A Study on Krashen’s Input Hypothesis

Krashen的语言输入假设（The Input Hypothesis）是二语习得中的一个重要理论，主要包括以下三个观点：Krashen认为人类获得语言的惟一方式是接受大量的可理解的输入(comprehensible input)。

人们的注意力集中在输入的信息本身，而不是语言形式上。

当他们理解了输入的信息，并且让输入多少包括一点超过他们能力的语言时，语言结构也就习得了，语言结构也是在自然的语言交际过程中习得的。

本文主要讨论其中的习得—学习假设和输入假设,并总结出语言输入的三个基本特征,即可理解性、趣味性和大量性Krashen语言输入假设理论与莲花指美国南加洲大学语言学系教授Krashen.S.D.于1977-1982年提出“语言监控模式”假说（The Monitor Model），也叫“语言控制调节模式”，“输入假说”或“监察论”，这一理论对于第二语言习得过程的研究产生了巨大的影响，在20世纪80年代早期，这个理论在他的《第二语言习得和第二语言学习》（Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning），《第二语言习得的原则和进程》（Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition），《输入假设》（The Input Hypothesis）这三本书中拓展成为基础更为广泛的著名的五个假设，用来解释学习第二语言的困难的原因，这五个假设是指：习得-学习假设（Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis）、自然顺序假设（The Natural Hypothesis）、语言监控假设（The Monitor Hypothesis）、语言输入假设（The Input Hypothesis）和情感过滤假设（The Affective Filter Hypothesis），其中最重要的就是语言输入假设。

第11章第二语言习得理论11.1 复习笔记本章要点1. Krashen’s Input Hypothesis克拉申输入假说2. McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing Model麦劳林注意-处理模型3. Bialystok’s Analysis/Automaticity Model亚利斯托克分析/自动模型本章考点1. 有关第二语言习得的理论2. 克拉申输入假说内容及缺陷3. 掌握几大第二语言习得模型本章内容索引Ⅰ. Theories1. Some theories of second language acquisition2. Adult second language acquisitionⅡ. Krashen’s Input Hypothesis1. Definition2. DisagreementsⅢ. McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing ModelⅣ. Bialystok’s Analysis/Automaticity ModelⅤ. Variability ModelsⅥ. From Theory to PracticeⅦ. Intuition: The Search for RelevanceⅧ. Out On A Limb: The Ecology of Language AcquisitionⅠ. Theories（理论）1. Some theories of second language acquisition（第二语言习得理论）(1) A theory of Second language acquisition includes an understanding, in general, of what language is, what learning is, and for classroom contexts, what teaching is.第二语言习得理论大体上包括理解什么是语言，什么是学习，什么是课堂教学。

Krashen的输入假设理论/监控理论70年代末，Krashen（1979，1981，1982）发表了一系列文章和著作，对第二语言习得过程进行了解释性描述。

1985年，他提出了“输入假设理论”（the Input Hypothesis Model）。

这个理论由五个相互连接的“假设”组成：1、输入假设(Input Hypothesis)；2、习得/学习假设(Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis)；3、监控假设(Monitor Hypothesis)；4、自然顺序假设(Natural Order Hypothesis)；5、情感过滤假设(Affective Filter Hypothesis)。

1、输入假设Krashen认为，人类只通过一种方式获得语言，那就是对信息的理解，通过吸收可理解的输入信息(Comprehensible Input)来获取语言知识。

只要学习者听到有意义的语言信息并设法对其进行理解，就会产生语言习得的效果。

如果语言信息是那些课堂教学中常出现的语言形式，并没有什么意义与内容，或者由于某些心理障碍，有意义的语言信息无法进入学习者的头脑，那么就不会产生任何语言习得效果。

Krashen认为听力活动是对语言习得至关重要的。

语言知识不是通过说来获得的，说常常是没有必要的，有时甚至是有害的。

Krashen 只强调听，不强调对语言的使用，这显然是与“交际法”教学理论背道而驰的。

他主张输入的语言信息既不能过难，也不能过易。

他用i+1的公式来代表他的主张。

i代表学习者目前所处的语言水平，i+1是学习者下一步应达到的水平。

为了使学习者有所进步，向他输入的语言信息只能是稍微超出他目前所处的水平。

Krashen所说的可理解的输入语言信息，是指像母亲或大人对幼儿说的话（motherese），或者人们对学说自己母语的外国人的说话方式（foreigner talk），这些话往往很短，语法相对简单，人们往往将自己的话语调整到外国人的水平。

Krashen的语言输入假设（The Input Hypothesis）是二语习得中的一个重要理论，主要包括以下三个观点：Krashen认为人类获得语言的惟一方式是接受大量的可理解的输入(comprehensible input)。

人们的注意力集中在输入的信息本身，而不是语言形式上。

当他们理解了输入的信息，并且让输入多少包括一点超过他们能力的语言时，语言结构也就习得了，语言结构也是在自然的语言交际过程中习得的。

本文主要讨论其中的习得—学习假设和输入假设,并总结出语言输入的三个基本特征,即可理解性、趣味性和大量性Krashen语言输入假设理论与莲花指美国南加洲大学语言学系教授Krashen.S.D.于1977-1982年提出“语言监控模式”假说（The Monitor Model），也叫“语言控制调节模式”，“输入假说”或“监察论”，这一理论对于第二语言习得过程的研究产生了巨大的影响，在20世纪80年代早期，这个理论在他的《第二语言习得和第二语言学习》（Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning），《第二语言习得的原则和进程》（Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition），《输入假设》（The Input Hypothesis）这三本书中拓展成为基础更为广泛的著名的五个假设，用来解释学习第二语言的困难的原因，这五个假设是指：习得-学习假设（Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis）、自然顺序假设（The Natural Hypothesis）、语言监控假设（The Monitor Hypothesis）、语言输入假设（The Input Hypothesis）和情感过滤假设（The Affective Filter Hypothesis），其中最重要的就是语言输入假设。

input hypothesis的定义
"Input Hypothesis"（输入假设）是由语言学家Stephen Krashen提出的理论，属于其“自然语言获取理论”（Natural Language Acquisition Theory）的一部分。

