词汇学复习重点

英语专业词汇学的部分重点1）heart and soul: adv. 全心全意地2）white elephant: n. [a. + n.] something useless and unwanted but big and costly. 大而无用的东西，白象，累赘物3）high tea: n. A fairly substantial meal that includes tea and is served in the late afternoon or early evening. 下午茶下午或傍晚前进食的非常丰富的餐食包括茶水4）cold shoulder: n. Informal Deliberate coldness or disregard;a slight or a snub 怠慢故意的冷落或轻视；怠慢或轻慢5）red herring: n. Something that draws attention away from the central issue. 转移注意力者把注意力从中心论题转移开的东西6）narrow escape: n. 九死一生，幸免于难7）brain trust: n. [n. +n.] a group of people with special knowledge who answer questions or give advice. 智囊团，专家顾问团一个通常非正式地担任顾问和政策制定者的专家小组，尤指政府部门中的8）flesh and blood: n. [n. + conj. + n.] relatives or family一个人的血亲；亲属（2）Human nature or physical existence, together with its weaknesses. 人的本性包括各种弱点的人的本性或物质存在9）an apple of discord: n. [n. + prep. + n.] cause of disagreement or argument, etc. 争端，祸根10）Jack of all trades （Jack of all trades and master of none 三脚猫）：n. 万事通；博而不精的人11）fly in the ointment: n. [n. + prep. +n.] something that spoils the perfection of something. 小挫折12）brain drain: n. 智囊流失13）the ins and the outs: n. 执政党和在野党，复杂情况14）son and heir: n. 子嗣15）part and parcel: n. 重要的部分16）a friend in court: n. 有势力的朋友17）wet blanket: n. 弄湿的毯子，扫兴的事One that discourages enjoyment or enthusiasm.18）cat's paw: n. 受人利用者；傀儡19）king's weather n. 好天气20）Achilles' heel: n. A seemingly small but actually mortal weakness. 阿喀琉斯的脚踝一看来很小但致命的弱点21）cut and dried: adj. [a. + a.] already settled and unlikely to be changed. 固定的；已成定局的；已决定的；不大会改变的/?????/22）as poor as a church mouse: adj. [as + a.+ as+ n.] having, or earning, barely enough money for one's needs. 一贫如洗，赤贫的/??????/23）wide of the mark: adj. [a. + prep.+ n.] not at all suitable, correct etc. 毫不相关24）beyond the pale: adj. [prep.+ n.] beyond the limit of proper behaviour. 在…范围之外25）up in the air: adj. [adv. +prep. +n.] uncertain. 悬而未决26）high and dry: adj. （船）在岸上；孤立无援，被遗弃【a. + a.】He left me high and dry. 他使我陷于困境27）up to the hammer: adv. 第一流，极好28）null and void: adj. 无效的29）high and mighty: <口> 趾高气扬地；骄傲自大的；位高权大的30）on the go: （1）[口]在进行活动，忙碌；（2）刚要动身31）on call: adj. 随叫随到的，待命的32）wet behind the ears: adj. 少不更事的，初出茅庐的，乳臭未干的33）look into: 调查，研究34）go on: continue35）put off: 推迟，拖延，搪塞，使分心，使厌恶，扔掉，脱掉，劝阻36）turn on:37）get away with: do something wrong without being punished. （phrasal verbs）侥幸成功，逃避惩罚[责备，追究] 38）put down to: state that something is caused or explained by.（phrasal verbs）把……归结于39）follow one's nose: [v. + poss. + n. ] go straight ahead, go in the same direction. 笔直走，凭本能做事（verb phrases）40）make it: [v.+ pron.] arrive in time; succeed. 及时赶到，成功（verb phrases）41）fall flat: [v. + a.] fail completely in its intended or expected effect. 达不到预期效果，完全失败（verb phrases）42）give sb. the bag: [v. + pron. + n. ] fire or dismiss somebody. （verb phrases）43）sing a different tune: [v. + a. + n.] change one's opinion or attitude （verb phrases）44）call it a day: [v. + pron. + n.] decide or agree to stop either temporarily or for good. 暂时停止；结束一天的工作（verb phrases）45）chop and change: [v. + conj. + v.] fluctuate or vary constantly; keep changing one's opinion, etc. 持续浮动或变动；不断变换注意和观点，等等（verb phrases）46）swim against the stream: [v. + prep. phrase] do the opposite of what most people want to do; go against the way things are happening. 反潮流；逆潮流行事（verb phrases）47）come back to earth: [v. + adv. + prep. phrase] stop imagining or dreaming. （verb phrases）48）make ends meet: [v+n+v] earn what it costs to live. 收支相抵（verb phrases）49）keep the pot boiling: [v+n+v-ing] earn enough to maintain an adequate standard of living; keep a situation active, amusing, etc. 谋生，维持生活，使保持活泼（verb phrases）第一章1. Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. "woman" means 'Frau' in German, 'Femme' in French and 'Funv 'in Chinese. On the other hand, the same sound/rait/ can mean right, rite and write, though denoting different things, yet have the same sound.3. The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）。

