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hegel英文简介格奥尔格·威廉·弗里德里希·黑格尔，是德国19世纪唯心论哲学的代表人物之一下面是店铺给大家整理的hegel英文简介，供大家参阅! 格奥尔格·威廉·弗里德里希·黑格尔简介Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, often abbreviated as GWF Hegel; August 27, 1770 - November 14, 1831), the age is slightly later than Kant , Is the German 19th century idealist philosophy of one of the representatives. Hegel was born in today's southwest Germany Baden - Württemberg capital Stuttgart; died in Berlin, died at the University of Berlin (today's Berlin Humboldt University) principal.Many people think that Hegel's thought marks the peak of the 19th century German idealist philosophy movement, which has had a profound impact on the later philosophical schools, such as existentialism and Marx's historical materialism. What is more, because Hegel's political thought is both the essence of both liberalism and conservatism, and for those who see liberalism in the recognition of individual needs, to reflect the basic value of human incapacity, and feel free The philosophy is facing challenges, his philosophy is undoubtedly for liberalism provides a new way out.1788, 18-year-old Hegel entered the University of Tübingen (located in Baden-Württemberg, Germany) Protestant Theological Seminary, where he and the epic poet Holderlin, philosopher Xie Lin became a friend , At the same time, for Spinoza, Kant, Rousseau and others writings and the French Revolution deeply attracted. After deeply observing the entire evolution of the French Revolution, the trio was committed to criticizing Kant and his successor, Fichte's philosophy. In twoyears, that is, in 1790, Hegel received a master's degree in philosophy from the University of Dublin (Germany had no bachelor's degree before the year 2000). In 1793, he received a Ph.D. in Protestant theology and was qualified to teach at the University Theological Seminary.After leaving Toubin in 1793, Hegel first came to Bernese, Switzerland, for two years at the home of General Karl Friedrich von Steiger. Steiger is a liberal, rich in books at home. Hegel at this time a large number of reading the collection of Steiger, especially Montesquieu, Geshuo Xiu, Hobbes, Hume, Leibniz, Locke, Machiavelli, Rousseau, Shaftesbury, Spino Shakespeare, Voltaire and others. This period is Hegel to develop his philosophy, social science, political, economic broad knowledge of the foundation.In 1795, Hegel and Steiger's tutor contract ended, Holderlin introduced him to Frankfurt's wine market maker Johann Noe Gogel home tutor. Here Hegel continues to study the economy and politics.In 1799, Hegel's father passed away, leaving a small legacy, so that he was no economic worries to regain academic path.In 1801 he came to the Department of Philosophy at the University of Jena, where he first obtained Ph.D. and lecturers with a paper "De orbitis planetarum" and then taught his first class in the same winter session: logic and metaphysics The In 1805, under the recommendation of Goethe and Schiller, Hegel became an official professor at Jena University.In October 1806, when he was taught at the University of Jena, Hegel completed the first draft of the book "Spiritual Phenomenology". But immediately Napoleon army captured the city of Jena, Hegel was forced to leave, came to Bamburg. Thusthe publication of the "Spiritual Phenomenology" was in 1807, he served as a brief period for the editor of the Bamburg Daily.He mentions the dialectical relationship between master and slave in the 1807 masterpiece "The Phenomenology of Spirit". In this book, Hegel pointed out that the owner of the slave will eventually lose human nature. Although at that time he did not know the existence of the robot, but he also painted his eyes in the world, as well as the relationship between humans and robots.Since 1808, Hegel has served as the headmaster of the Nuremberg Protestant Middle School (1808-1816), Professor of Philosophy at Heidelberg University (1816-1818), and finally in 1818 to apply to the then Prussian Capital University - Department of Philosophy, University of Berlin (today Of the "Berlin Humboldt University"), took over the seat of Fichte.In 1829 became the University of Berlin presidentIn 1831 died in the University of Berlin president.