这个理论主张，语言学习者在理解和获得一门第二语言（L2）的能力方面，主要受到他们接收到的输入质量的影响。

具体而言，Input Hypothesis 提出了以下两个关键概念：
Comprehensible Input（可理解输入）：学习者在学习第二语言时，需要接收到一定程度上超过其当前语言水平的输入。

这就是所谓的“可理解输入”。

这种输入包括了一些新的语言元素，但同时也包含了学习者已经熟悉的语言元素，使学习者能够理解新的语言结构。

i+1：Krashen提出，学习者能够理解的最有效的输入水平是他们当前语言水平的略微超过（i+1）的水平。

也就是说，学习者能够轻松理解的输入中包含了一些新的、略微超过他们目前语言水平的语言结构，这样有助于语言的逐步发展。

Input Hypothesis 强调了通过暴露学习者于理解性的输入，尤其是处于他们语言水平之上的输入，可以促进语言习得。

这个理论对于语言教学和学习方法的设计产生了一定的影响。

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Challenge?—The Impact of Internet on Newspaper）107. 菲茨杰拉德：“爵士乐时代”的代言人(F .Scott Fitzgerald : The Spokesman of the Jazz Age) 108. 霍桑的善恶观——浅析《红字》中的四个主要人物（Howthoren’s View on Good and Evil –An Analysis of the Four Major Characters in The Scarlet）109. 中美文化差异之集体主义与个人主义（Collectivism and Individualism: Different Cultural Values in China and America）110. 通过人物分析思考《汤姆叔叔的小屋》中的基督教理念（Christianity in Uncle Tom’s Cabin as Seen from Character Analysis）111. 中美商业交往文化之差异比较（A Comparative Study of Cultural Differences in Business Communication Between Chinese and Americans）112. 光荣与耻辱——英国足球文化观察（Honor and Disgrace –An Observation of the Football Culture of UK）113．《格列佛游记》中的讽刺手法（Satire in Gulliver’s Travels）114. 狄更斯小说《双城记》中人道主义思想的分析（The Analysis of Dickens’Humanitarian Sentimentality—After Reading A Tale of Two Cities）115. 《大卫?科波菲尔》的人物分析（An Analysis of Good and Bad Characters in David Copperfield）116. 语言歧义（Language Ambiguity）117. 美国英语变体和身份（English Variety and People’s Identities in the United States）118. 哈代对传统伦理道德观的批判（Hardy’s Criticism on Traditional Ethics and Morality in Tess of the D’Urbervilles）119. 《汤姆?索亚》——对儿童心理的深入分析和充分展现（Tom Sawyer, Full Analysis and Display of Children’s Psychology）120. 从扭曲到恢复——试析《李尔王》中的人性（From Distortion to Resuscitation –An Analysis on Human Native in King Lear）121. 浅谈《美国悲剧》及物质主义的消极影响（An American Tragedy and the Negative Influence of Materialism）122. 情感与语言学习——中学英语学习中焦虑情绪（Affect in Language Learning —Anxiety in Middle-school English Learning）123. 一部反战小说——浅析《永别了，武器》（An Antiwar Novel –An Analysis of the Heroine in Gone with the Wind）124. 哈姆雷特悲剧成因探索（What Bring About the Tragedy of Hamlet）125. 透过《傲慢与偏见》看十八世纪英国绅士特点（Exploring the Traits of English Gentlemen in the 18th Century Through Pride and Prejudice）126. 论双语教育在中国的可行性——透过高新区第一实验小学的调查（The Feasibility of Bilingual Education in China—Through the Research in the NO.1 Experimental Primary School of Chongqing Hi-tech Industry Development Zone）127. 评论中国英语教学与学习（A Review of English Teaching and Learning in China）128. 从广告用语看美国价值观（Advertising Language as a Mirror of American Values）129. 跨文化交际失败的原因（Causes of Breakdowns In Intercultural Communication）130. 《傲慢与偏见》中的次要人物（Minor Characters in Pride and Prejudice）131.《印度之行》的象征意义（Symbolism in A Passage to India）132. 对《动物农庄》的思考——《动物农庄》里的人物象征意义（A Thought on Animal Farm —The Symbolism of the Characters of Animal Farm）133. 美国青少年犯罪与家庭的关系（The Relationships Between Family and Juvenile Delinquency in USA）134. 对于老师在课堂中主体作用的思考（Reflection on The Teacher As Classroom Leader）135. 两性的语言差异（Gender Difference in Language）136. 中西方饮食文化比较（A Comparison Between Chinese and Western Dietetic Cultures）137. “寻找出路，但没有出路”—美国战后青年的缩影“麦田守望者”（“Find Way Out , YetNo Way Out”—A Picture of the Postwar American Youth From The Catcher in the Rye）138. 圣经对西方文化的影响（The Influences of the Holy Bible on the Western Culture）139. 中国妇女地位的变迁（Changes of Women’s Character）140. 《了不起的盖茨比》所体现的“美国梦”的幻灭（The Collapse of the American Dream Represented in The Great Gatsby）141. 略论美国俚语（Remarks on American Slang）142. 从社会透视角度来看中美文化差异（Sino-America Culture Differences from a Social Perspective）143. 论《永别了，武器》中的死亡情绪（On theDeath in A Farewell to Arms）144. 《第二十二条军规》的艺术特色（Artistic Features in Catch-22）145. 《了不起的盖茨比》与美国梦（The Great Gatsby and the American Dream ）146. 创造性与课堂中的保创造性思维（Phrase Approach to Vocabulary Learning）147. 文艺复兴发生在意大利的必然性（The Certainty of Renaissance Arising in Italy）148．中学英语中的多媒体技术（Multimedia Technologies in English Language Teaching in Middle School）149. 冲突在文学任务塑造中的运用（On Conflicts in Characterization in Literature – A Character Analysis of the Heroine in Gone with the Wind）150. 欧.亨利式结尾的艺术魅力（The Artistic Charm of O. Henry）。

