胡佛《区域经济学导论》英文版
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An Introduction to
Regional Economics
Edgar M. Hoover and Frank Giarratani
1 Introduction
1.1 WHAT IS REGIONAL ECONOMICS?
Economic systems are dynamic entities, and the nature and consequences of changes that take place in these systems are of considerable importance. Such change affects the well-being of individuals and ultimately the social and political fabric of community and nation. As social beings, we cannot help but react to the changes we observe. For some people that reaction is quite passive; the economy changes, and they find that their immediate environment is somehow different, forcing adjustment to the new reality. For others, changes in the economic system represent a challenge; they seek to understand the nature of factors that have led to change and may, in light of that knowledge, adjust their own patterns of behavior or attempt to bring about change in the economic, political, and social systems in which they live and work.
In this context, regional economics represents a framework within which the spatial character of economic systems may be understood. We seek to identify the factors governing the distribution of economic activity over space and to recognize that as this distribution changes, there will be important consequences for individuals and for communities.
Thus, regional or "spatial" economics might be summed up in the question "What is where, and why—and so what?" The first what refers to every type of economic activity: not only production establishments in the narrow sense of factories, farms, and mines, but also other kinds of businesses, households, and private and public institutions. Where refers to location in relation to other economic activity; it involves questions of proximity, concentration, dispersion, and similarity or disparity of spatial patterns, and it can be discussed either in broad terms, such as among regions, or microgeographically, in terms of zones, neighborhoods, and sites. The why and the so what refer to interpretations within the somewhat elastic limits of the economist's competence and daring.
Regional economics is a relatively young branch of economics. Its late start exemplifies the regrettable tendency of formal professional disciplines to lose contact with one another and to neglect some important problem areas that require a mixture of approaches. Until fairly recently, traditional economists ignored the where question altogether, finding plenty of problems to occupy them without giving any spatial dimension to their analysis. Traditional geographers, though directly concerned with what is where, lacked any real technique of explanation in terms of human behavior and institutions to supply the why, and resorted to mere description and mapping. Traditional city planners, similarly limited, remained preoccupied with the physical and aesthetic aspects of idealized urban layouts.
This unfortunate situation has been corrected to a remarkable extent within the last few decades. Individuals who call themselves by various professional labels—economists, geographers, ecologists, city and regional planners, regional scientists, and urbanists—have joined
to develop analytical tools and skills, and to apply them to some of the most pressing problems of the time.
The unflagging pioneer work and the intellectual and organizational leadership of Walter Isard since the 1940s played a key role in enlisting support from various disciplines to create this new focus. His domain of "regional science" is extremely broad. This book will follow a less comprehensive approach, using the special interests and capabilities of the economist as a point of departure.
1.2 THREE FOUNDATION STONES
It will be helpful to realize at the outset that three fundamental considerations underlie the complex patterns of location of economic activity and most of the major problems of regional economics.
The first of these "foundation stones" appears in the simplistic explanations of the location of industries and cities that can still be found in old-style geography books. Wine and movies are made in California because there is plenty of sunshine there; New York and New Orleans are great port cities because each has a natural water-level route to the interior of the country; easily developable waterpower sites located the early mill towns of New England; and so on. In other words, the unequal distribution of climate, minerals, soil, topography, and most other natural features helps to explain the location of many kinds of economic activity. A bit more generally and in the more precise terminology of economic theory, we can identify the complete or partial immobility of land and other productive factors as one essential part of any explanation of what is where. Such immobility lies at the heart of the comparative advantage that various regions enjoy for specialization in production and trade.
This is, however, by no means an adequate explanation. One of the pioneers of regional economics, August L?sch, set himself the question of what kind of location patterns might logically be expected to appear in an imaginary world in which all natural resource differentials were assumed away, that is, in a uniformly endowed flat plain.1In such a situation, one might conceivably expect (1) concentration of all activities at one spot, (2) uniform dispersion of all activities over the entire area (that is, perfect homogeneity), or (3) no systematic pattern at all, but a random scatter of activities. What does actually appear as the logical outcome is none of these, but an elaborate and interesting regular pattern somewhat akin to various crystal structures and showing some recognizable similarity to real-world patterns of distribution of cities and towns. We shall have a look at this pattern in Chapter 8. What the Christaller-L?sch theoretical exercises demonstrated was that factors other than natural-resource location play an important part in explaining the spatial pattern of activities.
In developing his abstract model, L?sch assumed just two economic constraints determining location: (1) economies of spatial concentration and (2) transport costs. These are the second and third essential foundation stones.
Economists have long been aware of the importance of economies of scale, particularly since the days of Adam Smith, and have analyzed them largely in terms of imperfect divisibility of production factors and other goods and services. The economies of spatial concentration in their turn can, as we shall see in Chapter 5 and elsewhere, be traced mainly to economies of scale in specific industries.
Finally, goods and services are not freely or instantaneously mobile: Transport and communication cost something in effort and time. These costs limit the extent to which advantages
of natural endowment or economies of spatial concentration can be realized.
To sum up, an understanding of spatial and regional economic problems can be built on three facts of life: (1) natural-resource advantages, (2) economies of concentration, and (3) costs of transport and communication. In more technical language, these foundation stones can be identified as (1) imperfect factor mobility, (2) imperfect divisibility, and (3) imperfect mobility of goods and services.
1.3 REGIONAL ECONOMIC PROBLEMS AND THE PLAN OF THIS BOOK
What, then, are the actual problems in which an understanding of spatial economics can be helpful? They arise, as we shall see, on several different levels. Some are primarily microeconomic, involving the spatial preferences, decisions, and experiences of such units as households or business firms. Others involve the behavior of large groups of people, whole industries, or such areas as cities or regions. To give some idea of the range of questions involved and also the approach that this book takes in developing a conceptual framework to handle them, we shall follow here a sequence corresponding to the successive later chapters.
