1托福TPO阅读34文本+答案解析Islamic Art and the Book2The arts of the Islamic book, such as calligraphy and decorative drawing, 3developed during A.D. 900 to 1500, and luxury books are some of the most 4characteristic examples of Islamic art produced in this period. This came 5about from two major developments: paper became common, replacing6parchment as the major medium for writing, and rounded scripts were7regularized and perfected so that they replaced the angular scripts of 8the previous period, which because of their angularity were uneven in 9height. Books became major vehicles for artistic expression, and the 10artists who produced them, notably calligraphers and painters, enjoyed 11high status, and their workshops were often sponsored by princes and their 12courts. Before A.D. 900, manuscripts of the Koran (the book containing 13the teachings of the Islamic religion) seem to have been the most common 14type of book produced and decorated, but after that date a wide range 15of books were produced for a broad spectrum of patrons. These continued 16to include, of course, manuscripts of the Koran, which every Muslim wanted 17to read, but scientific works, histories, romances, and epic and lyric 18poetry were also copied in fine handwriting and decorated with beautiful 19illustrations. Most were made for sale on the open market, and cities 20boasted special souks (markets) where books were bought and sold. The 21mosque of Marrakech in Morocco is known as the Kutubiyya, or Booksellers’ 22Mosque, after the adjacent market. Some of the most luxurious books were 23specific commissions made at the order of a particular prince and signed 24by the calligrapher and decorator.2526Papermaking had been introduced to the Islamic lands from China in the 27eighth century. It has been said that Chinese papermakers were among the 28prisoners captured in a battle fought near Samarqand between the Chinese 29and the Muslims in 751, and the technique of papermaking – in which 30cellulose pulp extracted from any of several plants is first suspended 31in water, caught on a fine screen, and then dried into flexible sheets 32–slowly spread westward. Within fifty years, the government in Baghdad 33was using paper for documents. Writing in ink on paper, unlike parchment, 34could not easily be erased, and therefore paper had the advantage that 35it was difficult to alter what was written on it. Papermaking spread 36quickly to Egypt – and eventually to Sicily and Spain – but it was 37several centuries before paper supplanted parchment for copies of the 38Koran, probably because of the conservative nature of religious art and 39its practitioners. In western Islamic lands, parchment continued to be 40used for manuscripts of the Koran throughout this period.4142The introduction of paper spurred a conceptual revolution whose43consequences have barely been explored. Although paper was never as cheap 44as it has become today, it was far less expensive than parchment, and 45therefore more people could afford to buy books, Paper is thinner than 46parchment, so more pages could be enclosed within a single volume. At 47first, paper was made in relatively small sheets that were pasted together, 48but by the beginning of the fourteenth century, very large sheets – as 49much as a meter across – were available. These large sheets meant that 50calligraphers and artists had more space on which to work. Paintings 51became more complicated, giving the artist greater opportunities to52depict space or emotion. The increased availability of paper,53particularly after 1250, encouraged people to develop systems of54representation, such as architectural plans and drawings. This in turn 55allowed the easy transfer of artistic ideas and motifs over great56distances from one medium to another, and in a different scale in ways 57that had been difficult, if not impossible, in the previous period.5859Rounded styles of Arabic handwriting had long been used for60correspondence and documents alongside the formal angular scripts used 61for inscriptions and manuscripts of the Koran. Around the year 900, Ibn 62Muqla, who was a secretary and vizier at the Abbasid court in Baghdad, 63developed a system of proportioned writing. He standardized the length 64of alif, the first letter of the Arabic alphabet, and then determined 65what the size and shape of all other letters should be, based on the alif.66Eventually, six round forms of handwriting, composed of three pairs of 67big and little scripts known collectively as the Six Pens, became the 68standard repertory of every calligrapher.6970Para.1 The arts of the Islamic book, such as calligraphy and decorative 71drawing, developed during A.D. 900 to 1500, and luxury books are some 72of the most characteristic examples of Islamic art produced in this period.73This came about from two major developments: paper became common,74replacing parchment as the major medium for writing, and rounded scripts 75were regularized and perfected so that they replaced the angular scripts 76of the previous period, which because of their angularity were uneven 77in height. Books became major vehicles for