克拉申（Krashen）五个假说。

一是习得-学习假说(Acquisition-learning Hypothesis)，启示我们语言外语学习和母语习得是不同的两个概念，外语学习理论不能照搬母语习得理论。

二是自然顺序假说(Natural Order Hypothesis)，启示我们教师要多提供给学生接触真实目的语材料的机会，如先听后说，先读后写。

第三是监察假说(Monitor Hypothesis )，他认为，学习只是对运用语言进行编辑或监察，使用者需要有充足的时间，掌握要用的规则，并专门注意到语法的正确性。

该假说给我的启示是课堂上提问学生要有一定的等待时间，据说有人作过调查发现大部分老师在课堂上的实际等待时间都少于他对学生们所说的时间。

第四是输入假说(Input Hypothesis)，启示教师要给学生输入并理解比当前语言稍多一点的语言材料，还有个公式：i+1。

这一点启示我教学中输入的信息要让学生可理解，主要面对中等生，不要讲过于难的东西。

并且所讲的东西要注意趣味性和关联性，同时又要有足够的输入量，但不要过多。

控制为学生原有知识基础上加一点点，才能达到理想的效果。

第五个是情感过滤假说（Affective Filter Hypothesis），他认为，情感因素起着对输入进行过滤的作用。

情感因素因人而异。

学习的情感因素会阻碍或加速语言的习得。

只有在最佳情感条件下，才会产生真正的习得。

最佳情感条件有三：学习者有强烈的学习动机；学习者充满信心和学习者心情舒畅、没有什么过高或过低焦虑感。

输入假说（The Input Hypothesis）克拉申斯蒂芬•克拉申(Stephen Krashen)1941年出生于美国芝加哥，现为美国南加州大学荣休教授，他毕生致力于第二语言获得的研究，这为他赢得了世界了性声誉。

克拉申在20世纪中叶以来提出的第二语言学习得的“输入假说模式”，这是近几十年来影响广泛、解释全面又很具争议性的理论。

Creative Education Studies 创新教育研究, 2019, 7(2), 151-154Published Online April 2019 in Hans. /journal/ceshttps:///10.12677/ces.2019.72027Enlightenment of Input Hypothesis andOutput Hypothesis on English TeachingLu LiWestern Language College of Harbin Normal University, Harbin HeilongjiangReceived: Mar. 12th, 2019; accepted: Mar. 27th, 2019; published: Apr. 3rd, 2019AbstractFor the study of second language acquisition, American linguist Krashen put forward controver-sial input hypothesis on the basis of children's first language acquisition, emphasizing the central position of intelligible input in language acquisition. Swanner holds different opinions and puts forward output hypothesis based on immersion teaching practice. The two hypotheses seem to be contradictory, but in fact they are based on different perspectives of language acquisition. Both of them have great implications for foreign language teaching.KeywordsKrashen Input Hypothesis, Swanner Output Hypothesis, English Teaching, Enlightenment输入假设与输出假设对英语教学的启示李璐哈尔滨师范大学西语学院，黑龙江哈尔滨收稿日期：2019年3月12日；录用日期：2019年3月27日；发布日期：2019年4月3日摘要针对二语习得的研究，美国语言学家克拉申在儿童第一语言的习得基础上提出了备受争议的输入假设，强调可理解性输入在语言习得中的核心地位。