1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念1.1 the definition of a word（： （1) a minimal free form of a language; (2） a sound unity ； (3） a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence 。

A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.)1.2 sound and meaning :symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional 。

A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters thatmake up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question 。

1.3 sound and form : 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇by notion 按概念分：content words and functional words实义词和功能词by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性terminology 术语jargon 行话slang 俚语argon 黑话dialectal words 方言词archaism 古语词neologism 新词neutral in style 文体上中性frequent in use 使用频繁native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词aliens 异形词translation-loans 译借词1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obviouscharacteristics明显的特点(Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation betweennotions, words, etc.)2 D e v e l o p m e n tIt is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 （some put it 5， 000 ) languages ， which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar. 2。

词汇期末复习（C1-C7）Chapter 1一、Word 词的定义(1) a minimal free form（最小的自由形式）(2) a sound unity(3) a semantic unity（meaning）(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.（具有句法功能）二、Vocabulary词汇的定义All the words in a language make up what is generally known as vocabulary.一般来说，词汇指的是一种语言里所有单词的总和。

词的总和构成语言的词汇。

词与词汇之间的关系是个体与总体之间的关系。

三、Sound&Meaning发音和意义The connection between the sound (form) and meaning is arbitrary (任意的) and conventional. 二者的关系是约定俗成、随意的四、Sound & Form发音和形式(1)The written form of a natural language is the orthographical（正字的）record of the oralform.自然语言的书写形式是口语形式的书写记录。

(2)The reasons of differences occur between sound and form: 发音与形式不同的原因：①English alphabet was adopted from the Romans 英语字母表来自罗马②the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. 发音改变快速③Differences created by professional scribes. 专业抄写员的不同④More differences brought by the continuing change of sounds and the standardization of spelling.发音不断变化，书写标准化。

第一章1.word : 1简单意义：a word is a minimal unit/form in/of a sentence2.完整意义：a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.2.vocabulary定义四个要素：1.refer to the total number of the words in a language.2.it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period.3.refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. 4个要素：language, time, space, person.3.sound and form 1.关系：the symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional.2.more and more different 原因：1,the number of alphabet cannot describe the English sounds one by one.2, sounds develop faster than the written form.3.the scribes deliberately change the written form for being easily recognized.4.the printing machine fixed the written form.5.borrowed words make the gap wider. 4.motivation分类：1.onomatopec motivation.(Refers to the motivated aspect of motivation which means the words are created by imitation the natural sounds or noise. 2. morphological motivation(refers to the motivated aspect of motivation which means the words created by using existing language materials ,as roots, affixes, etc).3.semantic motivation(refers to the motivated aspect of motivation in which the new meanings are given to existing words by mentalassaiations.4.etymological motivation(refers to the motivated aspect of motivation by which the new meanings can directly tell the origin of the word.)4.word meaning 分类：4. “All national character”is the most important of all the features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.basic word stock基础词汇：1.all national character(全民性，必须有)2.stability 3.productivity 4.polysemy(一词多义)5.collocability(可搭配性) –5．Nonbasic vocabulary. 1。