artistic expression, and the 78artists who produced them, notably calligraphers and painters, enjoyed 79high status, and their workshops were often sponsored by princes and their 80courts. Before A.D. 900, manuscripts of the Koran (the book containing 81the teachings of the Islamic religion) seem to have been the most common 82type of book produced and decorated, but after that date a wide range 83of books were produced for a broad spectrum of patrons. These continued 84to include, of course, manuscripts of the Koran, which every Muslim wanted 85to read, but scientific works, histories, romances, and epic and lyric 86poetry were also copied in fine handwriting and decorated with beautiful 87illustrations. Most were made for sale on the open market, and cities 88boasted special souks (markets) where books were bought and sold. The 89mosque of Marrakech in Morocco is known as the Kutubiyya, or Booksellers’ 90Mosque, after the adjacent market. Some of the most luxurious books were 91specific commissions made at the order of a particular prince and signed 92by the calligrapher and decorator.93941. Paragraph 1 makes all of the following points about Islamic books 95EXCEPT:96A) Books were an important form of artistic expression.97B) A wide variety of books with different styles and topics became98available.99C) They were sold primarily near mosques.100D) Most books were intended for sale on the open market.1011022. The word “sponsored” in the passage is closest in meaning to 103A) visited104B) owned105C) praised106D) supported1071083. The word “adjacent” in the passage is closest in meaning to 109A) major110B) nearby111C) ancient112D) well-known1131144. According to paragraph 1, before A.D. 900, books in the Islamic world 115A) included a wide range of subjects116B) did not contain any calligraphy or decoration117C) used rounded scripts118D) were usually written on parchment1191205. In paragraph 1, why does the author mention the fact that the mosque 121in Marrakech, Morocco, is known as the Booksellers’ Mosque122A) To cast doubt on the importance of souks in making books available 123to common people124B) To provide an example of a place where books were made at the order 125of a particular prince126C) To emphasize how influential and well known the book markets were 127D) To demonstrate the need for religious texts in Islamic lands128129Para.2 Papermaking had been introduced to the Islamic lands from China 130in the eighth century. 【】It has been said that Chinese papermakers were 131among the prisoners captured in a battle fought near Samarqand between 132the Chinese and the Muslims in 751, and the technique of papermaking –133in which cellulose pulp extracted from any of several plants is first 134suspended in water, caught on a fine screen, and then dried into flexible 135sheets –slowly spread westward. 【】Within fifty years, the government 136in Baghdad was using paper for documents. 【】Writing in ink on paper, 137unlike parchment, could not easily be erased, and therefore paper had 138the advantage that it was difficult to alter what was written on it. 【】139Papermaking spread quickly to Egypt –and eventually to Sicily and Spain 140– but it was several centuries before paper supplanted parchment for 141copies of the Koran, probably because of the conservative nature of 142religious art and its practitioners. In western Islamic lands, parchment 143continued to be used for manuscripts of the Koran throughout this period. 1441456. The phrase “extracted from” in the passage is closest in meaning 146to147A) taken out of148B) produced using149C) discovered in150D) combined with1511527. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential153information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices 154change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. 155A) It was several centuries before papermaking techniques spread to 156faraway areas where parchment was popular and used widely in art.157B) Although papermaking came to Egypt quickly, it took much longer for 158paper to be used when copying the Koran, probably because of the159conservative nature of religious art.160C) Papermaking spread beyond Egypt, Sicily, and Spain, but it was not 161widely used by artists for centuries, probably because of the162conservative nature of art in those countries.163D) Paper replaced parchment in copies of the Koran, probably at the 164request of conservative practitioners in areas like Egypt, Sicily, and 165Spain.166167Para.3 The introduction of paper spurred a conceptual revolution whose 168consequences have barely been explored. Although paper was never as cheap 169as it has become today, it was far less expensive than parchment, and 170therefore more people could afford to buy books, Paper is thinner than 171parchment, so more pages could be enclosed within a single volume. At 172first, paper was made in relatively small sheets that were pasted together, 173but by the beginning of the fourteenth century, very large sheets – as 174much as a meter across – were available. These large sheets meant that 175calligraphers and artists had more space on which to work. Paintings 176became more complicated, giving the artist greater opportunities to 177depict space or emotion. The increased availability of paper,178particularly after 1250, encouraged people to develop systems of179representation, such as architectural plans and drawings. This in turn 180allowed the easy transfer of artistic ideas and motifs over great181distances from one medium to another, and in a different scale in ways 182that had been difficult, if not impossible, in the previous period. 