1.The ultimate goal of ELT: the ultimate of foreign language teaching is to enable students to usethe foreign language in work or life when necessary. Thus we should teach that part of the language that will be used (rather than all part of the language).Definition of task: a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention in principally focused on meaning rather than form. (Nunan 1989:8)A lesson plan is a framework of a lesson in which teachers make advance decision about what they hope to achieve and how they would like to achieve it. In other words, teachers need to think about the aims to be achieved, materials to be covered, activities to be organized, and techniques and resources to be used in order to achieve the aims of the lesson.Classroom management is the way teachers organize what goes on in the classroom. It contributes directly to the efficiency of teaching and learning as the most effective activities can be made almost useless if the teacher does not organize them efficiently. As the goal of classroom management is to create an atmosphere conductive to interacting in English in meaningful ways.Deductive method: The Deductive method relies on reasoning, analyzing and comparing. First, the T writes an example on board or draws attention to an example in the textbook. Second, the T explains the underlying rules regarding the forms and positions of certain structural words. The explanations are often done in the S’s native language and use grammatical terms. Sometimes, comparisons are made between the native language and the target language or between the newly presented structure and previously learned structures. Finally, the Ss practice applying the rule to produce sentences with given prompts.Inductive method: the T provides learners with authentic language data and induces the learners to realize grammar rules without any forms of explicit explanation.1. Language:” Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.” It can be understood in the following six aspects:Language as system;Language as symbolic;Language as arbitrary;Language as vocal;Language as human;Language as communicationBottom-up modelSome teachers teach reading by introducing new vocabulary and new structures first and then going over the text sentence by sentence. This way of teaching reading reflects the belief thatreading comprehension is based on the understanding and mastery熟练of all the new words, new phrases, and new structures as well as a lot of reading aloud practice. Also, this reading follows a linear process from the recognition of letters, to words, to phrases, to sentences, to paragraphs, and then to the meaning of the whole text. This way of teaching reading is said to follow a bottom-up model.2). Top-down modelIt is believed that in teaching reading, the teacher should teach the background knowledge first so that students equipped with such knowledge will be able to guess meaning from the printed page. This process of reading is said to follow the top-down model of teaching reading just as Goodman(1970) once said that reading was “a psycholinguistic guessing game”2. Structural view:The structural view sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems: from phonological, morphological, lexical, etc. to sentences.3. The functional view:The functional view sees language as a linguistic system but also as a means for doing things.Most of our day-to-day language use involves functional activities: greetings; offering,suggesting, advising, apologizing, etc.The communicative view of languageThe communicative, or functional view of language is the view that language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. The semantic and communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized than the grammatical characteristics, although these are also included.4. The interactional view:The interactional view considers language as a communicative tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people.1) The behaviorist theory( Skinne r)-- a stimulus-response theory of psychologyThe key point of the theory of conditioning is that "you can train an animal to do anything (within reason) if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, stimulus,response, and reinforcement"2) Cognitive theory( Noam Chomsky):The term cognitive is to describe loosely methods in which students are asked to think rather than simply repeat.The goal of CLTThe goal of CLT is to develop students' communicative competenceLesson planning means making decisions in advance about what techniques, activities and materials will be used in the class.Teaching stages and procedures:Teaching stages are the major steps that language teachers go through in the classroom.Procedures are the detailed steps in each teaching stage.31. Three P's model: presentation, practice and production.SkimmingSkimming means reading quickly to get the gist,i.e. the main idea of the text. ScanningScanning means to read to locate/get specific information.1). DiscussionA discussion is often used for a) exchange of personal opinions. This sort of discussion canstart with a question like "What do you think of?"b) stating of personal opinions ongeneral issues. c) problem-solving.d) the ranking(分类；顺序)of alternatives e) deciding upon priorities(先;前)etc.2). Role-playRole-play is a very common language learning activity where students play differentroles and interact from the point of view of the roles they play.What’s called A process approach to writing1). DefinitionWhat really matters or makes a difference is the help that the teacher provides toguide the students through the process that they undergo when they are writing. What’s the assessmentAssessment in ELT means to discover what the learners know and can do at a certain stage of the learning process.a. Grammar Translation:The Grammar Translation method started around the time of Erasmus (1466-1536). Its primary focus is on memorization of verb paradigms, grammar rules, and vocabulary. Application of this knowledge was directed on translation of literary texts--focusing of developing students' appreciation of the target language's literature as well as teaching the language. Activities utilized in today's classrooms include: questions that follow a reading passage; translating literary passages from one language to another; memorizing grammar rules; memorizing native-language equivalents of target language vocabulary. (Highly structured class work with the teacher controlling all activities.)b. Direct Method:The Direct Method was introduced by the German educator Wilhelm Viëtor in the early 1800's.Focusing on oral language, it requires that all instruction be conducted in the target language with no recourse to translation. Reading and writing are taught from the beginning, although speaking and listening skills are emphasized--grammar is learned inductively. It has a balanced, four-skill emphasis.c. The Silent Way:The teacher is active in setting up classroom situations while the students do most of the talkingand interaction among themselves. All four skills (listening, speaking, reading & writing) are taught from the beginning. Student errors are expected as a normal part of learning; the teacher's silence helps to foster self-reliance and student initiative.d. Community Language Learning:Teachers recognize that learning can be threatening and by understanding and accepting students' fears, they help their students feel secure and overcome their fears of language learning--ultimately providing students with positive energy directed at language learning. Students choose what they want to learn in the class and the syllabus is learner-generated.e. Natural Approach:Introduced by Gottlieb Henese and Dr. L. Sauveur in Boston around 1866. The Natural Approach is similar to the Direct Method, concentrating on active demonstrations to convey meaning by associating words and phrases with objects and actions. Associations are achieved via mime, paraphrase and the use of manipulatives. Terrell (1977) focused on the principles of meaningful communication, comprehension before production, and indirect error correction. Krashen's (1980) input hypothesis is applied in the Naturale. Reading Method:The reading method was prominent in the U.S. following the Committee of Twelve in 1900 and following the Modern Foreign Language Study in 1928. The earlier method was similar to the traditional Grammar/Translation method and emphasized the transference of linguistic understanding to English. Presently, the reading method focuses more on silent reading for comprehension purposes.f. ASTP and the Audiolingual Method:This approach is based on the behaviorist belief that language learning is the acquisition of a set of correct language habits. The learner repeats patterns and phrases in the language laboratory until able to reproduce them spontaneously.ASTP (Army Specialized Training Program) was an intensive, specialized approach to language instruction used in during the 1940's. In the postwar years, the civilian version of ASTP and the audiolingual method featured memorization of dialogues, pattern drills, and emphasis on pronunciation.g. Cognitive Methods:Cognitive methods of language teaching are based on meaningful acquisition of grammar structures followed by meaningful practice.h. Communicative Methods:The goal of communicative language approaches is to create a realistic context for language acquisition in the classroom. The focus is on functional language usage and the ability to learners to express their own ideas, feelings, attitudes, desires and needs. Open ended questioning and problem-solving activities and exchanges of personal information are utilized as the primary means of communication. Students usually work with authentic materials (authentic realia) in small groups on communication activities, during which they receive practice in negotiating meaning.i. Total Physical Response Method:This approach to second language teaching is based on the belief that listening comprehension should be fully developed before any active oralparticipation from students is expected (just as it is with children when theyare learning their native language) .What is the Grammar-Translation Method?The Grammar-Translation Method is designed around grammatical structures.The Functional-Notional ApproachUnlike the Grammar-Translation Method, which is based on the grammar structures, it thinks thata general learner should take part in the language activities, the functions of language involved inthe real and normal life are most important. For example, the learners have to learn how to give directions, buy goods, ask a price, claim ownership of something and so on. It tells that is not just important to know the forms of the language, it is also important to know the functions and situations, so that the learner could practice real-life communication.Communicative CompetenceBoth knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to use the language in communicative situation appropriately.Critical Period Hypothesis关键期假说This hypothesis states that if humans do not learn a foreign language before a certain age ,then due to changes such as maturation of the brain ,it becomes impossible to learn the foreign language like a native speaker.1.Process-oriented theories:强调过程are concerned with how the mind organizes newinformation such as habit formation, induction, making inference, hypothesis testing and generalization.2.Condition-oriented theories: 强调条件emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place, such as the number of students, the kind of input learners receives, and the atmosphere.3.Behavioristtheory,(Skinner and waston raynor)A the key point of the theory of conditioning is that” you can train an animal to do anything if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, s timulus, response, and reinforcementB the idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repletion and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes were immediately corrected, and correct utterances were immediately praised.4.Cognitive theory:Chomsky)thinks that language is not a form of behavior,it is an intricate rule-based system a nd a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system.There are a fin ite number of grammatical rules in the system and with knowledge of these an infinite number of sentences can be produced.5.Constructivist theory:(John Dewey)the constructivist theory believes that learning is a proces in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences and what he/he r already knows6.Socio-constructivist theory: (Vygotsky) he emphasizes interaction and engagement with the tar get language in a social context based on the concept of “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD) and scaffolding.。

