chapter 3: Vocabulary and Language UseVocabulary and language use are crucial factors in essay writing.This chapter will examine the use of vocabulary and language in the 100 sample essays. It will highlight the importance of using appropriate and sophisticated vocabulary to convey ideas accurately and concisely. The essays will demonstrate various language techniques, such as similes, metaphors, and idioms, that can enhance the quality of writing. Additionally, it will discuss common grammar mistakes and provide recommendations on how to avoid them. By analyzing the language used in these sample essays, candidates can develop a strong command of English writing skills.Chapter 4: Content and ArgumentationThe final chapter will focus on the content and argumentation in the 100 sample essays. It will explore how to develop compelling arguments, support them with evidence, and present multiple perspectives on a given topic. The chapter will also examine the importance of critical thinking and coherent reasoning in essay writing. Furthermore, it will address how to effectively counter opposing viewpoints and strengthen one's own argument. By studying the content and argumentation approaches in these essays, candidates can enhance their ability to construct well-reasoned and persuasive arguments in their own writing.Conclusion:In conclusion, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of 100 sample essays for the postgraduate entrance examination in English. By examining the essay structure and organization, vocabulary and language use, as well as content and argumentation,candidates can develop a better understanding of effective essay writing techniques. It is hoped that this analysis will serve as a valuable resource, enabling candidates to improve their English essay writing skills and achieve success in the postgraduate entrance examination.Chapter 1: IntroductionIn recent years, the number of candidates taking the postgraduate entrance examination, commonly known as the "gaokao," has continued to rise. With the increasing competitiveness, candidates are looking for effective ways to improve their English writing skills, as it plays a significant role in the exam. Therefore, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of 100 sample essays for the postgraduate entrance examination in English, covering four essential chapters. By examining these essays, candidates can gain insights and guidance on how to improve their own essay writing abilities.Chapter 2: Essay Structure and OrganizationThis chapter focuses on the structure and organization of the 100 sample essays. The essays will be categorized into various types, such as argumentative, narrative, descriptive, and expository essays. Each type will be explained in detail, highlighting the distinctive features and writing techniques used. For example, argumentative essays require a clear thesis statement and well-supported arguments, while narrative essays emphasize storytelling and personal experiences. The chapter will also provide valuable tips on how to structure an essay effectively, including the introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion. By understanding the proper organization of essays, candidates can enhance theirability to communicate their ideas clearly and logically.Chapter 3: Vocabulary and Language UseVocabulary and language use are crucial factors in essay writing. This chapter will examine the use of vocabulary and language in the 100 sample essays. It will highlight the importance of using appropriate and sophisticated vocabulary to convey ideas accurately and concisely. Candidates can learn from these essays how to incorporate a wide range of vocabulary and avoid repetition. The essays will also demonstrate various language techniques, such as similes, metaphors, and idioms, that can enhance the quality of writing and make it more engaging for the reader. Additionally, the chapter will discuss common grammar mistakes and provide recommendations on how to avoid them. By analyzing the language used in these sample essays, candidates can develop a strong command of English writing skills.Chapter 4: Content and ArgumentationThe final chapter will focus on the content and argumentation in the 100 sample essays. It will explore how to develop compelling arguments, support them with evidence, and present multiple perspectives on a given topic. The chapter will also examine the importance of critical thinking and coherent reasoning in essay writing. Candidates can learn from the sample essays how to present their ideas effectively and persuasively. Furthermore, itwill address how to effectively counter opposing viewpoints and strengthen one's own argument. By studying the content and argumentation approaches in these essays, candidates can enhancetheir ability to construct well-reasoned and persuasive argumentsin their own writing.Conclusion:In conclusion, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of 100 sample essays for the postgraduate entrance examination in English. By examining the essay structure and organization, vocabulary and language use, as well as content and argumentation, candidates can develop a better understanding of effective essay writing techniques. It is hoped that this analysis will serve as a valuable resource, enabling candidates to improve their English essay writing skills and achieve success in the postgraduate entrance examination. With practice and guidance from these sample essays, candidates can enhance their writing abilities and approach the exam with confidence.。