1831848. In paragraphs 2 and 3, which of the following is NOT mentioned as 185an advantage of paper over parchment?186A) It was harder to erase or change what was written on paper.187B) More pages of paper could be bound in a single volume.188C) Paper could be produced in sheets of varying weights and thicknesses. 189D) More people could buy books made of paper because it was cheaper. 1901919. Why does the author include the following information: “At first, 192paper was made in relatively small sheets that were pasted together, but 193by the beginning of the fourteenth century, very large sheets –as much 194as a meter across –were available.”?195A) To provide evidence that the development of papermaking techniques 196was very slow197B) To explain why paper was never as cheap as it has become today 198C) To make the point that paper allowed artists to develop paintings 199that were more expressive and complex200D) To prove that paper was more popular with artists who used large 201sheets, than it was with book printers, who used smaller sheets20220310. According to paragraph 3, the increased availability of paper and 204the development of systems of representation205A) encourage more people to make their own drawings206B) made the transfer of artistic ideas to distant people and places 207much easier208C) made architectural plans more complex and therefore harder to read 209D) allowed artists to create paintings that were smaller in scale 210211Para.4 Rounded styles of Arabic handwriting had long been used for 212correspondence and documents alongside the formal angular scripts used 213for inscriptions and manuscripts of the Koran. Around the year 900, Ibn 214Muqla, who was a secretary and vizier at the Abbasid court in Baghdad, 215developed a system of proportioned writing. He standardized the length 216of alif, the first letter of the Arabic alphabet, and then determined 217what the size and shape of all other letters should be, based on the alif. 218Eventually, six round forms of handwriting, composed of three pairs of 219big and little scripts known collectively as the Six Pens, became the 220standard repertory of every calligrapher.22122211. According to paragraph 4, what did Ibn Muqla achieve around the 223year 900?224A) He modified a set of formal scripts known as the Six Pens into rounded 225scripts appropriate for correspondence.226B) He created a standardized set of rounded scripts proportional to 227the size of the first letter of the alphabet.228C) He promoted calligraphy as an art form and encouraged the use of 229rounded letters in religious texts.230D) He persuaded the court in Baghdad to use rounded styles instead of 231more angular scripts in their documents.23223312. The phrase “composed of” in the passage is closest in meaning 234to235A) made up of236B) developed from237C) in addition to238D) similar to23924013. Look at the four squares 【】 that indicate where the following 241sentence could be added to the passage.242This change occurred for good reason.243Where does the sentence best fit?244245Papermaking had been introduced to the Islamic lands from China in the 246eighth century. 【】It has been said that Chinese papermakers were among 247the prisoners captured in a battle fought near Samarqand between the 248Chinese and the Muslims in 751, and the technique of papermaking – in 249which cellulose pulp extracted from any of several plants is first 250suspended in water, caught on a fine screen, and then dried into flexible 251sheets –slowly spread westward. 【】Within fifty years, the government 252in Baghdad was using paper for documents. 【】Writing in ink on paper, 253unlike parchment, could not easily be erased, and therefore paper had 254the advantage that it was difficult to alter what was written on it. 【】255Papermaking spread quickly to Egypt –and eventually to Sicily and Spain 256– but it was several centuries before paper supplanted parchment for 257copies of the Koran, probably because of the conservative nature of 258religious art and its practitioners. In western Islamic lands, parchment 259continued to be used for manuscripts of the Koran throughout this period. 