M A S T E R137摘 要：本文阐述了Krashen二语习得理论，探讨Krashen 的输入理论对当前大学英语教学的现实意义，旨在借鉴Krashen的理论摸索出适合我国的大学英语教学。

关键词：输入假设 二语习得 英语教学一、引言Krashen是美国著名的应用语言学家。

在二语习得研究领域，他提出的输入理论是颇有影响的理论， 并引发了众多学者的热烈讨论。

这一理论体系对第二语言学习与教学产生了巨大的影响。

本文拟从Krashen二语习得理论中的输入假设理论出发，探讨该理论对大学英语教学的指导和启发作用。

二、Krashen二语习得理论K r a s h e n受乔姆斯基的语言内在天赋理论（i n n a t e theory）的启发，他提出了颇具影响的二语习得理论模式。

该模式以5个假设为基础，即习得—学习假设（the Acquisition Learning Hypothesis）、自然顺序假设（the Natural Order Hypothesis）、监控假设（the Monitor Hypothesis）、输入假设（the Input Hypothesis）和情感过滤假设（the affective Filter Hypothesis）. Krashen提出了自然习得（acquisition）与正式学习（learning）两个概念的划分，这也是他的理论的中心内容；在他的自然顺序假设理论中，他强调习得者在绝大多数情况下，遵循一个不变的先后顺序，语法结构也是依一定顺序而获得的。

在监控假设理论中，他认为人人有一个语言控制调节系统，学习者利用这一系统来调整自己的语言行为；在输入假设理论中，他强调当学习者能理解超出其语言水平的语言输入时，自然语言习得就会发生。

而情感过滤假设力图说明其他感情因素对二语习得的影响。

尽管Krashen 的理论是较全面的二语习得理论，但其中问题还很多，集中体现在区分“习得”与“学习”的定义上。

The Compelling (not just interesting) Input HypothesisStephen KrashenThe English Connection (KOTESOL) in pressIt is by now well-established that input must be comprehensible to have an effect on language acquisition and literacy development. To make sure that language acquirers pay attention to the input, it should be interesting. But interest may be not enough for optimal language acquisition. It may be the case that input needs to be not just interesting but compelling.Compelling means that the input is so interesting you forget that it is in another language. It means you are in a state of "flow" (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). In flow, the concerns of everyday life and even the sense of self disappear - our sense of time is altered and nothing but the activity itself seems to matter. Flow occurs during reading when readers are "lost in the book" (Nell, 1988) or in the "Reading Zone" (Atwell, 2007). Compelling input appears to eliminate the need for motivation, a conscious desire to improve. When you get compelling input, you acquire whether you are interested in improving or not.The evidence for the Compelling Input Hypothesis includes improvement as an unexpected result, the many cases of those who had no conscious intention of improving in another language or increasing their literacy, but simply got very interested in reading. In fact, they were sometimes surprised that they had improved.I included several cases like this in The Power of Reading (Krashen, 2004, pp. 22-24): Both students and teachers were surprised by the students' startling improvement in English after they became avid readers in English.More recently, Lao (Lao and Krashen, 2009) described the case of Daniel, a 12-year-old boy who came to the US at age eight from China. Daniel's Mandarin proficiency was clearly declining, despite his parents' efforts: They sent Daniel to a Chinese heritage language school but it was clear that Daniel was not interested in Mandarin. He was also not an enthusiastic participant in a summer heritage language program supervised by Dr. Lao, even though it included free reading.Then Dr. Lao gave Daniel a few books written in Chinese to take home. One was an illustrated chapter book, "The Stories of A Fan Ti." Daniel loved it. The book was a bit beyond his level, but thanks to the illustrations and his ability to understand some of the text, Daniel was very interested in the story, and begged his mother to read it to him. When Dr. Lao learned of this, she loaned Daniel more books from the "A Fan Ti" series, in comic book format. Daniel begged his mother to read more, from two to five stories everyday. Daniel liked the books so much that he would do the dishes while his mother read to him. Both Daniel and his mother were quite happy with this arrangement. Daniel's Mandarin was clearly improving, but he wasn't aware of it, nor was he particularly interested. He was only interested in the stories.The Compelling Input Hypothesis also explains why self-selected reading is typically more effective than assigned reading (e.g. S.Y. Lee, 2007).An important conjecture is that listening to or reading compelling stories, watching compelling movies and having conversations with truly fascinating people is not simply another route, another option. It is possible that compelling input is not just optimal: It may be only way we truly acquire language.ReferencesAtwell, Nancy. 2007. The Reading Zone. New York: Scholastic.Csikszentmihalyi , M. 1990. Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper Perennial.Krashen, S. 2004. The Power of Reading. Second edition. Portsmouth: Heinemann and Westport: Libraries UnlimitedLao, C. and Krashen, S. 2008. Heritage language development: Exhortation or good stories? International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching 4 (2): 17-18.Lee, S. Y. 2007. Revelations from Three Consecutive Studies on Extensive Reading. Regional Language Center (RELC) Journal , 38 (2), 150-170.Nell, V. 1988. Lost in a Book. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.。