1.词的概念。

（领会）2.词的分类。

（熟记）3.基本词汇的特点。

（熟记）4.本族语的重要性。

（熟记）Chapter21.印欧语系中的西部语系。

（熟记）2.古英语（熟记）3.中古英语（熟记）4.现代英语的发展模式。

（领会）Chapter31.词素的变体。

（熟记）2.总的词素的分类。

（领会）3.词缀法。

（熟记）4.指出例词的词素数量和类型。

（领会）1.前缀的分类。

（熟记）2.转类法的类型。

（领会）3.部分转类法和完全转类法区别.(熟记)4.拼缀法类型。

（领会）5.截断法的概念。

（熟记）6.指出给的例词属于合成词，派生词，转类法的词，拼缀法，截断法，首字母缩略词，首字母拼音词，逆生法，来自于专有名词的词中的哪一个。

Chapter51.所指的概念。

（熟记）2.词的理据。

（熟记）3.理据的分类。

（领会）4.概念意义。

（熟记）5.褒义和贬义。

（领会）Chpter61.同义词的分类。

（熟记）2.反义词的分类。

（领会）3.上下义关系概念。

（熟记）4.语义场的作用。

（熟记）Chapter71.语义的扩大和缩小。

（领会）2.语义的降格。

（熟记）3.语境的作用。

（熟记）Chapter91.习语的特点。

（领会）2.习语的变异形式。

（领会）Chapter101. 单语词典和双语词典。

（熟记）。

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英语词汇学意在调查和研究英语单词和单词旳等价物旳形态构造,其语义构造、关系、历史发展、形成和使用方法。

2.English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary1.Word（词旳定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence词语是语言最小旳自由形式，拥有固定旳声音和意义以及句法作用。

2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”3.Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一旳四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were created by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary （5）printing、standardization、dictionary—Old English,The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than itis today. 古代英语中旳口语比今天更忠实旳代表书面语—The written form of English is an imperfect representation of the spoken form。

英语词汇学知识点归纳总结
1.词汇分类：英语词汇可以分为实词和虚词两大类。

实词包括名词、
动词、形容词和副词，是能独立存在并具有词义的词类；虚词包括冠词、
介词、连词、代词和助词，是不能独立存在或不具有词义的词类。

2.词根与词缀：英语词汇中有很多词根和词缀，词根是词的核心部分，词缀是附加在词根上的，可以改变词的词义、词性或词形。

3.词义：英语词汇的词义可以通过定义、同义词、反义词、上下义词
等方式进行描述和解释。

词义可以有直观意义、引申意义和隐喻意义等。

4.词汇建构：英语词汇的建构可以通过合成、派生、转化、缩略等方
式进行。

合成是通过将两个或多个词根组合成一个新词，派生是通过添加
前缀或后缀来构成新词，转化是通过改变词的词类来构成新词，缩略是通
过省略部分词组或词根来构成新词。

5.词汇变化：英语词汇的变化形式包括时态、语态、人称、数和比较等。

词汇的变化形式可以通过词形变化、语法变化和语义变化等方式进行。

6.外借词：英语词汇中存在大量的外借词，这些词汇主要来自拉丁语、希腊语、法语、德语等其他语言。

外借词在英语中经过适当的拼写、读音
和意义调整后被接受和使用。

7.同源词：英语词汇中存在一些同源词，这些词源于同一词根或词源，并在语音、形态或词义上有一定的相似性。

了解同源词可以帮助理解和记
忆词汇。

8.词汇扩展：英语词汇在发展的过程中会发生扩展，即一个词从最初的特定意义扩展到更广泛的意义。

词汇扩展可以通过引申、转义、隐喻等方式进行。

这些是英语词汇学中的一些主要知识点，通过对这些知识点的学习和理解，可以更好地掌握和应用英语词汇。

第一单元英语词汇概说1.词是语音、形态和意义的统一体，音和形是词的物质外壳，意义是词的物质内容。

Word is the combination of pronunciation, morphology and meaning.2.词是在口语和书面语中能独立、自由使用的并具备完整意义的语言最小单位。