The business firm is, of course, most directly interested in what regional economics may have to say about choosing a profitable location in relation to given markets, sources of materials, labor, services, and other relevant location factors. A nonbusiness unit such as a household, institution, or public facility faces an analogous problem of location choice, though the specific location factors to be considered may be rather different and less subject to evaluation in terms of price and profit. Our survey of regional economics begins in Chapter 2 by taking a microeconomic viewpoint. That is, all locations, conditions, and activities other than the individual unit in question will be taken as given: The individual unit's problem is to decide what location it prefers.
The importance of transport and communication services in determining locations (one of the three foundation stones) will become evident in Chapter 2. The relation of distance to the cost of the spatial movement of goods and services, however, is not simple. It depends on such factors as route layouts, scale economies in terminal and carriage operations, the length of the journey, the characteristics of the goods and services transferred, and the technical capabilities of the available transport and communication media. Chapter 3identifies and explains such relations and will explore their effects on the advantages of different locations.
In Chapter 4, an analysis of pricing decisions and demand in a spatial context is developed. This analysis extends some principles of economics concerning the theory of pricing and output decisions to the spatial dimension. As a result, we shall be able to appreciate more fully the relationship between pricing policies and the market area of a seller. We shall find also that space provides yet another dimension for competition among sellers. Further, this analysis will serve as a basis for understanding the location patterns of whole industries. If an individual firm or other unit has any but the most myopic outlook, it will want to know something about shifts in such patterns. For example, a firm producing oil-drilling or refinery equipment should be interested in the locational shifts in the oil industry and a business firm enjoying favorable access to a market should want to know whether it is likely that more competition will be coming its way.
While some of the issues developed in Chapter 4 concern factors that contribute to the dispersion of sellers within an industry, Chapter 5 recognizes the powerful forces that may draw sellers together in space. From an analysis of various types of economies of spatial concentration and a description of empirical evidence bearing on their significance, we shall find that the nature of this foundation stone of location decisions can have important consequences for local areas or
regions.
Chapter 6 introduces explicit recognition of the fact that activities require space. Space (or distance, which is simply space in one dimension) plays an interestingly dual role in the location of activities. On the one hand, distance represents cost and inconvenience when there is a need for access (for instance, in commuting to work or delivering a product to the market), and transport and communication represent more or less costly ways of surmounting the handicaps to human interaction imposed by distance. But at the same time, every human activity requires space for itself. In intensively developed areas, sheer elbowroom as well as the amenities of privacy are scarce and valuable. In this context, space and distance appear as assets rather than as liabilities.
Chapter 6 treats competition for space as a factor helping to determine location patterns and individual choices. The focus here is still more "macro" than the discussion of location patterns developed in preceding chapters, in that it is concerned with the spatial ordering of different types of land use around some special point—for example, zones of different kinds of agriculture around a market center. In Chapter 6, the location patterns of many industries or other activities are considered as constituents of the land-use pattern of an area, like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. Many of the real problems with which regional economies deal are in fact posed in terms of land use (How is this site or area best used?) rather than in terms of location per se (Where is this firm, household, or industry best situated?). The insights developed in this chapter are relevant, then, not only for the individual locators but also for those owning land, operating transit or other utility services, or otherwise having a stake in what happens to a given piece of territory.
The land-use analysis of Chapter 6 serves also as a basis for understanding the spatial organization of economic activity within urban areas. For this reason, Chapter 7employs the principles of resource allocation that govern land use and exposes the fundamental spatial structure of urban areas. Consideration is given also to the reasons for and implications of changes in urban spatial structure. This analysis provides a framework for understanding a diverse array of problems faced by city planners and community developers and redevelopers.
In Chapter 8, the focus is broadened once more in order to understand patterns of urbanization within a region: the spacing, sizes, and functions of cities, and particularly the relationship between size and function. Real-world questions involving this so-called central-place analysis include, for example, trends in city-size distributions. Is the crossroads hamlet or the small town losing its functions and becoming obsolete, or is its place in the spatial order becoming more important? What size city or town is the best location for some specific kind of business or public facility? What services and facilities are available only in middle-sized and larger cities, or only in the largest metropolitan centers? In the planned developed or underdeveloped region, what size distribution and location pattern of cities would be most appropriate? Any principles or insights that can help answer such questions or expose the nature of their complexity are obviously useful to a wide range of individuals.
Chapter 9deals with regions of various types in terms of their structure and functions. In particular, it concerns the internal economic ties or "linkages" among activities and interests that give a region organic entity and make it a useful unit for description, analysis, administration, planning, and policy.
After an understanding of the nature of regions is developed in Chapter 9, our attention turns to growth and change and to the usefulness and desirability of locational changes, as distinct from rationalizations of observed behavior or patterns. Chapter 10 deals specifically with people and
their personal locational preferences; it is a necessary prelude to the consideration of regional and urban development and policy that follows. Migration is the central topic, since people most clearly express their locational likes and dislikes by moving. Some insight into the factors that determine who moves where, and when, is needed by anyone trying to foresee population changes (such as regional and community planners and developers, utility companies, and the like). This insight is even more important in connection with framing public policies aimed at relieving regional or local poverty and unemployment.
Chapters 11and 12, dealing with regional development and related policy issues, are concerned wit the region as a whole plus a still higher level of concern; namely, the national interest in the welfare and growth of the nation's constituent regions. Chapter 11, building on the concepts of regional structure developed in Chapter 9, concentrates on the process and causes of regional growth and change. Viewing the region as a live organism, we develop a basic understanding of its anatomy and physiology. Chapter 12 proposes appropriate objectives for regional development (involving, that is, the definition of regional economic "health"). It analyzes the economic ills to which regions are heir (pathology) and ventures to assess the merits of various kinds of policy to help distressed regions (therapeutics).
Throughout this text, evidence of the special significance of the "urban" region will be found. Discussions of economies associated with the spatial concentration of activity, land use, and regional development and policy have important urban dimensions. It is fitting, the, that the last chapter of the text, Chapter 13, focuses on some major present-day urban problems and possible curative or palliative measures. Attention is given to four areas of concern (downtown blight, poverty, urban transport, and urban fiscal distress) in which spatial economic relationships are particularly important and the relevance of our specialized approach is therefore strong.