格奥尔格·威廉·弗里德里希·黑格尔人物生平A representative of the German classical philosophy, a political philosopher. He made the most systematic, richest and most complete exposition of the German state philosophy.On August 27, 1770, he was born in the official family of Stuttgart, the capital of the Principality of Württem berg, Germany.He studied at the City Liberal Arts School since 1780 and studied at the Tübingen Seminary in October 1788, majoring in theology and philosophy.1793 - 1796 in the Swiss Bernese a noble family as a tutor, the end of 1797 - 1800 years in a noble family in Frankfurt as a tutor.1800 to Jena, co-founded with Shering "Philosophy Review" magazine. The following year became a lecturer at JenaUniversity, four years later became associate professor.Published his first book "Spiritual Phenomenology" in 1807.From 1808 to 1816, he was an eight-year secondary school principal in Nuremberg. During this period, "logic" (referred to as the big logic) was completed.1816 ~ 1817 Ren Heidelberg University philosophy professor.In 1817, published "philosophy book", completed his philosophical system.After 1818, he was a professor of philosophy at the University of Berlin and was elected president of the University of Berlin in 1829. He published the "Principles of Philosophy of Law" in 1821.In 1829, Hegel was appointed president of the University of Berlin and government representatives, died in cholera in 1831. After his death at the University of Berlin, he was tidied up as "the history of philosophical history", "aesthetics lecture" and "religious philosophy lecture".。
莱布尼茨与德国的现代化及其对我国的启示刘钢研究员中国社会科学院哲学所德国的莱布尼茨（Gottfr ido Guilel mo Leibni tio，1646－1716）对我国的知识界似乎可以说并不陌生。
都知道他是德国著名的数学家，发明了微积分。
但是，有谁知道他还是一位百科全书式的人文学者呢？他的著作或者说《莱布尼茨全集》至今德国科学院还在整理，直到2050年才有望出齐？1有谁知道他终身关注着中国？因为他在世的时候正是清王朝康熙年间（在位期1662－1722年），2000年北京科学出版社专门出版了《莱布尼茨与中国》的纪念文集，《中国近事》发表300周年国际学术讨论会论文集。
22005年我国又出版他写的《中国近事——为了照亮我们这个时代的历史》（Noviss ima Sinica Histor iam nostri l tempor is illust ratur a），3据说这是拉丁语版以外的惟一译本，被列入西方早期汉学经典译丛。
从他20岁发表《论组合术》（1666）这篇逻辑学文章首次提到中国文字不是拼音文字，到他去世的最后一篇《中国自然神学论》（1716）可以说他终身关注着中国的发展。
李约瑟博士在他的鸿篇巨制《中国科学技术史》（Scienc e and Civili zatio n in China）第二卷“科学技术思想史”专门辟有一节“朱熹、莱布尼茨和有机主义哲学”以及一个附论“《易经》和莱布尼茨的二进制算术”4尤其是治理国家方面的经验，莱布尼茨也是功不可没。
美国学者孟德卫是研究莱布尼茨与儒学的专家曾经写过一部《莱布尼茨与儒学：求同》（Leibni z and Confuc ianis m: Search for Accord）。
高二英语哲学思想初探单选题30题1.The essence of a thing is what makes it what it is. Which of the following words is closest in meaning to "essence"?A.appearanceB.natureC.shapeD.color答案：B。
“nature”有“本质、性质”之意，与“essence”最为接近。
“appearance”是外表；“shape”是形状；“color”是颜色，都与本质的含义相差较远。
2."Existence precedes essence." This statement is associated with which philosopher?A.PlatoB.AristotleC.SocratesD.Jean-Paul Sartre答案：D。
“Existence precedes essence.”是让- 保罗·萨特的观点。
柏拉图、亚里士多德、苏格拉底没有提出这句话。
3.What does the term "being" refer to in philosophy?A.having a certain qualityB.existingC.behaving in a certain wayD.looking a certain way答案：B。
“being”在哲学中通常指“存在”。
“having a certain quality”是有某种品质；“behaving in a certain way”是以某种方式行动；“lookinga certain way”是看起来是某种样子，都与“being”在哲学中的含义不同。
4.The concept of "substance" in philosophy is related to which of the following?A.changeB.permanenceC.appearanceD.behavior答案：B。
西方著名哲学家著作年表西方著名哲学家著作年表（古希腊－近代）泰利士（Thales，约624－547）阿那克西曼德（Anaximander，约610－546）阿那克西美尼（Anaximenes，约588－524）赫拉克利特（Heraclitus，约540－480）毕泰戈拉（Pythagoras，约680－500）克塞诺芬尼（Xenophanes，约565－473）巴门尼德（Parmenides，约六世纪－五世纪）芝诺（Zeno of Elea，约六世纪末－五世纪）恩培多克勒（Empedokles，约495－435）阿那克萨戈拉（Anaxagoras，约500－428）留基波（Leukippos，生卒年不详）德谟克利特（Democritus，460－370）普罗泰戈拉（Protagoras，481－411）高尔吉亚（Gorgias，483－375）苏格拉底（Sokrates，468－400）柏拉图（Plato，427－347）：《理想国》、《政治家》、《巴曼尼德斯篇》、《柏拉图对话六种》欧几里德（Eucleides of Megara，约450－374）安提西尼（Antisthenes，约400－325）第欧根尼（Diogens of Sinopeus，约400－325）阿里斯提普（Aristippus，约生于前435）&《希腊哲学史》（汪子嵩等编著）、《前苏格拉底哲学研究》、《古希腊罗马哲学》亚里士多德（Aristotle，384－322）：《形而上学》、《工具论》、《尼各马科伦理学》、《物理学》、《政治学》&《亚里士多德全集》伊壁鸠鲁（Epikouros，341－270）芝诺（Zeno of Cypros，约336－264）克吕西普（Chrysippus，约281－205）皮浪（Pyrrhon，约360－270）蒂孟（Timon，320－230）卢克莱修（Lucretius，约98－53）：《物性论》西塞罗（Cicero，106－43）塞涅卡（Seneca，2－65）爱比克泰德（Epictetus，50－138）奥勒留（Aurelius，120－180）塞克斯都?恩披里克（Sextus Empiricus，二世纪人）柏罗丁（Plotinos，205－270）：《九章集》德尔图良（Tertullianus，约160－230）奥古斯丁（Augustinus，354－430）：《忏悔录》、《上帝之城》、《教义手册》波爱修（Boethius，约480－525）：《哲学的慰藉》爱留根纳（Eriugena，约800－877）：《论神的预定》、《论自然的区分》安瑟尔谟（Anselmus，1033－1109）：《独白》、《宣讲》、《斥愚人书》洛色林（Roscellinus，1050－1114）阿伯拉尔（Abailardus，1079－1142）托马斯?阿奎那（Thomas Aquinas，1225－1274）：《神学大全》、《反异教大全》罗吉尔?培根（Roger Bacon，1214－1294）：《大著作》、《小著作》、《第三著作》邓斯?司各脱（Duns Scotus，1270－1308）：《牛津论著》、《巴黎论著》威廉?奥康（William Ockham，1300－1349）爱拉斯谟（Erasmus，1469－1536）：《疯狂颂》佩脱拉克（Petrarch，1304－1374）：《秘密》薄伽丘（Boccaccio，1313－1375）：《十日谈》蒙台涅（Montaigne，1533－1592）：《蒙台涅文选》拉伯雷（Rabelais，1495－1553）：《巨人传》马丁?路德（Martin Luther，1483－1546）伽尔文（Calvin，1509－1564）：《论仁慈》、《基督教要义》、《信仰指南》&《基督教历代名著集成》、《从文艺复兴到十九世纪资产阶级文学家艺术家有关人道主义人性论言论选集》、《西方伦理学名著选辑》、《西欧中世纪哲学史纲》库萨?