Word is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit that can be used on its own in oral and written language.3.词汇（vocabulary, lexicon）: collection of words4.词汇是语言（language）的基本要素（语音、语法、词汇）之一。

Pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary5.Active vocabulary（积极性词汇）: speaking/writing vocabularyPassive vocabulary（消极性词汇）: reading/guessing vocabulary6.词汇学（lexicology）: the science of wordsLexicology is the branch of linguistics that investigates, describes and theorizes about vocabulary. 作为语言学的一个分支，词汇学对词汇进行调查研究、描述并予以理论化。

第二、三单元英语基本构词法1.词素（morpheme）是语言中语音和语义的最小结合体。

Morpheme is the minimum unit of meaning.2.构词法（1）词缀法（affixation/derivation派生法）Prefixation 前缀法；Suffixation 后缀法Prefix do not generally change the world-class(词性) of the stem but only modify its meaning.(except “en-”, ”be-”, ”a-”) 三个可以决定词性的前缀Suffix mainly change the word-class ( except “less”)（2）复合法（compounding或composition）→复合词compound（3）转化法（conversion）也叫功能转换法（functional shift）或转移法（transmutation）（4）缩略法（abbreviation或shortening）·截短词clipped wordsapocope截除词尾，aphaeresis 截除词首front and back clipping截除首尾，syncope截除词腰·首字母缩略词initialisms·首字母拼音词acronyms·拼缀词blending e.g. stagflation = stagnation + inflation注：Acronym differ from initialism in that they are pronouncedas words rather than as sequences of letter.（5）逆生法（back formation）e.g. laser为首字母拼音词，因词尾形似后缀-er，则逆生出动词lase。

词汇学知识点词汇学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究词汇的形态、构词法、含义、语法功能和使用规律等方面的知识。

词汇学知识点有助于我们更深入地了解语言的结构和规律，提高我们的语言运用能力和沟通能力。

下面将就词汇学的一些重要知识点进行详细介绍。

1. 词汇的分类根据词性的不同，词汇可以分为名词、动词、形容词、副词、代词、介词、连词和感叹词等不同种类。

名词是表示人、事、物、地点或抽象概念的词，如“学校”、“朋友”；动词是表示动作或状态的词，如“看”、“跑”；形容词是用来描述名词或代词的性质或特征的词，如“美丽”、“聪明”；副词是用来修饰动词、形容词或其他副词的词，如“很”、“非常”。

2. 词汇的构词法构词法是指词汇的构成规律和方法。

词汇可以通过加前缀、后缀、派生、复合、缩略、转化等方式形成新词。

比如，“美”+“丽”=“美丽”；“快”+“速”=“快速”；“快速”+“度”=“快速度”。

3. 词汇的含义词汇的含义是指词汇所代表的概念或事物。

词汇的含义可以根据词义的延伸、转义、比喻、象征等方式进行词义推论。

比如，“明星”原指天空中的星星，后引申为受人尊敬或崇拜的人。

4. 词汇的语法功能词汇在句子中具有不同的语法功能，如名词可以作主语、宾语、定语、表语等；动词可以表示主谓关系、宾语关系、状语关系等；形容词和副词可以修饰名词或代词等。