It is hoped that this discussion has served to create an awareness of some basic factors governing the spatial distribution of economic activity and their importance in a larger setting. The course of study on which we are about to embark will introduce a framework for understanding the mechanisms by which these factors have effect. It holds out the prospect of developing perspective on associated problems and a basis for the analysis of those problems and their consequences.
SELECTED READINGS
Martin Beckmann, Location Theory (New York: Random House, 1968).
Edgar M. Hoover, "Spatial Economics: Partial Equilibrium Approach," in Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York: Macmillan, 1968).
Walter Isard, Location and Space-Economy (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1956).
August L?sch, Die r?umliche Ordnung der Wirtschaft (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1940; 2nd ed., 1944); W. H. Woglom (tr.), The Economics of Location (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1954).
Leon Moses, "Spatial Economics: General Equilibrium Approach," in Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York: Macmillan, 1968).
Hugh O. Nourse, Regional Economics (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968).
Harry W. Richardson, "The State of Regional Economics," International Regional Science Review, 3, 1 (Fall 1978), 1-48.
Harry W. Richardson, Regional Economics (Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1979).
ENDNOTES
1. A point of departure for L?sch's work was that of a predecessor, the geographer Walter Christaller, whose studies were more empirically oriented.
An Introduction to Regional Economics
Edgar M. Hoover and Frank Giarratani
2 Individual Location Decisions
2.1 LEVELS OF ANAL YSIS AND LOCATION UNITS
Later in this book we shall come to grips with some major questions of locational and regional macroeconomics; our concern will be with such large and complex entities as neighborhoods, occupational labor groups, cities, industries, and regions. We begin here, however, on a microeconomic level by examining the behavior of the individual components that make up those larger groups. These individual units will be referred to as location units.
Just how microscopic a view one takes is a matter of choice. Within the economic system there are major producing sectors, such as manufacturing; within the manufacturing sector are various industries. An industry includes many firms; a firm may operate many different plants, warehouses, and other establishments. Within a manufacturing establishment there may be several buildings located in some more or less rational relation to one another. Various departments may occupy locations within one building; within one department there is a location pattern of individual operations and pieces of equipment, such as punch presses, desks, or wastebaskets.
At each of the levels indicated, the spatial disposition of the units in question must be considered: industries, plants, buildings, departments, wastebaskets, or whatever. Although determinations of actual or desirable locations at different levels share some elements,1 there are substantial differences in the principles involved and the methods used. Thus, it is necessary to specify the level to which one is referring.
We shall start with a microscopic but not ultramicroscopic view, ignoring for the most part (despite their enticements in the way of immediacy, practicality, and amenability to some highly sophisticated lines of spatial analysis) such issues as the disposition of departments or equipment within a business establishment or ski lifts on a mountainside or electric outlets in a house. Our smallest location units will be defined at the level of the individual dwelling unit, the farm, the factory, the store, or other business establishment, and so on. These units are of three broad types: residential, business, and public. Some location units can make independent choices and are their own "decision units"; others (such as branch offices or chain store outlets) are located by external decision.
Many individual persons represent separate residential units by virtue of their status as self-supporting unmarried adults; but a considerably larger number do not. In the United States in 1980, only about one person in twelve lived alone. About 44 percent of the population were living in couples (mostly married); nearly 30 percent were dependent children under eighteen; and a substantial fraction of the remainder were aged, invalid, or otherwise dependent members of family households, or were locationally constrained as members of the armed forces, inmates of institutions, members of monastic orders, and so on. For these types of people, the residential location unit is a group of persons.