尼古拉（Nicolaus Cusanus，1401－1464）：《有学识的无知》布鲁诺（Bruno，1548－1600）：《论原因、本原和太一》、《论无限性、宇宙和诸世界》、《驱逐趾高气扬的野兽》、《论英雄热情》弗兰西斯×培根（Francis Bacon，1561－1626）：《崇学论》、《新工具》、《培根论说文集》、《新大西岛》霍布斯（Hobbes，1588－1679）：《利维坦》、《论物体》、《论人》、《关于自由、必然和偶然》洛克（Locke，1632－1704）：《人类理解论》、《论政府》、《基督教的合理性》笛卡尔（Descartes，1596－1650）：《方法谈》、《第一哲学沉思集》、《哲学原理》、《论灵魂的激情》伽桑狄（Gassendi，1592－1655）马勒伯朗士（Malebranche，1638－1715）：《真理的探求》、《关于形而上学的对话》斯宾诺莎（Spinoza，1632－1677）：《伦理学》、《知性改进论》、《神学政治论》、《笛卡尔哲学原理》莱布尼茨（Leibniz，1646－1716）：《神正论》、《人类理智新论》、《单子论》、《形而上学谈话》贝克莱（Berkeley，1685－1753）：《视觉新论》、《人类知识原理》休谟（Hume，1711－1776）：《人性论》、《人类理解研究》、《伦理和政治论文集》培尔（Bayle，1647－1706）：《关于彗星的信》、《对曼布尔大人的〈加尔文主义史〉的一般批判》、《历史批判辞典》伏尔泰（Voltaire，1694－1778）：《俄狄浦斯王》、《哲学通信》、《形而上学论》、《哲学辞典》孟德斯鸠（Montesguieu，1689－1755）：《波斯人信札》、《罗马盛衰原因论》、《论法的精神》、《论自然和艺术的趣味》卢梭（Rousseau，1712－1778）：《忏悔录》、《风雅的缪斯》、《乡村巫师》、《论人类不平等的起源和基础》、《社会契约论》、《爱弥尔，或论教育》孔狄亚克（Condillac，1715－1780）：《感觉论》、《人类知识起源论》、《体系论》拉美特利（La Mettrie，1709－1751）：《彼涅洛帕的工作》、《心灵的自然史》、《人是机器》、《人是植物》狄德罗（Diderot，1713－1784）：《哲学思想录》、《怀疑论者的漫步》、《供明眼人参考的谈盲人的信》、《论聋哑人书简》、《对自然的解释》、《达朗贝尔和狄德罗的谈话》、《谈话的继续》、《拉摩的侄儿》爱尔维修（Helvetius，1715－1771）：《论精神》、《论人的理智能力和教育》、《关于爱知识的书简》、《关于快乐的书简》、《关于理性的傲慢与懒惰的书简》霍尔巴赫（Holbach，1723－1789）：《揭穿了的基督教》、《袖珍神学》、《神圣的瘟疫》、《健全的思想》、《自然的体系》、《社会体系》、《普遍伦理学》康德（Kant，1724－1804）：《纯粹理性批判》、《实践理性批判》、《判断力批判》、《未来形而上学导论》、《道德形而上学原理》、《论永久和平》、《历史理性批判文集》席勒（Friedrich von Schiller,1759－1805）：《审美教育书简》费希特（Fichte，1762－1814）：《全部知识学基础》、《知识学原理下的自然法基础》、《知识学原理下的道德学体系》、《论学者的使命》、《人的使命》谢林（Schelling，1775－1854）：《先验唯心论体系》、《论世界灵魂》黑格尔（Hegel，1770－1831）：《精神现象学》、《逻辑学》、《小逻辑》、《法哲学原理》、《历史哲学》、《自然哲学》、《精神哲学》、《艺术哲学》、《哲学史讲演录》、《黑格尔书信集》费尔巴哈（Feuerbach，1804－1872）：《费尔巴哈哲学著作选》、《基督教的本质》、《黑格尔哲学批判》、《未来哲学原理》赫尔岑（1812－1870）：《自然研究通讯》、《科学上的浅尝派》、《致老友书》别林斯基（1811－1848）：《别林斯基哲学著作选集》车尔尼雪夫斯基（1828－1889）：《艺术与现实的美学关系》、《俄国文学界戈理时期概观》、《哲学上的人本主义原理》杜勃罗留波夫（1836－1861）：《杜勃罗留波夫选集》、《杜勃罗留波夫哲学著作选集》&西方哲学原著选译1、北京大学哲学系外国哲学史教研室编译：《西方哲学原著选读》（上、下）2、北京大学哲学系外国哲学史教研室编译：西方古典哲学原著选辑，分数册，如《古希腊罗马哲学》、《十六-十八世纪西欧各国哲学》、《十八世纪法国哲学》、《十八世纪末－十九世纪初德国哲学》。
理性主义的英语作文Title: Rationalism: A Philosophical Inquiry。
Rationalism, as a philosophical doctrine, emphasizes the importance of reason in understanding the world and in guiding human behavior. It contends that reason, rather than experience or intuition alone, is the primary source of knowledge and the ultimate arbiter of truth. In this essay, we will delve into the tenets of rationalism, its historical roots, its key proponents, and its relevance in contemporary discourse.The roots of rationalism can be traced back to ancient Greece, particularly to the teachings of philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Socrates' famous dictum, "Know thyself," encapsulates the essence of rational inquiry, urging individuals to critically examine their beliefs and assumptions. Plato, in his dialogues, underscored the importance of rational discourse in the pursuit of truth, while Aristotle championed the use ofreason and logic in understanding the natural world.However, it was during the Enlightenment period in the 17th and 18th centuries that rationalism reached its zenith. Philosophers like René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz laid the groundwork for modern rationalist thought. Descartes' method of doubt, epitomized by his famous statement "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am), exemplifies the rationalist commitment to skepticism and rigorous inquiry. Spinoza's pantheistic worldview, which posited that God and nature are one andthe same, reflects the rationalist inclination towards systematic and coherent explanations of reality. Leibniz, with his principle of sufficient reason and theory of monads, sought to uncover the underlying rational order governing the universe.Central to rationalism is the belief in the innate capacity of human reason to apprehend truths that transcend sensory experience. Unlike empiricism, which prioritizes observation and experimentation, rationalism asserts that certain truths can be known a priori, or independent ofexperience. For instance, mathematical and logical propositions are considered to be true by virtue of their coherence and logical necessity, rather than empirical verification.Moreover, rationalism contends that reason provides a universal and objective foundation for morality and ethics. Instead of relying on religious dogma or cultural norms, rationalists advocate for ethical principles that are derived through rational reflection and critical thinking. Immanuel Kant, one of the most influential figures in modern philosophy, proposed the categorical imperative as a rational basis for moral action, asserting that individuals should act according to principles that could beuniversally applied without contradiction.In contemporary discourse, rationalism continues to exert a profound influence across various domains,including science, ethics, politics, and religion. Scientific inquiry, with its emphasis on evidence-based reasoning and logical inference, exemplifies therationalist approach to understanding the natural world.Ethical theories such as utilitarianism and deontology draw upon rational principles to justify moral judgments and ethical frameworks. In politics, the concept of liberal democracy rests on the rationalist premise of individual rights, rational deliberation, and the rule of law. Even in religious and metaphysical debates, rational arguments are employed to defend or critique theological doctrines and metaphysical claims.However, rationalism is not without its criticisms and limitations. Critics argue that rationalism may lead to intellectual arrogance and a disregard for other forms of