Chapter One IntroducitonI. Multiple Choices.Directions: In each question there are four choices. Decide which one would be the best answer to the question to complete the sentence.1. __________ function constructs a model of experience and logical relations.A. InterpersonalB. TextualC. MetalingualD. Ideational2. Arbitrariness of language was first discussed by ____________,A. ChomskyB. HallidayC. FirthD. Saussure3. Which function is the major role of Language?A. InformativeB. InterpersonalC. PerformativeD. Emotive4.Which branch of study cannot be included in the scope of Linguistics?A. SyntaxB. PragmaticsC. PhoneticsD. Anthropology5. The ___________ function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.A. performativeB. phaticC. recreationalD. emotive6. The term __________ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language changes over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. comparativeC. diachronicD. historical comparative7.__________ examines how meaning is encoded in a language.A. SemanticsB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. Morphology8.Saussure distinguishes the linguistic competence of the speaker as __________.A. paroleB. languageC. systemD. langue9.The fundamental distinction between competence and performance is discussed by _________.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. Austin10. What are the dual structures of language?A. Sounds and lettersB. Sounds and meaningC. Letters and meaningD. Sounds and symbols.11. ___________ studies the sound systems in a certain language.A. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Syntax12. The founder of modern linguistics is ___________.A. ChomskyB. HallidayC. BloomfieldD. Saussure13. Modern linguistics focuses on the present day language, and it will be possible to describe language from a _________ perspective.A. sociologicalB.synchronicC. diachronicD. Psychological14. Which of the following is NOT the function of language?A. Metalingual function.B. Interpersonal function.C. Emotive functionD. Cultural transmission15.We can refer to Chairman Mao. This feature of language is called _________.A.dualityB. creativityC. arbitrarinessD. displacement16.The sentence "Don't say X." is ___________.A.descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. obligatoryD. Narrative17.Which of the following functions are NOT the functions put forward by Halliday?A. The Ideational FunctionB. The Interpersonal FunctionC. The Generative FunctionD. The Textual Function20. __________ is the major concern of semantics.A. MeaningB. WordsC. Sentence structuresD. Phrase structure rules21. The set of possibility for “doing” is termed _________ from a functional language’s view.A. linguistic potentialB. communicative competenceC. competenceD. langue22. Traditional grammar regards the __________ form of language as primary, not the spoken from.A. oralB. writtenC. writingD. vocal23. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the __________ nature of language.A. arbitrarinessB. productivityC. dualityD. cultural transmissionnguage is __________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.A. instructiveB. constructiveC. intuitiveD. productive25.Which of the following isn’t a major branch of linguistics?A. PhonologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. SpeechII. Complete each of the following statements.1.When language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact ratherthan exchanging information or ideas, its function is ____________ function.2.Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as ___________.3.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be___________; it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, it is said to be __________. 4.In modern linguistics, ___________ study seems to enjoy priority over ___________ study.The reason is that successful studies of various sates of a language would be the foundations of a historical study.5.“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” This famous quotation from Shakespeareillustrates that language has the design feature of _______________.6.An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use language, but they are notmutually intelligible, which show that language is culturally ____________.7.The features that define our human languages can be called ____________ features.8.The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words is called ___________.9.Chomsky initiated the distinction between ______________ and performance.10.___________ can be defined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the otherhand, attempts to show the relationship between language and society.III. Answer the following questions.1. A distinction can be drawn between competence and performance in the study of language. What do they refer to? Why does Chomsky draw such a distinction?2. Explain the following statements with examples: Our language can be used to talk about itself.3.How do you understand “duality”, a design feature of language?1.phatic2. displacement3. descriptive, prescriptive4. synchronic, diachronic5. arbitrariness6. transmitted7. design8. morphology9. competence 10.Pragmatics。