5. 词汇的使用规律词汇在语言运用中有一定的使用规律，比如词的搭配、语法环境、语言风格等。

正确地运用词汇有助于提高语言表达的准确性和丰富性。

通过以上对词汇学知识点的介绍，我们可以更系统地了解词汇在语言中的作用和重要性，进一步提高我们的语言水平和表达能力。

希望大家都能在学习词汇学知识点的过程中取得更好的成绩，展现自己在语言运用方面的能力。

【正文结束】。

Chapter 1 The Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1、The Definition of a WordLexicology focuses on the study of meanings and origins of words.According to semanticists（语义学家）, a word is a unit of meaning.A word is a minimal（最小的）free form of a language that has a given sound, meaningand syntactic function（句法功能）.2、 VocabularyAll the words in a language make up what is generally known as its vocabulary.3、 Sound and MeaningThe relationship between sound and meaning is no logic4、 Sound and FormThere was more agreement between sound and form in Old English than in Modern English.With the development of the language, more and more differences arose between sound and form.（1）、What is the relationship between sound and meaning? Give examples to illustrate it.The relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary and conventional. In differentlanguages, the same concept can be shown by different sounds. “Woman”, for example,becomes “Frau” in German, “Femme” in French and “fu nv” in Chinese. On the otherhand, the same sound [mi:t] is used to mean “meet, meat, mete”, denoting differentthings.（2）、What are the four major reasons for the differences between sound and form?The first reason (he internal reason) is that there are more phonemes （音素）than lettersin English. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly thanspelling over the years. The third reasons that some of the differences more created bythe early scribes. The fourth reason is the borrowing.（3）、How are words classified in the course book?Words can be classified by different criteria and for different purposes. Words may fallinto: the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency; content words andfunctional words by notion; native words and borrowed words by origin; simple words,compounds and derived words by morphology.（4）、What is the difference between denizens and aliens?Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated（完全同化）into the English language. But aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign in origin.Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary1、The Indo-European Language FamilyThe prehistoric Indo-European parent language, thought to be a highly inflected （内部曲折语）language.The first peoples who inhabited the land were Celts.The second language known in English was Latin of the Roman Legions.（1）、Old English（450-1150）In the 9th century England was invaded by Norwegian and Danish Vikings.（2）、Middle English（1150-1500）The French influence on English vocabulary was one of the significant points of theMiddle English period.The most important fact of the Middle English period was the steady erosion of theinflectional systems of Old English.（3）、Modern English（1500-present）In the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancientGreek and Roman classics.It is estimated that about one fourth of modern English vocabulary has come from French.3、 Foreign Elements in the English VocabularyIn earlier stages of English, Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavian were the four major contributors.The simultaneous existence of French, Latin and English lasted for a century.4、 Modes of Vocabulary DevelopmentModern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change（旧词新义）and borrowing.Creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.5、简答What are the characteristics of Old English?Old English also known as the Anglo-Saxon, has a vocabulary of about 50000 to 60000 words, which are almost monogeneous and entirely Germanic with only a few borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian. Old English was a highly inflected language.It was a synthetic language（综合性语言）.（Modern English is an analytic language）Chapter 3 Morphological Structure of English Words1、 MorphemesThe minimal meaningful units in English are known as morphemes（词素）.Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.4、 Allomorphs（词素变体）An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme.6、A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss ofidentity.7、简答（1）、What is the difference between free morphemes and bound morphemes?Free morphemes which have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as freegrammatical units in sentences are independent of other morphemes, but boundmorphemes which cannot occur as separate. Words are bound to other morphemes to form words or to perform a particular grammatical function.（2）、What is the difference between derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes?Derivational morphemes are used to derive new words, but inflectional morphemes areemployed used to indicate the syntactic （句法）relationship between words and functionas grammatical markers.Chapter 4 Word FormatioThe most productive ways of creating new words are affixation, compounding, and conversion. 