In the business world, the firm is the unit that makes locational decisions (the location decision unit), but the "establishment" (plant, store, bank branch, motel, theater, warehouse, and
区域经济学期末复习指导 1、区域：“区域”是由地质构造、气候条件、历史基础和现实条件等因素共同形成的地球上的一个特定范围，包含着经济、政治、文化和社会的差异性，特别是自然赋存的不均匀。 2、空间：经济活动中的“空间”，是经济变量、经济现象在一定地理范围内的存在形式和客观实体，它以分布的位置、形态、规模和相互作用为特征，不仅是事物的“容器”，而且是区域发展状态的“指示器”。 3、区域经济：指在人类经济资源总量稀缺、赋存不均和不能或不能完全自由流动的前提下，人类的经济活动与特定的地理位置相结合的复合体。简而言之，“区域经济”是指在一定区域内的人类经济活动。 4、区域经济学：区域经济学是一门研究区域经济发展问题的应用性经济科学。 5、区域经济的本质内涵及其基本特征： 1）“区域经济”的定义：指在人类经济资源总量稀缺、赋存不均和不能或不能完全自由流动的前提下，人类的经济活动与特定的地理位置相结合的复合体。简而言之，“区域经济”是指在一定区域内的人类经济活动。 2）区域经济”的基本特征：①经济资源分布的差异性；②经济发展程度的差异性；③经济利益的相对独立性；④经济系统的一定完整性。 6、区域经济学的科学定义及其基本内涵：、 区域经济学是一门研究区域经济发展问题的应用性经济科学。它的基本内涵是：第一，它的研究对象是区域经济发展；第二，它的研究重点是区域经济发展中的“问题”；第三，它的研究要以国家宏观调控和总体战略为指导；第四，它属于应用经济学范畴。 7、邓小平的社会主义区域经济理论（联系实际） 1）“部分先富”论提出：允许和鼓励一部分地区、一部分企业和一部分人，通过诚实劳动和合法经营先富起来。“部分先富”的战略思考：①改革必须首先打破平均主义；②允许和鼓励“部分先富”必然产生极大的示范和带动作用；③中国的经济建设必须从中国实际出发，按客观经济规律办事。 2）“共同富裕”论伟大构想：“社会主义的本质，是解放生产力，发展生产力，消灭剥削，消除两极分化， 最终达到共同富裕”。其内涵：①共同富裕是社会主义的光辉旗帜，社会主义应当而且能够避免两极分化；②共同富裕不是也不可能是同步富裕、同等富裕，部分先富是最终达到共同富裕的必由之路；③提倡先富起来的地区和个人，支持、帮助贫困地区及其慢富群体。 3）“两个大局”论：改革开放之初，内地支持和帮助沿海加快发展；到一定
1873年世界经济危机 1873年的世界经济危机导源于5月9日维也纳的债券交易，24小时内股票贬值了几亿盾;接踵而至的，是信用全面瘫痪和有价证券交易中止。维也纳的交易所危机很快蔓延到欧洲的其他交易所。由欧洲各国停止对美国的资本输出，导致美国纽约银行不再对铁路公司和工业界拨款，于是在9月18日，随着拥有北太平洋铁路大量债券的泽依-库克金融公司宣告破产，一场影响深远的世界性经济危机终于全面爆发。受这次危机打击或影响的国家，除了美国、德国、英国、法国和奥匈帝国外，还有俄国、意大利、荷兰、瑞典、比利时以及日本、阿根廷、印度等非西方国家。自1825年以来，资本主义经济每隔一段时间就爆发一次危机。但与以往各次危机比较，1873年的危机“就其时间之长、规模之大的强烈程度来说”，却是资本主义有史以来所经历过的危机中“最大的一次”。 随着危机的进一步展开，逐渐显现出与以往5次危机不同的表现形式与特点。 首先是危机的策源地和“震中”完全从英国移向美国。英国是资本主义经济的发源地，而且在长达一百年的时间里，始终处于世界经济的顶端或“中心”地位。因此，马克思始终强调《资本论》对资本主义矛盾运动规律的分析，“在理论阐述上主要用英国作为例证”。 [4]但是，1873年的危机却始自美国，而作为老牌资本主义的英国，迟至5年后才进入危机阶段。在1879年4月10日给尼?弗?丹尼尔逊的信中，马克思指出这次危机“在很多方面都和以往的现象不同”，特别是在英国发生危机之前，美国、南美洲、德国和奥地利等地“就出现这样严重的、几乎持续五年之久的危机，还是从来没有过的事”。(34.345) 其次，重工业既是危机中遭受打击的主要部门，也是危机过后经济高涨的基础。以往危机过程中，遭受重创的主要是轻工业。例如在英国，棉纺织业曾经是前4次危机的主要发源地和部门。1873年危机虽然最初表现为交易所混乱和信用危机，但具有决定意义的生产过剩却主要发生在重工业领域。无论是最先爆发危机的美国和德国，还是后来的英国，重工业在这一次经济周期的高涨和危机阶段都处于中心地位。危机期间，美国纺织业的生产只缩减了18-20%;德国1875年的棉花消费量下降了10%，1876年情况又趋于好转，各棉纺织厂消费的棉花甚至高于危机前的繁荣时期;英国的棉纺织业在1873、1874年仍在继续发展，生产量和出口量都没有下降。 第三，这次危机包括农业部门和部分非西方国家在内，从而真正具有世界性质。如果从“普遍”性生产过剩角度衡量，1825年、1837年的危机虽然在国际范围产生影响，但还都属于英国性质的危机。随着美国、法国等其他国家资本主义及其工厂制度的发展，1847年的危机开始具有国际根源。而1857年危机在资本主义历史上第一次不仅像1847年那样具有国际性，而且开始表现出世界性特征，这在一定程度上是1847年后西方国家工业化与世界市场迅速发展的一个结果。英、法、美、德四国当时占有世界工厂工业的4/5左右。然而在“世界性”方面，1873年危机才是真正当之无愧的。一是涉及到西方主要工业国家以及部分非西方
区域经济学 第一章导论 1. 什么是区域？ 特定的地理空间围，可大可小。视研究的问题与规划的目的决定一个区域的围与所要探讨的区域问题。 2、经济区域 从研究经济活动出发，对地理空间的围划定。指拥有多种类型的资源、可以进行多种生产性和非生产性社会经济活动的一片相对较大的空间围。经常指经济活动相对独立、部经济联系紧密、体系较为完整、具有特定功能的地域空间。 区域经济学研究的区域主要包括三大类：全国国土，一国围特定的区域，以及跨国界的特定区域。 3、经济区域形成的原因 (1)自然禀赋差异即要素分布的非均衡性。 (2)生产要素的不完全流动性。 (3)经济活动的不完全可分性。 (4)创新能力的集中性。 (5)产品和服务的不完全流动性。 4、区域经济学
研究对资源、要素和市场在空间上进行优化配置，促进区域经济发展、增进社会福利的经济科学。 区域经济学具有很强的综合性，需要熟悉其它相关的经济学知识，是一门应用性很强的边缘科学。 5、区域开发 区域开发是人类开发利用各种资源、谋求区域经济增长和区域经济发展的过程。区域开发是人们作用于区域经济发展过程的主观行为。 6、区域经济学研究对象 (1)如何组织区域经济发展。 (2)研究区际关系，经济分工与协作。 (3)区域经济政策。 7 、区位理论的初期研究 区域经济学这门学科的母体是区位理论。古典区位理论主要发源在20世纪初的德国。区位理论是微观经济理论。主要包括农业区位论、工业区位论、运输区位论。 8、农业区位论 杜能认为，影响农业布局，起决定作用的是级差地租，即特定农场（或地块）距离城市（农产品消费市场）的远近。在证明这些论点的过程
The distance is nothing ,when one has a motive. Mrs.Bennet’s eyes sparkled with pleasure. We must trespass a litter longer on your kindness. Mrs.Bennet was profuse in her acknowledgements. I often tell my other girls they are nothing to her. That is my idea of good breading;and those persons who fancy themselves very important and never open their mouths , quiet mistake the matter. A lady’s imagination is very rapid;it jumps from admiration to love,from love to matrimony . Pride relates more to our opinion of ourselves,vanity to what we would have others think of us. He is ate up with pride. Upon my word ! Affectation of candour is common enough –one meets it everywhere.But to be candid without ostentation or design—to take the good of everybody’s character and make it still better , and say nothing of the bad—belongs to you alone Mr. Bennet was so odd a mixture of quick parts, sarcastic humor, reserve, and caprice, that the experience of three and twenty years had been insufficient to make his wife understand his character. Everything nourishes what is strong already. She had high animal spirits,and a sort of self-consequence. The day passed much as the day before had done.