knowledge, such as intuition, emotion, and embodied experience. Moreover, the rationalist emphasis on universal principles and abstract reasoning may overlook the complexities of human existence and the diversity of human perspectives. Additionally, the rationalist quest for certainty and absolute truth may be unattainable in many domains of inquiry, leading to skepticism and epistemological uncertainty.In conclusion, rationalism represents a rich andcomplex philosophical tradition that emphasizes the primacy of reason in human cognition and inquiry. From its origins in ancient Greece to its flourishing during the Enlightenment and its continued relevance in contemporary discourse, rationalism has shaped our understanding of the world and our place within it. While acknowledging its strengths and weaknesses, rationalism invites us to engage in critical reflection, rigorous debate, and the relentless pursuit of truth through the exercise of reason.。
静敏格德尔的英文Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, commonly known as Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, was a German polymath and philosopher. His full name is often written in the Latinized form as "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz." Born in Leipzig, Germany, on July 1, 1646, Leibniz made significant contributions to a wide range of fields, including mathematics, science, philosophy, logic, and law.Leibniz is best known for his work in mathematics and philosophy. In the field of mathematics, he developed the differential and integral calculus independently of Isaac Newton. This led to a dispute between Leibniz and Newton over the priority of their discoveries, known as the calculus controversy. Despite the controversy, Leibniz's notation and methods are still widely used today.Leibniz also made important contributions to philosophy. He proposed the concept of monads, which are indivisibleunits of reality. According to Leibniz, all substances, including living beings and inanimate objects, consist of monads. He believed that all monads are interconnected andthat there is a harmonious pre-established harmony among them.In addition to his work in mathematics and philosophy, Leibniz was interested in a wide range of other subjects. He made significant contributions to physics, theology,political theory, and linguistics. He also worked as a diplomat and legal advisor, serving several European courts.Leibniz was a prolific writer and left behind a vast amount of correspondence, manuscripts, and essays. He isknown for his clear and concise writing style, as well as his ability to express complex ideas in a straightforward manner. His works have had a profound influence on subsequent generations of mathematicians, philosophers, and scientists.Despite his many achievements, Leibniz's work was not widely recognized during his lifetime. It was only after his death in Hanover, Germany, on November 14, 1716, that his contributions became more widely known and appreciated. Today, Leibniz is considered one of the greatest thinkers of the17th century and his ideas continue to be studied and debated by scholars around the world.In conclusion, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was a German polymath and philosopher who made significant contributionsto a wide range of fields. His work in mathematics, philosophy, and other disciplines continues to influence and inspire researchers today. Despite the controversysurrounding his calculus dispute with Newton, Leibniz's ideas and methods have stood the test of time and remain relevantin the modern world.。
莱布尼茨对中国文化的抑制莱布尼茨的政治哲学长期以来未受到人们应有的重视，一方面是因为莱布尼茨没有系统地论述其政治哲学思想的著作，另一方面是因为他主要继承了西方古希腊、中世纪以来的古典政治哲学，不像霍布斯、洛克等反传统的政治哲学家们那样富有独创性、影响巨大。
不过，莱布尼茨的政治哲学是很值得去研究的。
17世纪的保守主义政治思想向来为学术界所忽视，对其重要代表莱布尼茨的了解，可使我们对17世纪错综复杂的政治思潮有更好的把握。
与中国学者尤为相关的是，莱布尼茨从青年时代起就一直对中国有着浓厚的兴趣，莱布尼茨与中国现已成为国际学术界的一个重要课题。
不过，不了解莱布尼茨的政治哲学思想，就很难深入理解莱布尼茨为何如此推崇中国的政治和道德文化，以至于建议要请中国派传教士到欧洲传授实践哲学。
一、普遍法理17世纪的欧洲处于混乱之中，中世纪的神权统治遭到了宗教改革和世俗君主的严峻挑战，业已日薄西山。
天主教和新教的尖锐对立使得欧洲处于严重的冲突之中。
1618一1648年的30年战争更使德国几乎成为一片瓦砾。
而路易十四统治下的法国虎视眈眈，随时可以置一盘散沙的德国于灾难的深渊之中。
更糟糕的是，貌合神离的欧洲正遭受着奥斯曼土耳其帝国的强大的军事威胁，历史名城维也纳一度面临着被攻陷的危险。
面临着种种时代的危机，莱布尼茨自青年起就与他所崇敬的政治哲学家格老修斯一样，具有一个坚定的信念，即只有在天主教与新教的和解及统一的基础上欧洲才能真正实现和平和繁盛，因而在欧洲恢复基督教政治统一体就成了他毕生的努力目标(无论是政治活动上还是学术思想上)。
这就使得莱布尼茨的政治哲学与霍布斯、洛克以及普冯道夫等人的强调世俗的独立主权国家的政治理念大异其趣。
莱布尼茨并非没有意识到世俗主权国家的兴起已是不争的事实，但他坚信只有在欧洲重建中世纪般的宗教政治统一体才能避免欧洲陷入无尽的混乱和纷争。
这颇类似于孔子、孟子于春秋战国诸侯争霸之际顽强地捍卫着周代的典章制度。
莱布尼茨—沃尔夫体系与德国启蒙运动赵林（原载于《同济大学学报（社会科学版）》2005年第1期）莱布尼茨—沃尔夫体系虽然在哲学上导致了一种理性主义独断论，但是这个体系同时也是对当时在德国思想界占统治地位的虔敬主义神学或信仰主义独断论的猛烈冲击，从而极大地推动了德国启蒙运动的发展。
与法国启蒙运动最终导致了无神论的结论不同，德国启蒙运动通过对《圣经》的历史考证和理性批判而建立起一种理性宗教。
德国启蒙运动的重要代表莱辛力图在理性知识与宗教信仰之间寻求一种妥协，他通过展示上帝对人类实施教育的历史过程，将理性与信仰辩证地统一起来。
莱辛试图建立一种实践理性宗教的愿望及其在对立之中实现同一的辨证思想，对于康德、黑格尔等人都产生了深刻的影响。
一、唯理主义独断论与理性精神的生长莱布尼茨是近代理性主义哲学的重要代表，无论是其单子论的本体论思想，还是“最好世界”的神学理论，都充满了浓郁的理性主义色彩[1]。
然而在莱布尼茨的唯理论中，却蕴含着理性自身的重大隐患。
莱布尼茨为了建立具有普遍必然性的知识论体系而把理性片面地发展到了极端，其结果却导致了唯理主义认识论的深刻危机。