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Definition : linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is always guided by thethree cannons of science:exhaustiveness, consistency and economy.LinguisticsLinguistics versustraditional grammar:Scope Microlinguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics PragmaticsMacrolinguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics Neurolinguistics Stylistics Discourse analysis Computational linguistics Cognitive linguisticsDefinition:Ding-Dong Theory: human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered.Sing-Song Theory: language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise.Pooh-Pooh Theory: language came from interjections, which express he speaker ’s emotions. Origins Yo-He-Ho Theory: language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work.Ta-Ta Theory : language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongues movements. Bow-Wow Theory: language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature.Design featuresLinguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of written language. Traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages. Linguistics describes each language on its language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system---elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles. Language is arbitrary --- there is no intrinsic connection between the word .pen) and the thing. what we write with).Language is vocal---the primary medium for all languages is sound. Language is used for human communication ---it is human-specific, very different form Arbitrarines s: this refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, English should use the sounds/d ɔg/ to refer to the animal dog, but Chinese should use “gou ” to refer to te same animal. A dog may be called a pig if the first man happens to name it as a “pig ”. So, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack ” and “bang ” are exceptions, but words these are relatively few compared withe the total number of words in language. Duality: language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaningin themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Productivity : productivity or creativity refers to man ’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before. Interchangeability : interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease. Displacement: displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time. Specialization : specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Cultural transmission : language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A human being brought up in isolations simply doesn ’t acquire language, as is demonstrated by the studies of children brought up by animals without human contact. Animals transmit their cries simply from parent to child, while human baby doesn ’t speak any language at birth. What language a baby is going to speakFunctionsSome major concepts in linguisticsDescriptive and prescriptive grammarDescriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language; while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Most modern linguistics is descriptive.Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsWhen we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on he difference in two or more than two tates of language over decades or centuries.Langue and paroleSaussure made an important distinction between langue and parole. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue. Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech.Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is , the actual use of this knowledge.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSaussure has put forward another pair of concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. The former refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements, which form linear sequences. The later means the vertical relationship between forms, which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.Functionalism and formalismFunctionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication. Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.课后练习If language is partially defined as communication, can we call the noises that dogs make language Why or why notNo,we can ’t call the noises that dogs make as language even though language is partially defined as communication. There are two reasons for that: first, language is human-specific,it is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used only for human communication. Second, language has design features which are totally lack in animal communication systems. For example, language has two levels of structures: at one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Noises made by dogs represent certain meaning but can not be further analyzed into smaller units.What is the difference between a prescriptive and a descriptive approach to languageDescriptive approach to language attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive approach to language tells people what should be in the language. Most contemporary linguists believe that whatever occurs naturally in the language should be described. Certain forms are sued more regularly than others and by different people. Though some forms occur less frequently they should not be ignored. They can all be recorded and explained as aspects of the languages since hey are actually used.A wolf is able to express subtle gradations of emotion by different positions of the ears, the lips, and the tail. There are eleven postures of the tail that express such emotions as self-confidence, Phatic function/communion Directive function Informative functionInterrogative