26026114. Prose Summary262Islamic books from A.D. 900 to 1500 reflect major changes from the past 263and important innovations.264Answer Choices:265A) Books became major vehicle of artistic expression for calligraphers 266and painters, and the subjects of books expanded to include more and more 267kinds of works.268B) The growing luxuriousness of books meant that the market for them 269was increasingly dominated by the wealthy and powerful patrons who could 270afford them.271C) After it was learned from Chinese prisoners, the technique of 272papermaking spread throughout Islamic lands, where paper gradually 273replaced parchment.274D) The high status enjoyed by calligraphers and artists made books 275extremely popular in the cities where books were bought and sold.276E) The popularity of books led to major advances in the development 277and transfer of new artistic ideas.278F) Around the year 900, a set of rounded styles of Arabic handwriting 279began replacing angular scripts in copying the manuscripts of the Koran. 280281Protection of Plants by Insects282283Many plants – one or more species of at least 68 different families 284–can secrete nectar even when they have no blossoms, because they bear 285extrafloral nectaries (structures that produce nectar) on stems, leaves, 286leaf stems, or other structures. These plants usually occur where ants 287are abundant, most in the tropics but some in temperate areas. Among those 288of northeastern North America are various plums, cherries, roses,289hawthorns, poplars, and oaks. Like floral nectar, extrafloral nectar 290consists mainly of water with a high content of dissolved sugars and, 291in some plants, small amounts of amino acids. The extrafloral nectaries 292of some plants are known to attract ants and other insects, but the 293evolutionary history of most plants with these nectaries is unknown. 294Nevertheless, most ecologists believe that all extrafloral nectaries 295attract insects that will defend the plant.296297Ants are portably the most frequent and certainly the most persistent 298defenders ofplants. ¢Since the highly active worker ants require a great 299deal of energy, plants exploit this need by providing extrafloral nectar 300that supplies ants with abundant energy. ¢To return this f avor, ants guard 301the nectaries, driving away or killing intruding insects that might 302compete with ants for nectar. ¢Many of these intruders are herbivorous 303and would eat the leaves of the plants. ¢304305Biologists once thought that secretion of extrafloral nectar has some 306purely internal physiological function, and that ants provide no benefit 307whatsoever to the plants that secrete it. This view and the opposing 308“protectionist” hypothesis that ants defend plants had been disputed 309for over a hundred years when, in 1910, a skeptical William Morton Wheeler 310commented on the controversy. He called for proof of the protectionist 311view: that visitations of the ants confer protection on the plants and 312that in the absence of the insects a much greater number would perish 313or fail to produce flowers or seeds than when the insects are present. 314That we now have an abundance of the proof that was called for was315established when Barbara Bentley reviewed the relevant evidence in 1977, 316and since then many more observations and experiments have provided still 317further proof that ants benefit plants.318319One example shows how ants attracted to extrafloral nectaries protect 320morning glories against attacking insects. The principal insect enemies 321of the North American morning glory feed mainly on its flowers or fruits 322rather than its leaves. Grasshoppers feeding on flowers indirectly block 323pollination and the production of seeds by destroying the corolla or the 324stigma, which receives the pollen grains and on which the pollen325germinates. Without their colorful corolla, flowers do not attract326pollinators and are not fertilized. An adult grasshopper can consume a 327large corolla, about 2.5 inches long, in an hour. Caterpillars and seed 328beetles affect seed production directly. Caterpillars devour the ovaries, 329where the seeds are produced, and seed beetle larvae eat seeds as they 330burrow in developing fruits.331332Extrafloral nectaries at the base of each sepal attract several kinds 333of insects, but 96 percent of them are ants, several different species 334of them. When buds are still small, less than a quarter of an inch long, 335the sepal nectaries are already present and producing nectar. They336continue to do so as the flower develops and while the fruit matures. 337Observations leave little doubt that ants protect morning glory flowers 338and fruits from the combined enemy force of grasshoppers, caterpillars, 339and seed beetles. Bentley compares the seed production of six plants that 340grew where there were no ants with that of seventeen plants that were 341occupied by ants. Unprotected plants bore only 45 seeds per plant, but 342plants occupied by ants bore 211 seeds per plant. Although ants are not 343big enough to kill or seriously injure grasshoppers, they drive them away 344by nipping at their feet. Seed beetles are more vulnerable because they 345are much smaller than grasshoppers. The ants prey on the adult beetles, 346disturb females as they lay their eggs on developing fruits, and eat many 347of the eggs they do manage to lay.348349Para.1 Many plants – one or more species of at least 68 different 350families – can secrete nectar even when they have no blossoms, because 351they bear extrafloral nectaries (structures that produce nectar) on stems, 352leaves, leaf stems, or other structures. These plants usually occur where 353ants are abundant, most in the tropics but some in temperate areas. Among 354those of northeastern North America are various plums, cherries, roses, 355hawthorns, poplars, and oaks. Like floral nectar, extrafloral nectar 356consists mainly of water with a high content of dissolved sugars and, 357in some plants, small amounts of amino acids. The extrafloral nectaries 358of some plants are known to attract ants and other insects, but the 359evolutionary history of most plants with these nectaries is unknown. 