Comments on Input Hypothesis, Interaction Hypothesis and Output Hypothesis 1 Input HypothesisIn Input Hypothesis, Krashen claimed that exposure to comprehensible input was necessary for SLL to take place. To make it specific, suppose that a L2 learner’s current language level is i then the L2 acquisition automatically takes place when a leaner understands the input containing grammatical forms that are at i+1, which is a little more advanced than the current level of the leaner’s interlanguage. In general, what Krashen stresses are the comprehensibility of input and the natural acquisition of language. But, a great number of scholars has pointed out the problems existing in Input Hypothesis. Firstly, it does not distinguish input and interaction ignoring the function that interaction displays in L2 acquisition. Secondly, this hypothesis is difficult to prove and it takes the process that language acquisition device modifies learners’ interlanguage system for granted. What is more, there is no clear definition and explanation of the state i+1, and whether the i+1 formula can apply to all aspects of language including vocabulary and phonology as well as syntax remains unknown.2 Interaction HypothesisAs the Input Hypothesis had been doubted by more and more scholars, Michael Long put forward Interaction Hypothesis, which was a further supplement or extension of the Input Hypothesis in the field of SLA. Unlike the Input Hypothesis deals with one-way communication, Interaction Hypothesis follows the input-interaction-acquisition model, which is two-way communication. But it does recognize the significance of comprehensible input. Long held that the effectiveness of comprehensible input could be largely increased when language learners have to negotiate for meaning. That is, interactional modification can make input more comprehensible. The earlier studies were criticized for being too one-sidedly preoccupied with functional aspects of interaction and for neglecting linguistic theories. To further his study, Long introduced the notion of negative evidence which can help learners notice the gap in their interlanguage and the notion of selective attention for the sake of clarifying the process by which input becomes intake. InLong’s view, interaction functions when learners relate input, inner learning mechanism and output together by selective attention. Although the new version becomes more complete and objective, it still has limitations.Firstly, almost all interactionist research is carried out in western or Anglophone educational setting and more cross-cultural studies will be needed to make the results more convincing. Secondly, negotiation for meaning is only a small part of the learners’ all interactional activities, but Long’s Interaction Hypothesis is based on this single part, which makes the theory less universal. Actually, people only admit that interactional modifications can result in increased comprehension but whether increased comprehension can lead to increased acquisition or not remains in doubt. Besides, interactionist research pays more attention to interactional modifications, recasts and other processes in communication through which learners focus on meaning thus neglecting the specific linguistic forms. Consequently, a coherent target language grammar study cannot be guaranteed.What is more, individual differences are not taken into consideration. Interaction Hypothesis tries to describe a satisfactory environment for learners where SLA can easily take place during interaction, but, learners’ ability of negotiating for meaning and their intention for negotiating are apparently different. Age, motivation, personality, language proficiency and other factors can influence their interactional modifications. For instance, negotiations for meaning fit learners at middle level best as beginners cannot negotiate effectively while higher learners are apt to focus on the opinions and explanations instead of comprehension. Thus, more specific research is needed.3Output HypothesisQuestioning Krashen’s Input Hypothesis and Long’s Interaction Hypothesis, Swain put forward Output Hypothesis which extent the acquisition mode to “comprehensible input---interaction---output” pattern. She believed that output is not merely a matter of practice, but had much to do with the development of interlanguage. That is, the output of language not only helps L2 learners increasefluency but also pushes L2 learners to be aware of the gap between his interlanguage and target language which provides enough opportunities for them to introspect and analyze the problems existing in their interlanguage so that they can practice L2 correctly. However, whether output or output modification has an effect on SLL remains unknown as there is still a severe lack of data to demonstrate it.4 ConclusionsTo conclude, Input Hypothesis, interaction Hypothesis and Output Hypothesis all make contributions in the field of SLA as they have explained the process of language acquisition to some degree. However, they cannot explain all aspects in SLA. To further the studies, the process that how language is internalized needs to be considered.5 Suggestions for Foreign Language Teaching1 Providing proper inputThe main sources of input in the classroom are teachers’talk. Therefore, an English teacher must try as much as possible to make his or her talk proper to guarantee the quality of input as it can affect learners’ performance in classroom and, hence, their learning. Creating an environment that enables learners to use English as much as possible is also of great importance. The teacher must make sure that input for students is comprehensible as well as native like.2 Focusing on interactionLong’s emphasis on interactional modifications makes sense. The teacher should not regard students as passive recipients. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the use of the target language through interaction with others. In the teacher-students mode of interaction, the teacher must take advantage of the negative evidence that students make to enable them to be aware of the gap between their interlanguage and target language so that they can make progress. When organizing group activities, the teacher must make sure that the members in the same group should be students with different language proficiency so that interactional modifications could take place. Recasts of students also need to be considered as they can provide the increasedsaliency of the new form, which is most helpful in catching the attention of students, and thus making the L2 form available for processing and internalization.。