区域经济学的课后答案 1. 区域经济学的基本任务是什么？ 2.中国作为一个发展中大国，区域经济学的特殊作用是如何体现的？ 3.区域经济学的主要研究内容是什么？ 4.举例说明类型区和系统区的相同点和相异点 5.古典区位理论包括哪些内容？ 6.古典区位理论向现代区位现论发展的转折点是什么？ 7.区域经济学的理论体系是由几个部分组成的？ 8.当代区域经济学有哪些主要流派？ 9.目前中国区域经济学研究的主要问题是什么？ 10.自然资源的开发利用对区域经济发展的作用是什么？ 11.自然资源的价值表现在哪些方面？ 12.如何评价人力资源对区域经济发展的作用？ 13.区域经济的制度环境由哪些要素构成？ 14.如何实现区域经济的交易成本最小化？ 15.中国区域资源环境面临的主要问题是什么？ 16.实现中国区域资源环境合理利用的政策措施有哪些？17. 区域经济增长与国民经济增长的关系是什么？ 18.区域经济增长的机制有哪些？ 19.区域经济增长都有哪些模式？ 20.增长极模式的基本理论如何表述？ 21.发展轴模式的基本理论如何表述？ 22.网络模式的基本理论如何表述？ 23.区域经济空间转移模式的理论基础是什么？ 24. 区域经济产生衰退有几种原因？ 25.中国改革开放以来区域经济增长的基本经验有哪些？ 26.区域经济发展与区域经济增长内涵的异同。 27.钱纳里是如何论述区域经济发展阶段的？ 28.如何理解区域三次产业结构演变规律？为什么？ 29.为什么说现代第三产业是工业化高度发展的结果？ 30.如何选择地区主导产业？ 31.如何构造以地区主导产业为主体的产业结构框架？ 32.如何评价中国改革开放以前有悖于产业结构演变规律的工业化道路？ 33.为什么中国存在产业结构雷同的顽症？ 34.20世纪90年代以来中国区域产业结构演变的特征是什么？为什么？ 35.21世纪中国区域经济发展的核心问题是什么？ 36.产业布局区位选择的基本要素有哪些？ 37.影响区位选择的主要机制 是什么？ 38.产业布局指向的指向的概念 如何表述？ 39.产业布局指向都有哪些类 型？ 40.什么是产业布局指向的新 变化？ 41.产业布局地域合理规模与 产业聚集的关系是什么？ 42.新产业的基本概念是如何 表述的？ 43.我国高新产业布局有哪些 特点？ 44.绝对成本学说决定的区域贸 易是如何实现的？ 45.为什么发达地区与欠发达地 区进行贸易对双方都有好外？ 贸易条件是什么？如何实现区 域贸易利益？ 46.俄林是如何用双坐标说明区 域要素禀赋与区域贸易格局 的？ 47.中国作为大国，如何发挥动 态贸易利益？ 48.20世纪80年代以来，中国 的贸易条件是如何变化的？21 世纪中国如何不断改善国际贸 易条件？ 49.以中国汽车产业的发展为 例，说明雁行产业发展形态说在 中国的运用。 50.美国是如何打破地区封锁， 建立全国统一市场的？ 51.中国地区贸易格局最大的问 题是什么？如何解决？ 52.区域经济合作如何作用于区 域经济发展？ 53.如何认识新要素学说？在区 域经济发展中如何培育新要 素？ 54.工贸合作对于珠江三角洲地 区经济发展的作用是如何体现 的？如何评价这种作用？ 55.中国地区间资金合作的主要 障碍是什么？ 56.如何正确认识旅游业与劳务 输出的关系？ 57.如何通过技术合作加快落后 地区发展？ 58.与世界主要国家比较，中国 城市设置的特点与问题是什么? 59.论述城市化的概念与内涵。 59．城市化的动力机制是什么? 59．论述中国城市化的轨迹与特 征。 59．论述城乡结构转换对经济发 展的影响，并对其进行定量分 析。 59．克里斯塔勒中心地理论是如 何揭示城市形成过程的? 60.廖什对中心地理论的主要贡 献是什么？ 61.城镇体系有哪些类型？各有 什么特点？ 62.如何评价中国的城市发展方 针？ 63.为什么在“严格限制大城市 规模”的方针指导下，中国的大 城市规模却增长很快？如何评 价市场经济条件下政府政策的 绩效？ 65.中国城镇规模体系存在的主 要问题是什么？ 66.为什么说“增加城市个数是 调整城市规模结构的主要任 务”？ 67.为什么需要降低中国的设市 标准？ 68.简述基础设施的概念与特 征。 69.简述基础设施投资与区域经 济发展的关系。 70.对中外基础设施的规模、结 构进行比较分析。 71.计算中国改革开放以来的能 源弹性系数，并解释其曲线。 72.论述三峡建设对中国能源现 代化的意义 73.论述中国交通运输结构的特 点及发展趋势。 74.如何确定区域发展重心？ 75.中国区域重心的演变轨迹是 什么？请做出合理的解释。 76.核心区与外围区划分的理论 依据是什么？ 77.阐述并解释中国核心区与外 围区变化的基本格局 78.如何理解经济区划的功能和 作用？ 79.请分析并评价中国现阶段经 济区划的方案。 80.为什么要制订区域经济发展 战略？ 81.区域经济发展战略的基本含 义是什么？ 82.区域经济发展战略的预见性 表见在什么地方？ 83.区域经济发展战略的各类模 式分别适用于什么样的地区？ 84.我国目前实施的是哪类区域 经济发展战略？ 85.区域定位在区域发展战略的 制定中有什么特殊的意义？ 86.区域经济发展战略的目标体 系包括哪几个主要类型？ 87.区域产业结构与重点产业是 什么关系？ 88.区域经济规划的基本内容有 哪些？ 89.制定区域经济政策的理论基 础由哪几个方面构成？ 90.如何理解“超国家层面的区 域经济政策”？ 91.区域经济政策的作用表现在 哪些方面？ 92.各类区域经济政策之间有哪 些联系？ 93.简述区域经济政策中的区域 产业的投资政策。 94.区域经济协调发展有哪些质 的规定性？ 95.区域创新政策作用在区域经 济发展的哪些方面？ 96.如何估量地方政府对区域经 济发展的作用？ 97.你对目前关于区域经济政策 理论的争论有什么看法？ 98.什么是地区投资环境？它由 哪些要素组成？ 100.地区经济环境包含哪些内 容？、 101.地区的文化、政治和法律环 境对区域经济发展起什么作 用？ 102.区域投资环境评价有哪些 方法？ 103.什么是地区形象？为什么 要塑造地区形象？ 104.塑造地区形象要遵守哪些 形象？ 105.区域信息标志的建立有什 么作用？ 106.为什么说世界经济一体化 为区域经济学的发展提供了最 好的历史机遇？ 107.中国区域经济学的特殊历 史使命是什么？为什么？ 108.