1、AffixationThe words created by adding word forming or derivational affixes to bases are calledderivatives.2、Compounding（复合法）Example: workfare(work+welfare)In adjective-plus-noun compounds, the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes.Verb compounds are created either though conversion or through back-formation.3、Conversion（转类法）The conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs is the most productive.The conversion of two syllable nouns into verbs involves a change of stress.Nouns fully converted from adjectives have all the characteristics of nouns.4、 Blending（拼缀法）The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns5、Back-formation（逆身法）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.6、简答（1）、What is the main difference between prefixes and suffixes?Unlike prefixes which primarily effect a semantic modification of the base, suffixeshave only a small semantic role, their primary function being to changes thegrammatical function of a base, i.e. the change of the word class with a slightmodification of meaning.（2）、What are the three main features of compounds?The three main features of compounds are phonological features, semantic features and grammatical features. The word stress of a compound usually occurs on the first element.Each compound should express a single idea just as one word. A compound tends to playa single grammatical role in a sentence.（3）、What is back-formation? What are the characteristics of back-formation?Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.Words created through back-formation are verbs. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not successfully gained currency.（4）、What is acronymy? What is the difference between initialisms and acrnyms?Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of composite names of social and political organizations or phrases used as technical terms. Words formed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms. Initialisms are pronounced letter by letter, but acronyms are pronounced as normal words7、论述题1、“Medicare” and “sitcom” are blends. “Medicare” is formed by combining the head of “medical’and the word “care”, and “sitcom” is formed by combining the head of “situation” and that of “comdey’.2、”Memo” and “flu” are clipped words. “Memo” is formed by clipping the lack of“memorandum” and “flu” is formed clipping the front and lack of “influenza”.3、”TB” and “NATO” are new words created through acronymy. “TB” from “tuberculosis” is aninitialism, while “NATO” from “the North Atlantic Treaty Organization” is an acronym.Chapter 5 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis（成份分析法）1、ReferenceWords are but symbols, many of which have meaning only when they have acquiredreference.2、Concept（概念）Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical.Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.3、SenseUnlike reference, sense denotes the relationships inside the language.4、Motivation（理据）（1）、What is reference? What are the characteristics of reference?Reference is the relationship between language and the world. By means of reference, a speaker indicates which things in the world are being talked about. The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. Although reference isa kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something definite.（2）、What is conceptual meaning? What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning?Conceptual meaning known as cognitive, denotative, or designative is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as The same word generally has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same speech community. (language).（3）、What is the difference between conceptual meaning and associative meaning?Conceptual meaning known as cognitive, denotative, or designative is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. But Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning because it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc. .（4）、What is collocative meaning? What are the characteristics of collocative meaning?Collocative meaning is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words with which it co-occurs. It is again noticeable that collocative meaning overlaps with connotative and affective meaning because in a sense both connotative and affective meanings are revealed by virtue of collocations or contextuality.Chapter 6 Sense Relations（语义关系）The first meaning of a word is called primary meaning. Later meanings are called derived meaningsThe meaning of a more specific word is include in that of another more general word.简答What is the difference between radiation and concatenation（连锁型）?Unlike radiation where each of the derived meanings is directly connected to the primary meaning, concatenation describes a process where each of the later meanings is related only to the preceding one like chains.Chapter 7 Changes in Word MeaningThe vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in the sign-shapes and sign contents.（1）、What is semantic transfer? What are the four main types of transfer?Some words which were used to designate/indicate one thing but later changed to meansomething else have experienced the process of semantic transfer. The four main typesof transfer are the associated transfer, the transfer between abstract and concretemeanings, the transfer between subjective and objective meanings and the synesthesim.（2）、What are the two factors causing changes in meanings? How are they classified?The two major factors that cause changes in meaning are the extra-linguistic factors andthe linguistic factors. The extra-linguistic factors include the historic reason, the classreason and the psychological reason. The linguistic factors include shortening,borrowing and analogy.