Krashen's five hypothesis——Krashen's Monitor Theory Five basic hypotheses:1) The Acquisition-Learning HypothesisAcquisition: naturally, subconscious,informal,Learning: consciously, formal, 'know about the second language, analysis and correction of errors formally and explicitly addressed.Krashen supports this claim as follows:(i) there can be acquisition without learning.Competent language learners mayspeak the language without consciouslyknowing the rules.(ii) there are cases where people can 'know' a rule but do not use it in normalinteraction.(iii) in any case, nobody knows all the rules of a language. Grammatical explanations even in languages as widely studied as English do not cover the largely unconsciously knowledge of a native-speaker. It often takes linguists years todescribe rules which are relatively easily acquired (Ellis 1985).Acquisition and Learning are not defined by 'where' a second language occurs. Formal learning in the street. The distinction is a central idea in education theory:between deductive (推理:from general to particular) and inductive (归纟内［approaches; classroom and naturalistic learning; formal and informal language learning.2) The Natural Order HypothesisGrammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order for both children and adults, irrespective of the language being learnt. Some rules tend to come early and others late. The order does not appear to be determined solely by formal simplicity and there is evidence that it is independent of the order in which rules are taught in language classes.Whena learner engages in natural communication, then the standard order will occur.3) The Monitor HypothesisThe Monitor is an editing device that may operate before language performance.Utterances may be modified by being acted upon by the Monitor of learnt knowledge. Such editing may occur before the natural output of speech; it may occur after the output via a correctingdevice.Krashen suggests that monitoring occurs when there is sufficient time, when there is pressure to communicate correctly and not just convey meaning, and when the appropriate rules of speech are known.Put it the other way:1) there must be time for a speaker to useconscious rules effectively. Normalconversation does not allow for thismonitoring.2) time alone is not enough. The speaker's attention must also be focused on Form.3) the speaker must know the rule before the monitor can be used.Examples include knowing the correct tense to use, when to use the third or first person and rules about plurals. This hypothesis has been criticized for being untestable and for a lack of supportive research evidence.4) The Input HypothesisTo explain how language acquisition occurs, Krashen proposes that when learners are exposed to grammatical features a little beyond their current level, those features are 'acquired'. Krashen emphasizes that 'acquisition' is the result of comprehensible language input and not of language production. Input is madecomprehensible because of the help provided by the context. If the language student receives understandable input, language structures will be, according to Krashen, naturally acquired. For Krashen, the ability to communicate in a second language'emerges' rather than is directly put in place by teaching. Second languageis said to be caused by the process of understanding second language input.Krashen lists a number of lines of evidence to support the input hypothesis:O the sile nt period: this is based on the fact that childre n in an L2 situati on sometimes remain silent for several weeks. Similarly, young children are exposed to their mother tongue (and obviously understand it) before they begin to speak.O age difference: younger learners mayget more comprehensible input because they tend to engage in 'here-and-now' interactions. Older learners may make faster progress initially, however, because they are exposed to more comprehensible input thanks to their broader world knowledge and because of the communicative strategies they have already developed in their L1.O the effect of exposure: the more learners are exposed to comprehensible input, the more their language proficiency develops. Learners who do not have access to comprehensible input are held up in their development.O immersion, bilingual and sheltered language teaching: students in these programs learn effectively because they receive comprehensible input where the focus is on the subject matter being taught rather than the form of the language.O simple codes (care taker speech, motherese, foreigner talk, etc.) provide ideal input because (a) they are used to communicate meaning, not form, (b) they are roughly tuned to the learners' current level of linguistic competence, and they follow the 'here-and-now' principle which helps the learners understand.O the effects of instruction: instruction is helpful when it is the primary source of comprehensible input. Formal instruction is only helpful because it is sourceof comprehensible input. Methods that focus on comprehensible input are assumed to be superior to grammar-based or drill-based methods which focus on learningInput is language which a learner hears or receives and from which he/she can learn. Intake isinput which is actually integrated into the learner's interlanguage.'speakers acquire Ian guage in only one way - by un dersta nding messages, or by recei ving 'comprehe nsible (or better still comprehe nded) in put' •…Wemovefrom i, our current level, to i + 1, the next level along the natural order, by understanding input containing i +1'.5) The Affective Filter HypothesisAn affective filter was proposed by Dulay & Burt (1977) with the idea that thereis a filter that determines how mucha person learns in a formal orinformal language setting. The filter comprises affective factors such as attitudes to language, motivation, self-confidence and anxiety.Thus learners with favorable attitudes and self-confidence may have 'a low filter' with consequent efficient second language learning. Those with unfavourable attitudes and / or high anxiety have 'high filters' and so the input of second language learning may be blocked or impeded. The affective filter proposedby Krashen influences the rate of development in second language learning and the level of success in becoming bilingual.Krashen: comprehensible input may not be utilised by second language acquirers if there is a 'mental block' that prevents them from fully profiting from it. If the affective barrier is down . when the learner is motivated, confident, and not anxious), comprehensible input reaches the Language Acquisition Device.The affective filter has 4 functions:i) it determines the selection of language models;ii) it determines which part of the language will be attended to first;iii) it determines when language acquisition efforts should cease;iv) it determines the speed of acquisitionSummary of the 5 hypothesis'People acquire second languages only if they obtain comprehensible input and if their affective filters are low enough to allow the input 'in'. When the filter is 'down' and appropriate comprehensible input is presented (and comprehended), acquisition is inevitableIt is, in fact, unavoidable and cannot be prevented - the language 'mental organ' will function just as automatically as any other organ'(Krashen 1985:4)Krashen's theory applied to the classroom (discuss)(1) the goal of teaching must be to supply understandable input in order for the child or adult to acquire language easily. A good teacher therefore is someonewho continuously delivers at a level understandable by the second language speaker.Just as father/mother talk (motherese) helps the young child to acquire the first language by a simplified and comprehensible language (and nonverbal language), so an effective teacher is said to facilitate second language learning by ensuring a close match between the level of delivery and the level that is understandable.(2) teaching must prepare the learner for real life communication situations. The classroom needs to provide conversational confidence so that, when in the outside world, the student can both linguistically cope and continue language learning.Language and communication are the two sides of the same coin.Teachers should provide opportunities for communication. McNamara (1973) has argued that'the really important part of motivation lies in the act of communication.Rossier (1975) also emphasizes the importance of a desire to communicate, arguing that without this, students' motivation may not be effective. It is the need to get meanings across and the pleasure experienced whenthis is achieved that provides the motivation to learn an L2. Teachers also should provide opportunities for group work.Teachers should try to ensure that students' interest is engendered as a result of a good rapport with the learners. As Finocchiaro (1981) puts it:The moment of truth--- the enhancement of motivation--- occurs when the teacher closes the classroom door, greets his students with a warm, welcoming smile, and proceeds to interact with various individuals by making comments or asking questions which indicate personal concern.(3) teachers must ensure that learners do not become anxious or defensive inlanguage learning. This relates to the Affective Filter hypothesis. The confidence of the learner must be encouraged in a language acquisition process.Whena learner is relaxed, confident and not anxious, then the input of the classroom situation will be more efficient and effective. If teachers insist on children conversing before they feel comfortable in doing so, or a teacher constantly corrects errors and makes negative remarks, the learner may feel inhibited in learning.(4) formal grammar teaching is of limited value because it contributes to learning rather than acquisition. Only simple rules should be learnt. Complex rules will not be used consciously or unconsciously by the language learner. Therefore, there appears little to be gained from formally teaching the rules of a second language.(5) errors should not be corrected when acquisition is occurring. They may be corrected when the goal is formal learning. Error correction is valuable when learning simple rules but may have negative effects in terms of anxiety and inhibition.For Krashen, a 'Natural Approach' is required in language teaching. The NaturalApproach is very different form traditional grammar teaching and languagelaboratory types of approach. Its main tenets are as follows: communicative skills should be the aim of the good language classroom; comprehension of language should precede production (listening should precede speaking);speaking and then writing will emerge when the language learner is ready and should not be forced; acquisition rather than formal learning is central in good language learning; and the affective filter needs to be kept low.Problems with the Monitor ModelMcLaughlin (1987) criticises Krashen for not defining his terms with enough precision and for basing his theory on weak empirical evidence. The theory, furthermore, fails to make clear predictions. McLaughlin lists the following problems:★the learning -acquisition distinction is not clearly enough defined to allow for empirical testing. Leakage from learnt to acquired seems not only possible but well-substantiated.When 'learnt' knowledge is automatised through practice it becomes 'acquired' ., available for spontaneous use).★variation is explained in terms of monitored and unmonitored performance andthere is no provision for partial monitoring . the Monitor is either on or off).Sociolinguistic research, however, shows that all speakers engage in 'small-m' monitoring in that their speech varies on a careful-non-careful continuum according to the level of attention to form. This attention to form does not necessarily imply the use of articulated rules of usage.★Krashen's case for the natural order hypothesis is based largely on morpheme studies which are questionable and provide little information about the process of acquisition because they focus on final form . the product).★the input hypothesis is untesta ble because no definition is given of 'comprehensible input' or of the constructs i and i +1. The hypothesis also fails to explain the elimination of incorrect intermediate forms in the learner's interlanguage and provides no way of distinguishing between different instructional methods because each,if effective, can be argued to provide comprehensible input. There seems a contradiction between the emphasis placed on the crucial component of 'rough tuned' input (the external environment) and the natural order hypothesis (an internal process).★the affective filter hypothesis is vague and does not explain how the filter develops or why, for example, it affects language acquisition in adults but not in children. Affectivity may just as well influence a learner's conscious learning by interfering with or aiding concentration, memory, hypothesis formation, or assiduity.△many researchers agree with Krashen on basic assumptions such as the need to move from grammar-based to communication-based instruction, the role of affective factors in language learning and the importance of acquisitional sequences in second language acquisition.The theory has, nevertheless, been criticized because it tries to achieve too much and makes assertions which cannot be proved or, indeed, contradicted by empirical evidence.。