区域经济学发展与分化的 趋势是什么？ 109.举例说明区域经济理论对 产业选择的作用。 110.请列举出区域经济学未来 主要的发展方向。 答案 1．区域经济学的基本任务是什 么? 区域经济学有广义和狭义之分。 狭义的区域经济学是研究区域 经济发展和区际关系的科学。它 要回答一个区域是如何实现经 济增长和经济发展的，各个地区 以及主要城市在全国劳动地域 分工中具有什么样的优势，应该 处于什么样的地位，承担什么样 的功能；应该与其他地区建立什 么样的技术经济联系，如何建立 这样的联系。这是区域经济学必 须回答的问题，是研究任何区域 经济发展起码要解决的问题，也 是别的学科不能替代的研究领 域。 广义的区域经济学是研究区域 经济发展一般规律的科学。区域 经济学是以特定的空间为研究 对象的，而所有的经济现象都会 在这一空间发挥作用，区域经济 学必须研究在各种经济现象的 交互作用下，区域经济作为一个 相对独立整体的一般发展规律。 因此，研究区域经济学需要熟悉 其他相关的经济学知识，研究它 们在区域经济发展不同阶段的 作用方式和作用特征。同时，区 域经济学是以一定的地理空间 为研究对象的，因此，研究区域 经济学必须要熟悉地理学。实际 上，区域经济学是地理学与经济 学相结合的产物它是研究各种 经济现象在地理空间上发展变 化规律的科学。区域经济学是一 门应用性很强的边缘科学。 2．中国作为发展中的大国，区 域经济学的特殊作用是如何体 现的? 根据中国经济发展的特点，深入 研究适合中国国情的区域经济 学是中国经济发展的迫切需要， 在中国跨世纪的发展中，中国区 域经济学担负着特殊的历史使 命。 第一，是中国在新世纪发展中面 临的国际国内形势的需要。伴随 着进入2l世纪的钟声，人类社 会已进入一个全新的时代，发达 国家及相当一部分发展中国家
? 1 1637年郁金香狂热 ? 2 1720年南海泡沫 ? 3 1837年恐慌 ? 4 1907年银行危机 ? 5 1929年大崩溃 ? 6 1987年黑色星期一 ?7 1994年的墨西哥金融危机 ?8 1997年亚洲金融危机 ?9 2008年9月美国次贷风暴 ?10 2009年的次贷危机 ?11 1929-1939年美国大萧条时期 ?12 20世纪90年代北欧三国银行危机 ?13 1990-2003年日本银行危机 ?14 历次危机处理方式比较 ?15 1907年经济危机 ?16 1929年危机 ?17 1973年“石油危机” ?18 上世纪80年代债务危机 ?19 1987年金融地震 ?20 日本经济泡沫 ?21 亚洲四小龙告急 ?22 历次金融危机概览 ?23 危机发生前的典型特征 1637年郁金香狂热 在17世纪的荷兰，郁金香是一种十分危险的东西。1637年的早些时候，当郁金香依旧在地里生长的时候，价格已经上涨了几百甚至几千倍。一棵郁金香可能是二十个熟练工人一个月的收入总和。现在大家都承认，这是现代金融史上有史以来的第一次投机泡沫。而该事件也引起了人们的争议——在一个市场已经明显失灵的交换体系下，政府到底应该承担起怎样的角色？ 1720年南海泡沫 1720年倒闭的南海公司给整个伦敦金融业都带来了巨大的阴影。17世纪，英国经济兴盛。然而人们的资金闲置丶储蓄膨胀，当时股票的发行量极少，拥有股票还是一种特权。为此南海公司觅得赚取暴利的商机，即与政府交易以换取经营特权，因为公众对股价看好，促进当时债券向股票的转换，进而反作用于股价的上升。 1720年，为了刺激股票发行，南海公司接受投资者分期付款购买新股的方式。投资十
?《区域经济学》试题一、判定题（每小题2分，共10分）? 《区域经济学》试题 一、判定题（每小题2分，共10分） 1.区域经济开发的主体包括政府和企业。（） 2.人力资源开发是区域经济发展的根本推动力。（） 3.感应度系数是指某一部门增加一个单位最终使用时，对国民经济各部门所产生的生产需求波及程度。（） 4.任何地区都应放弃自身优势去发展那些在全国分工体系中具有优势地位的产业。（） 5.后向联系产业是为专门化产业提供产后服务或进一步加工的产业。（） 一、判断题（每小题2分，共10分） 1．√ 2．√ 3．× 4．× 5．× 二、不定项选择题（每小题2分，共30分） 1.区域经济学的理论来源包括（AB）。 A.经济地理学 B.区位理论 C.均衡增长理论 D.非均衡增长理论 2.埃德加?胡佛构筑区域经济学的三个基石是指（ABC）。 A.生产要素的不完全流动性 B.生产要素的不完全可分性 C.产品与服务的不完全流动性 D. 产品与服务的不完全可分性 3.区域自然资源利用的类型包括（ABCD）。 A.纯自然资源型 B.自然资源和社会资源结合型 C.社会资源为主、自然资源为辅型 D.资源缺乏型 4.影响交易成本的区域性原因包括（BCD）。 A. 区域自然环境 B.区域垄断及其竞争
C.区域集团形成及其竞争 D.区域间地方政府及其竞争 5.非均衡增长理论提出的“连锁效应”包括（ABD）。 A.前向关联效应 B.后向关联效应 C. 集聚效应 D.旁侧关联效应 6.区域开发的特点包括（ABCD）。 A.开发对象位置的明确性 B.开发范围的明确性 C.开发的时效性 D.开发行动的综合性 7.区域经济发展由传统社会向现代社会发展的要害性阶段是（B）。 A.工业化初期阶段 B.工业化中期阶段 C.工业化后期阶段 D.后工业化社会 8.产业结构演变的基本动因是（C）。 A.国民生产总值增加 B.海内生产总值增加 C.各产业产品需求收入弹性的差异 D.各产业技术进步及技术结构特征 9.影响产业区位选择的社会经济因素包括（ AB）。 A.人口和劳动力 B.市场 C.自然环境 D.自然资源 10.根据区域经济合作主体的不同，区域经济合作可分为（BCD）。 A.国际经济合作 B.民间合作 C.官方合作 D.官民合作 11.区域间的间接投资合作的形式包括（BD）。 A.股份合资 B.信贷 C.契约合资 D.证券投资 12.工业化促进城市化的经济条件包括（ABCD）。 A.工业化水平的不断提高 B.产业结构的递次演进