360Nevertheless, most ecologists believe that all extrafloral nectaries 361attract insects that will defend the plant.3623631. According to paragraph 1, floral nectar and extrafloral nectar are 364alike in that365A) they are likely to be produced by the same plants366B) they basically consist of the same chemical components367C) they attract only insects that will defend the plant368D) they are produced by the same parts of the plant369370Para.2 Ants are portably the most frequent and certainly the most 371persistent defenders of plants. Since the highly active worker ants 372require a great deal of energy, plants exploit this need by providing 373extrafloral nectar that supplies ants with abundant energy. To return 374this favor, ants guard the nectaries, driving away or killing intruding 375insects that might compete with ants for nectar. Many of these intruders 376are herbivorous and would eat the leaves of the plants.3773782. To say that ants are “persistent” defenders of plants means that 379A) they defend plants against a wide variety of threats380B) they continue to defend plants for as long as the plants are381threatened382C) they are successful defenders of plants383D) they are easily observable defenders of plants3843853. What can be inferred from paragraph 2 about the ants that are 386attracted to the extrafloral nectaries?387A) They do not eat the leaves of the plants that produce extrafloral 388nectar.389B) They live almost entirely on extrafloral nectar.390C) They spend most of their energy guarding extrafloral nectaries. 391D) They frequently fight among themselves over extrafloral nectar. 392393Para.3 Biologists once thought that secretion of extrafloral nectar 394has some purely internal physiological function, and that ants provide 395no benefit whatsoever to the plants that secrete it. This view and the 396opposing “protectionist” hypothesis that ants defend plants had been 397disputed for over a hundred years when, in 1910, a skeptical William 398Morton Wheeler commented on the controversy. He called for proof of the 399protectionist view: that visitations of the ants confer protection on 400the plants and that in the absence of the insects a much greater number 401would perish or fail to produce flowers or seeds than when the insects 402are present. That we now have an abundance of the proof that was called 403for was established when Barbara Bentley reviewed the relevant evidence 404in 1977, and since then many more observations and experiments have 405provided still further proof that ants benefit plants.4064074. According to paragraph 3, what was the position of the opponents 408of the “protectionist” hypothesis?409A) Extrafloral nectar provides plants with a direct defense against 410attack by insects.411B) Ants substantially benefit plants that secrete extrafloral nectar. 412C) The secretion of extrafloral nectar plays a role in the plant’s 413internal functioning.414D) Ants visit plants that secrete extrafloral nectar as often as they 415visit plants that do not.4164175. The word “skeptical” in the passage is closest in meaning to 418A) curious419B) doubtful420C) open-minded421D) practical4224236. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential424information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices 425change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. 426A) We now have ample proof that ants benefit plants.427B) Barbara Bentley has called for additional proof that ants benefit 428plants.429C) In 1977 Barbara Bentley conducted research that proved that all prior 430studies were wrong.431D) Proof that ants benefit plants will require many more observations 432and experiments.433434Para.4 One example shows how ants attracted to extrafloral nectaries 435protect morning glories against attacking insects. The principal insect 436enemies of the North American morning glory feed mainly on its flowers 437or fruits rather than its leaves. Grasshoppers feeding on flowers438indirectly block pollination and the production of seeds by destroying 439the corolla or the stigma, which receives the pollen grains and on which 440the pollen germinates. Without their colorful corolla, flowers do not 441attract pollinators and are not fertilized. An adult grasshopper can 442consume a large corolla, about 2.5 inches long, in an hour. Caterpillars 443and seed beetles affect seed production directly. Caterpillars devour 444the ovaries, where the seeds are produced, and seed beetle larvae eat 445seeds as they burrow in developing fruits.446447。