Krashen’s Five Hypotheses and Its ApplicationsAbstract: In the field of Second Language Acquisition, researchers have put forward various theoretical models. Among these models, Stephen Krashen put forward the first Model of second language acquisition. That is the monitor model which has a positive impact on application of teaching and learning. The model includes five hypotheses —the Acquisition-learning Hypothesis, the Natural Order Hypothesis, the Monitor Hypothesis, the Input Hypothesis, and the Affective Filter Hypothesis. This theory has been widely used in teaching and learning.In addition,it has made a great contribution to teaching and learning. This essay will discuss Krashen’s Five Hypotheses and Its ApplicationsKey word: Acquisition-learning Hypothesis, Natural Order Hypothesis, Monitor Hypothesis, Input Hypothesis, Affective Filter Hypothesis.1.IntroductionIn the 1970s, there was a huge amount of linguistics who promoted the theory Creative Construction Hypothesis (创造性构造假设,没找到这个词的翻译,不知道这个对不对）to learn a second language according to input and inborn learning strategies, among which Monitor Theory of Krashen’s is the most popular and influencial.Moniter Theory, as a term in second language acquisition, is also called the Five Hypothesis. It is a revised expanding version of the Monitor Model in 1970s. It is promoted by Krashen, born in 1941,Chicago, and aroused tremendous effects around the linguistics department in the 1980s, including the Acquisition-learning Hypothesis, the Natural Order Hypothesis, the Moniter Hypothesis, Input Hypothesis, and the Affective Filter. It is systematically claimed in Krashen’s book Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning in 1985.However, how to apply Monitor Theory is always been a controversial item. In this essay, we will discuss .........(看你们后面找的是哪些人物对该理论的运用)In the late 1970 s, American linguist Krashen put forward the first Model of second language acquisition. That is the monitor model。

Chapter 11 Second language acquisition第二语言习得知识点：1.*Definition: second language acquisition; overgeneralization; interlanguage2.Connections between first and second language acquisition3.Contrastive analysis4.*Error analysis5.Characteristics of interlanguage6.*Krashen’s Input Hypothesis7.Individual Differences in second language acquisition: language aptitude; motivation;#learning strategies考核目标：识记：Definition: second language acquisition; overgeneralization; interlanguage领会：Connections between first and second language acquisition; Contrastive analysis; Error analysis; Characteristics of interlanguage; Individual Differences in second language acquisition简单应用：Krashen’s Input Hypothesis一、定义1. Second Language Acquisition(SLA)第二语言习得：refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language. 指一个人在习得其母语之后是如何习得一门第二语言系统的研究。

一填空1.语言变化包括phonological change(音位变化) , morphologicalchange（形态变化）, syntactic change（句法变化）,lexical and semantic changes（词法和语义变化）。

2.单词的意义变化可体现在哪三个方面widening of meaningnarrowing of meaning ,meaning shift3.决定语域的三个变量：field of discourse(语场)、tenor ofdiscourse(语旨)、mode of discourse（语式）。

4.关于语言习得的三个理论：a behaviorist of language acquisition（行为主义者的语言习得观）、an innatist view of language acquisition(语言天生主义者的语言习得观)、an interactionist view of language acquisition(互动主义者的语言习得观)。

5.NL:TL comparisons ( Contrastive Analysis)对比分析：汉语—英语,IL: TL comparisons (Error Analysis)错误分析：汉语—英语，NL:IL comparisons (Transfer Analysis) 利用中介语分析6.克鲁申“i+1”理论：Krashen’s Input Hypothesis：Krashen make adistinction between acquisition & learning.He put forward that learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving comprehensible input.He defined comprehensible input as “i + 1” :“i”represents learners’ current state of knowledge, the next stage is an “i + 1”.Krashen mistook input and intake, thus receive criticism.7.第二语言习得中个体差异包括：Language aptitude（能力），Motivation，Learning strategies ，Age of acquisition（习得年龄），Personality 。