function Expressive function Evocative function Performativeconfident threat, lack of tension, uncertain threat, depression, defensiveness, active submission, and complete submission. This system seems to be complex. Suppose there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express in this way. Would you then say a wolf had a language similar to man ’s If not, why notNo, we can not say a wolf has a language similar to that of men even though there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express with his positions of body parts. There are two reasons for that:First, language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is human-specific. Second, language has design features which are lack in animals ’ communication systems. For example, language has two levels of structures: at one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. But in wolf ’s communication system, one position stands for one certain meaning, and can not be further analyzed into smaller units. And no the other hand, human linguistic units can be grouped and regrouped, arranged and rearranged according to certain rules but those positions owned by wolf have no such features. Therefore, wolf ’s this system is not so productive as human languages.Chapter 2 THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGEINTRODUCTIONPhonology : is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.Phoneme :Minimal pairsandminimal sets\Free variationDistinctive featuressyllablesConsonant clusterWith some phonetic knowledge we can give a much more precise description to speech sounds. And with some phonological knowledge we can become more aware of the functions of sounds in different languages. More importantly, phonetics and phonology have made the greatest contribution toPhoneme is the phonological units of language, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which and distinguish meaning. For example, sip and zip is signaled by the fact that the initial sound of the first word is s/s/ and the initial sound of the second word is z/z/./s/and /z/can therefore distinguish or contrast words. Minimal pairs are pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound. For example, chunk and junk ,ban and bin, be and bat, fan and van, fine and vine, sink and zinc, site and side are minimal pairs in English. When a group of words can be differentiated each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then we have a minimal set. For example, a minimal set based on the vowel when two or more sounds occur in the same positon without any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation. For example, there are two pronunciation of the word either,we can say /i:δər/ and /’a ıδər/. When a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another it is a distinctive feature (or a phonemic feature). For example, seal and zeal distinguishes by /s/ ad /z/,/s/ is voiceless and /z/ is voiced,so The English word beautiful consists of three speech units: beau-ti-ful. These units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables. Syllable structure syllable onset Rime(rhyme)Nucleus(peak coda Consonant(s) vowel In English some words may contain a sequence of two or more consonants in one syllable, for example, /spl/ in /’splendid/. Sequences of consonants like this are called consonant clusters. Initial cluster: /spl/ in /’spl ӕʃ/ splash Final cluster: /st/ in /test/ test Medialcluster: /str/ in /’pe ıstr ı/ pastryA word which begins with three-consonant clusters always observes three strict rules:Suprasegmentals Definition: The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics.Articulatory phonetics, which is the study of how speech sounds are produced, or “articulated ”.Three research fields Acoustic phonetics, which deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air.Auditory phonetics, which deals with how speech sounds are perceived by the listener.Articulators andfunctionsVoicedand voiceless soundsNasaland oral soundsVariations ofsoundsVowels Pharynx is a tube which begins just above the larynx.Velum or soft palate i s seen in the position that allows air to pass through the nose and the mouth. Hard palate is often called the “roof of the mouth ”, you can feel its smooth curved surface with your tongue. Alveolar ridge or alveolum is between the top front teeth and hard palate. Tongue can be moved into many different places and different shapes. Larynx is also an articulator. Notices Jaws are sometimes called articulators,but the jaws are not articulators in the same way as others. Teeth Lips When the vocal cords are spread apart, the airstream from the lungs is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freely. The sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless sounds. The sounds represented by /p/,/t/,/k/,and /s/ in the English wordsseep/si:p/,seat/si:t/,and seek/si:k/ are voiceless sounds. When the vocal cords are drawn together, the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced sounds. The sounds represented When the velum is lowered, air escapes through the nose as well as the mouth; sounds produced this way are called nasal sounds. There are three nasal consonants /m/, /n/,and /ŋ/ in English. When the velum is raised all the way to touch the back of the throat, the passage through the nose is cut off. When the nasal passage is blocked in this way, the air can escape only throughthe mouth. Sounds produced this way are called oral sounds. /p/ and /b/ are oral