从认识论的角度来说，莱布尼茨关于单子没有窗口、不发生相互作用，而是按照前定和谐的内在原则自由发展的观点，必然会导致对于经验知识的轻视甚至否定。
莱布尼茨虽然承认依据充足理由原则而建立的事实真理，但是这种事实真理只是对于我们这些知觉能力有限的单子而言的，而在上帝这个最高的单子眼里，一切真理都是建立在矛盾律之上的理性真理。
换言之，对于感觉经验来说是或然性的东西，对于纯粹理性来说则是必然性的东西。
或然性与必然性的差别不是客观的，而是主观的，它们取决于每个单子自身具有的知觉能力或者表象世界的清晰程度。
我们由于不能认识宇宙的最高奥秘，所以只能断定每一个偶然存在的事物都有一个理由，虽然我们并不能完全了解这些理由。
但是对于作为整个世界的充足理由的上帝来说，一切事物的创造和存在都是必然的，都是根据矛盾原则而必然地推演出来的。
2013年北师大西方哲学史考研真题第一篇：2013年北师大西方哲学史考研真题2013年北师大西方哲学史考研真题一名词解释自在之物智者物质霍尔巴赫两种性质的观念洛克上帝存在的证明托马斯.阿奎那四因说亚里士多德三权分立孟德斯鸠实体就是主体唯名论逻各斯赫拉克利特二简答题柏拉图的理念说的内容以及意义康德的不可知论如何解释三论述题经验论的"经验“及其在西方哲学史上的地位第二篇：山东大学西方哲学史历年真题山东大学西方哲学史历年真题1991年,认识你自己,剃刀原理,影像说,形式是实体,霍尔巴赫的运动是从物质的本质里必然产生的存在方式,有学问的无知,柏拉图的存在与非存在是相通的,洛克与莱布尼茨在认识论上的分趾,康德的知性范畴论,笛卡尔与斯宾诺莎的身心关系论1992年,人是万物的尺度,学习就是回忆,形式与质料(亚),真观念,上帝存在的本体论证明,休谟的因果观,四假相说,复杂观念,潜能与现实,亚对柏理念论的批判,黑格尔对德古典唯心路线的批判继承发展,黑对康德范畴论的批判改造，1993年,无定,偏斜说,四障碍说,身心交感论,迟钝的感受性与活跃的感受性,本原行动,异类相知,潜能与现实,异质元素,物是观念的集合,神是人本质的异化,斯宾的实体论,洛克知识确定性和范围,影像说,康德哲学的特征,柏的认识论,德古典哲学的逻辑惯性,比较笛与斯的实体论,黑对近代形而上学的批判1994年,原子与虚空,美德即知识,剃刀原理,公共意志,上帝是类概念,教文学,双重真理,自爱,自在与自为(黑),神是人本质的异化,为何说赫拉…是辩证法的奠基人,黑的矛盾说,亚的辩证法,笛的普遍怀疑法,莱…对天赋观念的修正,人为自然立法,18世纪法唯物主义对17世纪的发展,德古典哲学在思存关系上的发展;1995年,逻格斯,人是万物尺度,通种论,预定和谐,剃刀原理,孟德斯鸠的地理环境决定论,运动场,温和的实在论,形式(培根),观念(洛克),费尔巴哈思存同一学说,亚对柏理念论的批判,巴克莱对洛克观念论的继承发展,论先天综合判断如何可能,析康德与黑对理性思维态度的异同1996年,奴斯,原子与虚空,唯名论,人文主义,社会契约论,同一哲学,美德即知识,隐得来希,实在论,产生自然的自然,分有说,我思故我在,费尔巴哈论人的本质,通种论,四因说,经验论与唯理论的特征,黑对康德二元论的批判,比较笛与斯的实体论,黑的哲学史,1997年,飞矢不动,本体论证明,存在就是被感知,先天综合判断,我思故我在,人是机器,创造性直观,亚的形式与资料说,社会契约论,费尔巴哈论宗教起源,休谟的因果观,亚对柏的批判,康德的道德哲学,比较亚与柏的认识论,论黑的哲学是德古典唯心哲学的完成1998年,知识就是回忆,偏斜运动,原罪说,预定和谐,自爱,不动因,有学问的无知,斯宾的实体观,物是观念的集合,述评柏的知识论,巴克莱在经验论哲学中的地位,范畴在康德哲学中的作用,亚对柏的批判继承,1999年,友爱争吵,德谟的原子,有学问的无知,霍布斯的物体,自爱,绝对精神,逻各斯,同素体,洛克的第二性质,异质分子,问答法,斯宾的实体论,存在就是被感知,流溢说,费尔巴哈对宗教的批判,述评亚的存在论,从洛克到休谟近代认识论原则的演变,哥白尼式革命,苏哥拉底德行论对柏理念论的影响,笛与培根方法论原则的区别2000年,分有,事实真理与推理真理,印象与观念,异质分子,物自体,述评人文主义,复杂观念,爱尔维修的伦理观,人是万物尺度,原子虚空,问答法,唯名论与实在论,霍布斯的自然状态说,预定和谐,孟德斯鸠的政治自由,同一哲学,第一哲学,经验主义论人的认识能力与知识范围2002年,巴门尼德论存在,柏的灵魂观,问答法,上帝本体论证明,存在就是被感知,笛的方法论原则,黑辩证法的三环节,费尔巴哈论宗教的本质,柏理念论及影响,近代唯理论论经验在认识论中的作用,费尔巴哈对黑的批判，2003年,四根说,波菲利问题,单子,先验幻想,德性即知识,除了哲学真理外还要神学真理(托马斯),观念的次序就是事物的次序,实体即主体(黑),洛克两种性质说及贝克莱在此问题的观点,洞穴喻，2004年,真理之路意见之路,能动自然被动自然,波菲利问题,双重经验,上帝本质是人的本质,康德“如果没有感性则对象不会被给与…(见赵敦华西哲课本310页)”,以太阳喻和流溢说为例说明柏拉图主义哲学特征,安瑟尔谟与笛的本体论证明及差异,黑与康德哲学的根本区别，2005年,单子,种族假象,绝对理念,二迷宫,四线段,二律背反,流溢说,公意,存在就是被感知,人为自然立法,德性即知识,阿伯拉尔的概念论,亚对柏理念论的批判,斯宾是如何继承发展笛的实体论的,为何说康德的先验论是先验唯心主义和经验实在论2007年,单子,绝对理念,三权分立,政治自由,洞穴喻及其意义,卢梭的社会契约论,费尔巴哈的人文主义,人为自然立法,2008年,请不要将此资料作为营利的工具,不然****,巴门尼德的存在,自因,先验,知识就是加减,准则学,通种论,知识学,亚的实体说,黑格尔哲学的特点2010种子说至善（康德）安瑟尔谟的上帝存在本体论证明存在就是被感知孟德斯鸠的法的精神简答题：简述苏格拉底的反讽方法巴莱母的反抽象主义论述题：为什么恩格斯说：德国古典哲学从康德到黑格尔是必然的、逻辑的中哲史名词解释：气外更无虚脱孤立之理也无念为宗致中和反者道之动德性所知2012四根说（恩培多克勒）质料与形式（亚里士多德）洞穴喻（柏拉图）异质元素（狄德罗）自我产生非我比较安瑟尔谟和笛卡尔关于上帝存在的本体论证明简述霍布斯的自然状态和社会契约学说论前苏格拉底自然哲学在本源问题上的分歧论黑格尔对康德物自体学说的批判第三篇：西方哲学史考研真题(最全)(硕士博士)西方哲学史考题：1996年（一）概念解释：助产术（苏格拉底）线段比喻（柏拉图）四因说（亚里士多德）中世纪的唯名论和唯实论第一性质和第二性质（洛克）单子论（莱布尼兹）图象说（维特根斯坦）存在先于本质（萨特）（二）论述题：（1）简述亚里士多德的第一实体和第二实体的学说。
Colin S.McLartyContact Information Clark Hall203Voice:(216)368-2632Office of the Chair Fax:(216)368-0814Department of Philosophy E-mail:colin.mclarty@ Case Western Reserve UniversityCleveland OH /artsci/phil/mclarty.htmlArea of Specialization Logic and philosophy of mathematics,especially recent mathematics,and the rise of deductive geometry in5th-3rd century Greece.Areas of Competence Philosophy of Science;History of Philosophy esp.Plato,Kant,Russell; Contemporary French Philosophy.Education Case Western Reserve University,Cleveland,Ohio USAPh.D.Philosophy,1980.•Dissertation:“Things and Things in Themselves:The Logic of Referencein Leibniz,Lambert,and Kant”•Advisors:Raymond J.Nelson and Chin-Tai Kim.Case Institute of Technology,Cleveland,Ohio USAB.S.Mathematics,1972.Positions Fall2002Visiting Associate Professor,Philosophy,University of Notre Dame.1998–Chair,Department of Philosophy,Case Western Reserve University.1995–97Visiting Scholar,Mathematics,Harvard University.1993–Associate Professor Philosophy and Mathematics,CWRU,1987–93As-sistant Professor,1986–87Lecturer.1984–86,Lecturer,Philosophy,Cleveland Institute of Art.Aesthetics,Intro-duction to Philosophy,Visual Geometry,The Artist and Society.1984–86,Lecturer,Mathematics,Cleveland State University.Various algebra,trigonometry,and calculus courses.(1980–84,Machinist,Bardons and Oliver Tools,Cleveland.)Grants Director of a six week NEH Summer Seminar:“Proofs and refutations in mathematics today”,at CWRU June25–August3,2001.NSF Science,Society and Technology Studies Scholars Award,$79,993for“Alexander Grothendieck and the history of homology theory”,1995–98.NEH Summer Stipend for“The idea of‘shape’in early topology”,1994.Ohio Regents,to begin a Biography of Alexander Grothendieck,1993–94.NEH Summer Seminar Michael Resnik’s“Frege and the Philosophy of Math-ematics”,UNC Chapel Hill,June8–July31,1992.National Research Council travel grant to Congress on Logic,Methodologyand Philosophy of Science,Uppsala,August1991.NEH Summer Institute George Lucas’s“Philosophic Uses of Historical Tradi-tion”,Clemson University,June13–July26,1990. Languages•Conversational French.