美国30年代经济危机的历史反思 2009-03-29韩毅高瑞扫校点击: 565 美国30年代经济危机的历史反思 对1929年世界经济大危机的反思 [编者按]在经济全球化的今天，由美国次贷危机所引发的经济危机已经波及世界的许多国家和地区，特别是在西方发达国家，对主要经济部门以至民生都产生了深刻影响。在我国现实生活中，我们也已经感觉到这场危机对金融业和某些涉外行业的巨大冲击。无疑，这场危机正在扩展之中，它正在向着更广阔的宽度和更深刻的层次推进。那么，这场危机会延续多久?还会对哪些经济部门产生影响?它究竟会把每个国家经济发展的各项指标跌到何等的深谷?对个人的生活会造成怎样的影响?继而，它又会对各国的社会和政治生活造成怎样的冲击?使世界体系和国际关系的格局发生哪些变动?世界各国会采取什么样的经济对策?等等，这都是我们当前十分关注的问题。 针对目前的局势，我们约请了几位相关领域的专家来反思1929年的经济大危机，希望能够从那场危机中获得一些经验和启发，作为观察今天这场危机的基础。这几位专家从那场危机发生的原因、对世界各主要资本主义国家所导致的连锁反应、从金融业的危机到对经济各个部门的影响、对世界经济发展指标打击的力度等方面进行了回顾；对危机对各国当时的社会和政治生活以及整个世界格局的影响也进行了分析。此外，学者们还对资本主义各国由此对经济政策所做的巨大调整和世界上著名的新经济理论的产生进行了描述。总之，他们给我们勾画了由那场危机引发的整个世界历史的变动和由此所引发的灾难与社会进步。 美国30年代经济危机的历史反思 韩毅 (辽宁大学历史学院教授) 《史学理论研究》2009年第1期
《区域经济学》单元作业题（1） 1-4 一、判断题（每题2分，共20分） 1.区域经济学是地理学与经济学相结合的产物，它是研究各种经济现象在地理空间上发展变化规律的科学。（√） 2.区域发展是一个主观的过程，是人们作用于区域经济开发过程的主观行为。（×） 3.区域经济开发有明确的开发主体，该主体自始至终控制着开发进程。 （√） 4.区域规划的主体包括政府和企业两大类，其中政府是第一主体，企业是第二主体。（×） 5.人力资源开发是区域经济发展的根本推动力。（√） 6.广义的区域经济增长是指一个区域内的社会总财富的增加。 （×） 7.区域内部产业部门的更替，就是把区域经济要素从衰退部门转到兴旺部门来，使相同的投入能够有更多的产出。（√） 8.一个地区的支柱产业就是该地区的主导产业。（×） 9.在区域经济学中，通常用区位商来判断一个产业是否构成地区专业化部门。（√） 10．感应度系数是指某一部门增加一个单位最终使用时，对国民经济各部门所产生的生产需求波及程度。 （×） 二、单项选择题（每题2分，共10分） 1.区域经济学形成于（B ）。 A.20世纪20年代 B.20世纪50年代 C.20世纪70年代 D.20世纪90年代 2.古典区位论向现代区位论发展的转折点是（C ）。 A.农业区位论 B.工业区位论 C.市场区位论 D.运输区位论 3.三次产业的划分是英国著名的经济学家（B ）首先提出来的。 A.库茨涅兹 B.科林·克拉克 C.配第 D.熊彼特 4.容易陷入纳克斯所说的“贫困恶性循环”之中的是（ D ）区域。 A纯自然资源型B自然资源和社会资源结合型 C社会资源为主、自然资源为辅型D资源缺乏型 1 / 14 5.下列哪种产业拥有的影响力系数最大？（A ） A建筑业B农业C采掘业D商业 三、多项选择题（每题2分，共10分） 1.区域经济学研究的区域主要包括（A C D ） A一国范围内特定的区域B单纯从事某项活动的小区 C全国国土D跨国界的特定区域 2.古典区位理论包括（B C D）。 A中心地理论B农业区位论C工业区位论D运输区位论 3.现代区域经济学的主要理论（A B C ）。
20世纪以来历次经济危机 中国财经报 2011-08-18 09:29:24 1907年银行危机 1907年10月，美国银行危机爆发，纽约一半左右的银行贷款都被高利息回报的信托投资公司作为抵押投在高风险的股市和债券上，整个金融市场陷入极度投机状态。 1929年大萧条 华尔街有史以来形势最为严峻的时刻。1922年到1929年，美国空前的繁荣和巨额报酬让不少美国人卷入到华尔街狂热的投机活动中，股票市场急剧升温，最终导致股灾，引发了美国乃至全球的金融危机，造成了1929年至1933年的经济大萧条，全球经济损失惨重。 1987年黑色星期一 1987年，因为不断恶化的经济预期和中东局势的不断紧张，造就了华尔街的大崩溃，这便是“黑色星期一”，标准普尔指数下跌了20%。 1990年储蓄和贷款危机 上世纪80年末和90年代初，银行业自大萧条以来出现了最严重的危机，超过1000 家的互助储蓄银行倒闭，其资产更是超过了5000亿美元。最终，为挽救此次危机所付出的代价超过了1500亿美元，其中1240亿美元由美国政府和纳税人承担，只有290亿美元是由互助银行业本身承担。 1996年日本楼市泡沫 上世纪90年代初日本的房地产泡沫破裂，房价下跌50%，使日本遭遇了长达10多年的经济低迷，房产价格跌幅超过75%。日本政府为了拯救倒闭的房贷公司，动用了公共资金。 1997年亚洲金融危机 1997年7月，泰国宣布放弃固定汇率制，实行浮动汇率制，从而引发了一场遍及东南亚的金融风暴。香港恒生指数大跌，韩国也爆发金融风暴，日本一系列银行和证券公司相
继破产。东南亚金融风暴演变为亚洲金融危机。 2008年美国次贷危机 雷曼兄弟破产、美林银行贱卖、摩根士丹利寻求合并，美国次贷风暴掀起的浪潮一波高过一波，美国金融体系摇摇欲坠，世界经济面临巨大压力。 摘自8月11日《江苏商报》
In this term,I read a book which named
《区域经济学》习题集 第一章绪论 一、名词解释1、区域2、经济区域3、区位4、经济区位5、集聚经济 1、经济活动相对独立，内部联系紧密而较为完整，具备特定功能的地域空间。 2、是人的经济活动造成的，围绕经济中心而客观存在的，具有特定地域构成要素，并且不可无限分割的经济社会综合体。 3、人类活动（人类行为）所占有的场所。 4、某一经济体为其社会经济活动所占有的场所。它强调由地理坐标（空间位置）所标识的经济利益差别。 5、若干个企业集中于一个地点，能为各个企业带来成本节约等经济利益。（各种经济活动在地理上相对集中所产生的相对节约） 二、简答题 1．区域的特征 2．区域经济学存在和发展的客观基础 3．区域经济学的研究对象 4．区域经济学的酝酿、兴起与发展过程 5．自然禀赋的差异性包括哪些因素？ 1．地域性、开放性、独立性。 2．自然禀赋的差异性，经济活动的极化性，空间距离的不可灭性。 3．是研究区域经济活动的自组织和区际经济联系，以及与此相关的区域决策的科学。 4．酝酿于上世纪20年代至50年代。凯恩斯主义所倡导的国家干预使一些学者比较系统地提供了区域开发的理论方法。兴起于上世纪六七十年代。区域经济学研究通过参加区域开发与规划实践比较系统地建立了区域经济学的理论基础。上世纪80年代以后，区域经济学有了很大发展，主要表现在新理论的创建与实践、区域经济发展与协调、运用最新科技手段上。 5．包括自然条件的不同性、资源的稀缺性，生产要素分布的不均衡性和不完全流动性。 三、对错题（判断对错，并改错）1．市场力的作用倾向于缩小地区间的差别。（） 2．区域经济学是“区域”与“经济”的简单叠加。（）