sounds. Definition: vowels are sounds produced without obstruction, so o turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived. Front vowels: /i:/ /ı/ /e/ /ɛ/ /ӕ/ /ɑ/ The height of the tongue Central vowels: /з:/ /ə/ /ʌ/Back vowels: /u:/ /u/ /ɔ:/ /ɔ/ /ɑ:/The shape of the lip Rounded vowels: /u:/ /u/ /ɔ:/ /ɔ/Unrounded vowels: /i:/ /ı/ /e/ /ɛ/ /ӕ/ /ɑ/ /з:/ /ə/Liaison: The phenomenon of the linking of two words in speech, in particular when the second word begins with a vowel, is called liaison. The phrase “an egg ” is often pronounced /ə’neg/. Elision : the loss of a sound or sounds in speech is called elision. The word “suppose ” is often pronounced as /sp əʊz/, “factory ” as /’f ӕktr ı/. Assimilation : the way that sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables is called assimilation. In English the negative prefix occurs as “im-” before words such as “possible ”---”impossible ”.Sound contrasts that extend over several segments (phonemes),and such contrasts are called suprasegmentals. Suprasegmental featuresStress Intonation When a word has more than one syllable, one of them will be pronounced with more prominence than others. This brings us to another speech sound phenomenon, that of When sounds which are identical as to their place or manner features may differ in length, pitch or loudness. When speaking, people generally raise and lower the pitch of their voice. This phenomenon is called intonation.ClassificationofEnglishSpeechSoundsConsonantsCAPTER 2 课后练习 2. What is the test most often used for determining phonemes in a language Minimal pair test or substitution test is the first rule of thumb to determine the phonemes of any language, that is ,to see whether substituting one sound for another result in a different word. If it does , the two sound represent different phonemes. For example, we see from the contrast between fine and vine and between chunk and junk that /f /, /v /,/ʧ /and /ʤ/ must be phonemes in English because substituting /v/ for /f /,or /ʤ/ for /ʧ / produce a different word.3. What ’s the difference between an open and a closed syllableThe units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables. Syllables can be divided into two sorts: the open syllables and the closed syllables. Syllables like me, by or no that have an onset and a nucleus, but no coda are called open syllables; while the coda is present in the syllables like up, cup or hat, which is called closed syllables.4. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature or features which they share /p/ /b/ /m/ feature: bilabial,stop,consonant/g/ /p/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /b/ feature: stop, consonant/ʊ/ /u:/ /ɒ/ feature: back, rounded, vowel5. Name the single feature that distinguishes the following pairs of sounds./ δ / : /ө,/ voicing ( voiceless vs. voiced )/p /: /f / place of articulation ( bilabial vs.labio-dental )/ı /: /e / the height of the tone rising. ( high vs. mid ) /b /: /m / manner of articulation. (stop vs. nasal) /s /: /ʃ / place of articulation (alveolar vs. palatal) /s /: /δ / place of articulation (alveolar vs. dental)6. The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial and final positions.Initial Medial finalpit/bit rapid/rabid cap/cabFind similar seets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given:Initial Medial final/k/-/g/ Kook/gook raking/raging lak/leg/m/-/n/ Moon/noon dime/dine beam/bean/b/-/v/ Berry/very dribble/drivel dub/dove /b/-/m/ Be/me ribbed/rimmed rib/rim/p/-/f/ Pat/fat depend/defend rap/raff7. The english data below provide examples of stress placement on certain verbs.Consonants are sounds produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. Bilabials / p, b, m, w/ Labiodentals / f, v/Dentals /ө, δ / in terns of place of articulation Alveolars / t, d, n, s, z, r, l / Palatals / ʤ, ʧ / Velars /k, g, ŋ /glottal /h /Stops / p, b, t, d, k, g / Fricatives /f, v, ө, δ, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h / Affricates / ʤ, ʧ /In terms of manners of articulation Liquids /l, r /Nasals /m, n, ŋ /Aap’pear col’lide e’rase ca’rouse cor’rode Ba’daptcol’lapsee’lectob’servetor’mentCas’tonishcon’sideri’maginede’termine‘promise1)Describe in words the stress placement on these verbs. Make sure you refer to syllable structure in your statement.2)Provide syllable representations of the words col’lide, e’lect, and con’sider in order to illustrate your conclusion about stress placement in these forms.1)Stress in languages may be predictable by rules: lexical category, morphological structure and number of syllablesall seem to be relevant factors for the placement of stress in English words.For two-syllable verbs, the final(ultimate) syllable will receive main stress if tie has a long vowel or ends in at least two consonants. In this case, the first(penultimate) syllable may have secondary stress, contain an unstressed full vowel, or contain a reduced vowel. For example, a’dapt, e’lect.If the ultimate syllable does not have a long vowel or end in two or more consonants, the penultimate syllable is stressed, as in’promise. Otherwise, the main stress will be put on the second syllable. For example, ca’rouse, ob’serve, astonish, de’termine.If there is a double-letter in the word, the main stress should be put between them, or in other words, on the second one of the two. Such as ap’pear, cor’rode, col’lide, col’lase2)They are two-syllable words; therefore the final (ultimate ) syllable will receive main stress,, as col’lide,e’lect and con’side.。