•Speaking and reading German.•Reading and touristic speaking in Dutch and Italian.•Reading ancient Greek.Current Research I study current mathematics and its‘structural’aspects.One young mathe-matician put it:“philosophers should know our objects only have the proper-ties we say they do.”Those are relational/structural properties and in practice they rest on category theory.Philosophers debate the method and the ontol-ogy.My recent Philosophia Mathematica articles side with the practice.I have produced a series of articles on Emmy Noether and Saunders Mac Lane and I have mathematical/philosophical biographies of both of them in progress.I work on Alexander Grothendieck’s vast reconception of geometry and number theory—with two papers forthcoming.Grothendieck’s life is also dramatic,e.g. he was among5,000children sheltered from the Nazis in Le Chambon France.I am preparing a biography.For contrast and philosophic insight I study Greek mathematics and Plato,with one article in print and others in progress.I also pursue technical work on topos theory,reflected in my recent articles in the journals Philosophia Scientiae and Theory and Applications of Categories.Book Elementary Categories,Elementary Toposes,1992,Clarendon Press,Oxford.Paperback1995.Third printing1999.Articles Two articles:“What structuralism achieves,”and“‘There is no ontology here’: visual and structural geometry in today’s arithmetic,”final drafts written,in-vited for Paolo Mancosu ed.The Philosophy of Mathematical Practice,OxfordUniversity Press,forthcoming.“The last mathematician from Hilbert’s G¨o ttingen:Saunders Mac Lane as aphilosopher of mathematics”in press for British Journal for the Philosophy ofScience.Biography of Saunders Mac Lane,Dictionary of Scientific Biography,co-authored with William Lawvere,Scheduled for2007.“Emmy Noether”biographical article for T.Gowers ed.The Princeton Com-panion to Mathematics.Scheduled for2007.“The Rising Sea:Grothendieck on simplicity and generality I”in Jeremy Grayand Karen Parshall eds.Episodes in the History of Recent Algebra,AmericanMathematical Society,scheduled for2007.“Two aspects of constructivism in category theory”invited by PhilosophiaScientiae,Cahier Sp´e cial6,2006,95–114.“Emmy Noether’s‘Set Theoretic’Topology:From Dedekind to the rise offunctors”,Jeremy Gray and Jos´e Ferreir´o s ed.s The Architecture of ModernMathematics:Essays in history and philosophy,Oxford,2006,211–35.“Saunders Mac Lane and the universal in mathematics”Scientiae Mathemat-icae Japonicae,19(2006)25–28.“Every Grothendieck topos has a one-way site”,Theory and Applications ofCategories,16,(2006)123–26.“Emmy Noether and the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany”,Science in Context18(2005)429–50.“Saunders Mac Lane(1909–2005)His Mathematical Life and PhilosophicalWorks”,Philosophia Mathematica13(2005)237–251.“‘Mathematical platonism’versus gathering the dead:What Socrates teachesGlaucon”,Philosophia Mathematica13(2005)115–34.Philosophical commentary to:William Lawvere“An Elementary Theory Of The Category Of Sets(Long Version),”in Reprints in Theory and Applications of Categories12(2005)1–35.“Learning from Questions on Categorical Foundations”,Philosophia Mathe-matica13(2005)44–60.“Exploring Categorical Structuralism”,Philosophia Mathematica12(2005) 37–53.Review article: C.Chihara,A Structural Account of Mathematics,Oxford, 2004,in Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews,August2004,(2,500words).“Richard Courant in the German Revolution”,Mathematical Intelligencer23 no.3(2001)61-67.“Semantics forfirst and higher order realizability”,in Anderson and Zeleny eds.Logic,Meaning,and Computation,Kluwer Academic2001,353–64.“Mac Lane,Saunders”,biographical article for Encyclopaedia Britannica,Jan-uary2000.“Voir Dire in the case of mathematical progress”,in E.Grosholz and H.Breger eds,The Growth of Mathematical Knowledge.Kluwer,2000.269-80. Review article:vine Understanding the Infinite,Harvard1994,in Notre Dame Journal for Formal Logic,38(1998)314-24.“Category theory:Introduction to”and“Category theory:Applications to the foundations of mathematics”.Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy(1998).“Poincar´e:Mathematics&Logic&Intuition”,Philosophia Mathematica5 (1997)97–115.“Category theory in real time”,Philosophia Mathematica2(1994)36–44.“Numbers can be just what they have to”,Noˆu s27(1993),487–98.Translated to Hungarian as“Mi´e rt ne lehetn´e nek a sz´a mok azok,amiknek lenni¨u k kell?”in Csaba Ferenc ed.A matematikafiloz´ofi´a ja a21.sz´a zad k¨u sz¨o b´e n(Philosophy of Mathematics at the Start of the21st Century),Budapest:Osiris,2003.“Anti-foundation and self-reference”,Journal of Philosophical Logic22(1993) 19–28.