（类比）Chapter 8 Meaning and Context（语境）1、 Types of ContextWithout context, there is no way to determine the meaning that the speaker intends to convey.When we talk about context, we usually think of linguistic context, hardly aware of theAmbiguity often arises due to polysemy, homonymy and grammatical structure. When a word with multiple meanings is employed in inadequate context, it creates ambiguity.3、简答（1）、what is the difference between linguistic context and extra-linguistic context?Linguistic refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears and it is known as linguistic context or co-text may extend to embrace a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book. But extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context refers to the participants, time, place, and even the whole cultural background（2）、What is the difference between lexical context and grammatical context?Lexical context refers to the words that co-occur with the word in question. The meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighbouring words. But grammaticalcontext refers to the structure which may influence the meaning of a polysemant.4、论述题Read the sentence carefully. If you find anything inappropriate, explain the reasons and then improve the sentence.a.He is a hard businessman.John ran the egg and spoon race.1、The sentence is ambiguous. The ambiguity is caused by polysemy.2、The word “hard” in this sentence can be understood as “hardworking” or “difficult”.The context fails to narrow down the meaning so that it is difficult for the reader todecide what exactly the speaker means.3、The ambiguity can be eliminated by altering the context a little. There would be nomisunderstanding of the original sentence if it is expanded as “He is a hardbusinessman to deal with ”, or “He is a hard businessman and he is often praised by hisemployer”.（participated or organized John ran the egg and spoon race and got second place. orJohn ran the egg and spoon race and gain a larger number of money.）b.They saw her duck.The ball was attractive.1、The sentence is ambiguous. The ambiguity is caused by homonymy.2、The word “ball” in this sentence can be understood as a noun, which refer to “roundobject to play in a game” or a “dancing party”. The context fails to narrow down themeaning so that it is difficult for the reader to decide what exactly the speaker means.3、The ambiguity can be eliminated by altering the context a little. It is clear if it isexpanded as “The ball was attractive with nice music and a lot of peoples ”, or “Theball made of leather of different colors was attractive”.（kind of poultry or verb meaning ”lower one’s head or body quickly, dodge”They saw her duck or swimming in the river or They saw her duck her body.）c、The fish is ready to eat.I like Mary better than Jean.1、The sentence is ambiguous. The ambiguity is caused by inadequate grammaticalstructure..2、The sentence has two different interpretations. It may mean “the fish is cooked orserved, so ready for people to eat or a “the fish is ready to eat things”. The context fails to narrow down the meaning so that it is difficult for the reader to decide what exactly the speaker means.3、The sentence can be improved as “How nice the fish smell! The fish is ready to eat.” or“The fish is ready to eat things.（I like Mary better than I like Jean or I like Mary better than Jean likes MaryI like Mary better than Jean does. or I like Mary better than I do Jean.）Chapter 9 English IdiomsStylistically, idioms are generally felt to be informal and some are colloquialisms（口语体）and slang.（1）、What are the characteristics of English idioms?The two main characteristics of English idioms are semantic unity and structural stability.Idioms each consist of at least two or more constituents, but each is a semantic unity. The structure of an idiom is to a large extend invariable.（2）、What are the rhetorical features of English idioms?The rhetorical features of English idioms include the phonetic manipulation, the lexicalmanipulation and the semantic manipulation. The phonetic manipulation includesalliteration and rhyme（叠韵）. The lexical manipulation includes reiteration, repletionand juxtaposition. The semantic manipulation includes (Figures of speech) Simile,Metaphor, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Personification, Euphemism.Chapter 10 English DictionariesThe main body of a dictionary is its definitions of words.3、Dictionaries（1）、Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English-English-Chinese（LDCE《朗文高级当代英语词典英汉双解》）Features: Clear Grammar Codes, Usage Notes, Language Notes, New words（2）、Collins COBUILD English Dictionary（CCED《柯林斯COBUILD英语词典》）Features: Definition, Extra Column, Frequency Marker, Pragmatics（词语用法说明）4、British or AmericanAmerican dictionaries contain more encyclopaedic information in the main body than British one whereas British dictionaries, especially learner’s dictionaries, embrace more grammatical information.5、简答What is a dictionary? What is the relationship between a dictionary and lexicology?A dictionary is a book which presents in alphabetical order the words of English,with information as to their spelling, pronunciation, meaning, usage, rules of grammar, and in some, their etymology. It is closely related to lexicology because both deal with the same problems: the form, meaning, usage and origins of vocabulary units.。