When Prid e Encounters Prejudice, Everything is Different Ⅰ: Jane Austen (16 December 1775 –18 July 1817), one of the most famous novelists in Britain, was born in Hampshire. She lived in the villages throughout her life. Although there were 2 suitors, she never married. She finished her first novel when she was only 21 years old. This work’s name was First Impressions (After amending, it had a new name: Pride and Prejudice). Ⅱ: Pride and Prejudice is a humorous story of love and marriage. Mr. Bennet was an English gentleman living in Hertfordshire with his wife. He had five daughters: the beautiful Jane, the clever Elizabeth, the bookish Mary, the immature Kitty and the wild Lydia. Because of the law, after the death of Mr. Bennet, their house would be inherited by a distant cousin whom they have never met. This family's future happiness and security dependent on the 5 daughters’ marriages. One day, a rich gentleman Mr. Bingley came and rented a large house in this country. His sisters and his best friend Mr. Darcy came together. Love was soon in the air for one of the 5 sisters, while another had a prejudice against Mr. Darcy. Then they experienced many things, but at last, Mr. Bingley married the oldest sister Jane, and Elizabeth overcame the prejudice and married to Mr. Darcy. It’s a happy ending. Ⅲ： Although Mr. Song said the book report should be objective，but I had to say this book touched my heart d eeply. The women written by Jane Austen still live in our world. Some like Charlotte Lucas, they choose a marriage without love just for money and a stable life. Some like Lydia, they are so frivolous and foolish that they flatter themselves that they can do anything well. Some like Mary, they are not good-looking but think themselves are the best ones. They look down every man while they are eager for a man’s love in their hearts. Some like Jane, they are kind and beautiful, but they are also reserved and feminine。They don’t have courage to fight for the love of their own but wait here in vain. And there are also some girls like innocent Ms Darcy or like vainglorious and superficially clever Bingley sisters. Of course, some girls like Elizabeth, they are clever, gentle, open-minded, and they know their own hearts. They never give in even facing a difficult situation. They are good ladies who are worth loving and cherishing. Jane Austen’s wisdom always appeals to me, which makes me smile through the whole reading.