“Failure of cartesian closedness in NF”,Journal of Symbolic Logic57(1992)555–56.Reprinted in Follesdal ed.The Philosophy of Quine,Garland,2000, vol.5,109–11.“Axiomatizing a category of categories”,Journal of Symbolic Logic56(1991) 1243–60.“The uses and abuses of the history of topos theory”,British Journal for the Philosophy of Science,41(1990)351–75.Review article:J.L.Bell,Toposes and Local Set Theory,Oxford1988,in Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic,31(1990)150–61.“Stable surjection logic”,Diagrammes,22(1989)45–57.“Defining sets as sets of points of spaces”,Journal of Philosophical Logic,17 (1988)75–90.“Elementary axioms for canonical points of toposes”,Journal of Symbolic Logic,52(1987)202–04.Review article:S.Mac Lane,Mathematics:Form and Function,Springer-Verlag1986,in Journal of Philosophy,84(1987)33–37.“Left exact logic”,Journal of Pure and Applied Algebra,41(1986)63–66.“Local,and some global,results in synthetic differential geometry”,in A.Kock ed.Category Theoretic Methods in Geometry,(Aarhus Denmark:Aarhus Uni-versitet,1983),226–56.Book Reviews, short C.Chihara A Structural Account of Mathematics.Oxford University Press 2004,in Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews,August2004.J.Mayberry The Foundations of Mathematics in the Theory of Sets Cambridge 2000,in Philosophy of Science69(2002),404–06.A.Herreman,La topologie et ses signes.L’Harmattan2000,in Isis93(2002), 328.P.Ehrlich,Real Numbers,Generalizations of the Reals,and Theories of Con-tinua,Kluwer1994,in Philosophy of Science66(1999)500–01.J-P.Belna,La notion de nombre chez Dedekind,Cantor,Frege,Vrin1996,in Isis89(1998),145–46.J.Chapman and F.Rowbottom,Relative Category Theory and Geometric Morphisms,Oxford1992,in Modern Logic4(1994)345–47.Reviews In Mathematical Reviews M.Grandis,“Equilogical spaces,homology and noncommutative geometry”, 2006e:18005.S.Awodey,and J.Eliasson,“Ultrasheaves and double negation”,2005m:03138.wvere,“Foundations and applications:axiomatization and education (Paris,2000)”,2004j:03011.P.Johnstone,Sketches of an Elephant:A Topos Theory Compendium.Oxford 2002.2003k:18005.G.Mazzola,The Topos of Music.Geometric Logic of Concepts,Theory,and Performance.With CD-ROM.Birkh¨a user2002.2004a:00013C.Oriat,´Etude des specifications modulaires:constructions de colimitesfinies, diagrammes,isomorphismes.I and II.01g:68066and01g:60867.I.Moerdijk and J.Vermeulen,“Proof of a conjecture of A.Pitts”,01c:1800. A.Kock and G.Reyes,“A note on frame distributions”,2000i:18006.I.Moerdijk,“Classifying spaces for toposes with enough points”,99m:18002. S.Awodey,“Structure in mathematics and logic”,99c:03106.C.Jay,“Finite objects in a locos”,98a:18003.M.Gerner and R.Guitart,“The locally free relativelyfiltered diagram as an inductive completion of a system of choice”,98a:03102.J.Tavakoli,“Locally free vector spaces in a topos”,96m18010.A.Carboni,“Some free constructions in realizability and proof theory”,96j03088. M.Bunge and A.Carboni,“The symmetric topos”,96i18004.H.Simmons,“The glueing construction and lax limits”,96d10002.wvere,“Cohesive toposes and Cantor’s lauter Einsen”,95e00020.I.de Freitas Druck,“Un mod`e le defiltres pour l’analyse r´e elle synth´e tique”, 94g18001.J.Chapman and F.Rowbottom,Relative category theory and geometric mor-phisms.A logical approach.Oxford1992.93i:18004.L.Stout,“The logic of unbalanced subobjects”,93c03071.W.Tulczyjew,“Partial categories of differentiable relations”,93b10000. Robinson et al.,“Colimit completions and the effective topos”,91f03130. S.Mac Lane,“Concepts and categories in perspective”,90k01019a and b. H.Sato,“E-CCC:Between CCC and topos”,90e68068.C.Szasz,“(n,m)-objekt in einem Elementartopos”,89i10002.M.Makkai,“Stone duality forfirst order logic”,89h03067.G.Meloni and E.Rogora,“Global and infinitesimal observables”,89m58003.Selected Talks “Emmy Noether’s‘Set Theoretic Foundations’for topology:from Dedekind to the rise of functors”,International History and Philosophy of Mathematics Meeting,Universidad de Sevilla,Spain,September17–19,2003,later version Universit´e de Paris7,October2005.“Mathematics,philosophy,and foundations in the work of wvere”,at the conference Aspects historiques et philosophiques de la th´e orie des Cat´e gories,´Ecole Normale Sup´e rieur,Paris,October2005.Streaming video athttp://www.diffusion.ens.fr/index.php?res=conf&idconf=933“Mathematics as Philosophy:Mac Lane,Grothendieck,Lawvere”,Ramifica-tions of Category Theory Symposium,Florence Italy,November18–22,2003.“The Rising Tide:Alexander Grothendieck on simplicity and generality”,at the Mathematical Sciences Research Institute,Berkeley CA conference:The History of Algebra in the19th and20th Centuries April21–25,2003.Stream-ing video at/communications/video/index06.html“Geometry and Logic”,Conference on the History and Philosophy of Modern Mathematics,Open University,Milton Keynes,UK,May2002.“Emmy Noether and the notion of structuralist mathematics”,Centre de Recherches Math´e matiques,Montr´e al,Canada,November2001.“Georg Cantor’s Kardinalzahlen as categorical set theory”,joint meeting of the American Philosophical Association and the Association for Symbolic Logic Minneapolis,May2001.“Category theory along the Seaway”,Centre de Recherches Math´e matiques, Montr´e al,Canada,August2000.“Element-centered axioms for the category of sets”,Saunders Mac Lane’s cat-egory theory seminar,Chicago,November1999.“Resnik’s‘science of patterns’as a generalized mereology”,Wholes and Parts conference,Istituto Mitteleuropeo di Cultura,Bolzano Italy,June1998.“Early adventures in the life of‘logicism,formalism,and intuitionism’”,De-partment of Philosophy,Harvard,December1996.“‘Poor taste as a bright trait of character’:Emmy Noether’s politics and mathematics”,Department of the History of Science,Harvard,December1996.“Geometry and Logic”,Deutsche Gesellschaft f¨u r mathematischen Logik undGrundlagenforschung annual meeting,Jena Germany,September1996.“On Michael Resnik’s theory of patterns”,Canadian Society for History and Philosophy of Mathematics,St.Catherine’s Ontario,June1996.“Comparative set theory”,UCLA Logic Colloquium,February1995.“Voir Dire in the case of mathematical progress”,Conference on the Growth of Mathematical Knowledge,Pennsylvania State University,April1995.“Towards a history of Alexander Grothendieck’s algebraic geometry”,Univer-sity of Chicago Algebraic Geometry Seminar,December1994.“The peripeties of intuitionistic logic”,American Mathematical Society Math-fest,Session on History of Mathematical Logic,Minneapolis,August1994.“Modern and Post-Modern in the history of mathematics:What’s France got to do with it?”,Department of History of Science,Harvard,December1993.“Category theoretic foundations”,Department of Philosophy,University of Florence,Italy,November1991.“Why category theory is not a foundation for mathematics”,International Congress on Logic,Methodology and Philosophy of Science,Uppsala Sweden, August1991.“Anti-foundation and self-reference”,Association for Symbolic Logic meeting, Pittsburgh,January1991.“Axiomatizing a category of categories”,Bangor,Wales,July1989.University of Florence November1991.“Real time conceptual change in mathematics”,Sigma Club,Cambridge Eng-land,June1989.“Stable surjection logic”,at the conference Journ´e es d’´Etude en Logique,Uni-versit´e de Paris7,1988.“mbert:Scientific rationalism in Kant’s immediate pre-critical back-ground”,Tri-State Philosophical Association meeting,Edinboro PA,1978.Professional Memberships And Honors Association for Symbolic Logic,Philosophy of Science Association,American Philosophical Association.Associate of the Center for Philosophy of Science,University of Pittsburgh Listed in American Men and Women of Science,since1995.Listed in Who’s Who in the World since2000.Listed in Who’s Who in America since2002.Service On the Editorial Boards of Philosophia Mathematica and of The Notre Dame Journal for Formal Logic,Editorial Advisory Board of the series“AdvancedStudies in Mathematics and Logic”for Polimetrica Publishers.Book MS refereed for:Birkh¨a user Verlag,Oxford University Press,CambridgeUniversity Press,SUNY Press.Articles refereed for:Philosophia Mathematica,Journal of Symbolic Logic,Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic,Synthese,Australasian Journal of Philosophy.Taught in pilot project for the Seminar Approach to General Education andScholarship,undergraduate curriculum reform for CWRU.Three years of afreshman seminar on mathematics from Thales and Pythagoras to Hypatia,teaching geometry,philosophy,and critique of historical evidence.Ph.D.examiner for:University of Chicago,University of Western Ontario,University of Adelaide,CWRU.Grant applications reviewed for:National Endowment for Humanities USA,Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada,Social Scienceand Humanities Research Council of Canada,Fonds pour la Formation deChercheurs et l’Aide`a la Recherche Qu´e bec.Idaho Board of Education.Letters of reference,Philosophy,from:Professor Michael Detlefsen detlefsen.1@574-631-7399 Department of PhilosophyUniversity of Notre Dame100Malloy HallNotre Dame,IN46556Professor Paolo Mancosu mancosu@510-642-5033 Department of Philosophy314Moses Hall#2390University of CaliforniaBerkeley,CA94720-2390Michael Resnik resnik@919-962-3312 University Distinguished ProfessorDepartment of PhilosophyCB#3125Caldwell HallUNC/Chapel HillChapel Hill,NC27599-3125Letters of reference on mathematics and its history:Professor Angus MacIntyre,angus@ Fellow of the Royal Society(e-mail is preferred contact) School of Mathematical SciencesQueen Mary,University of LondonMile End RoadLondon E14NS United KingdomProfessor Leo Corry corry@post.tau.ac.il(972)3-6409198 Director,Cohn Institute for History and Philosophy of ScienceGilman Building Rooms,383/384Tel-Aviv UniversityRamat Aviv,69978,Israel。
