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语言学概论-课后参考答案--杨信彰Charpter11.1.11. a. This sentence may have three interpretations: 1) He rolled from side to side in his grave. 2) He returned his grave. 3) He handed in his grave.b. There are two interpretations to this sentence: 1) They gave preference to both young men and young women. 2) They gave preference to women and young men.2. Units that have reference: I, saw, Mary, went, the library.Units that indicate structure: when, to.3. a. This sentence is grammatical, but is nonsensical.b. This sentence is ungrammatical and nonsensical.c. This is a good sentence.d. This is a good sentence.1.1.21. a. This sign is a symbol. It means we will have good luck. I know it from my cultural background, because the Chinese character "福" means "luck" and the color red symbolizes "goodness". The Chinese meaning of "upside down" is "倒", which has the similar pronunciation of "到(arrive)". Thus, when the character "福" is put upside down, it means that luck arrives.b. This sign is an icon. It means no smoking, and I know it from the picture.c. This sign is a mixture of a symbol and a icon. It means that "parking" is only allowed for disabled people.2. I think the house is on fire because smoke is a index of fire.3. To the physician, it means that the man has got a fever.4. I think so, but not exactly, because the difference of the consonants does not mean the bird in different places cries differently.1.1.31. according to the arbitrariness theory, the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention. Thus, the name Xiao Long is just a label for the son. However, in Chinese culture dragon was the symbol for the emperor. Thus, the name may have certain associative meanings.2. No. The speaker of a language, based upon the convention established in the speech community, associates linguistic signs with things and concepts. In people's mind, "pig" stands for foolishness and laziness. If I name it Pig Hair Shampoo, no one will buy it.3. Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use. Although the link between form and meaning is arbitrary, there existed certain relationship between them, which can be called rules. The individual does not have the power to change a sign in any way once it has become established in the linguistic community.1.1.41. I prefer to use the spoken language. In a supermarket, the spoken language is much more convenient for people to communicate with each other. People do not have the time and necessity to use written language in communication.2. I think listening and speaking should come first. The primary medium of language is sound, and language is primarily vocal. What's more, children can learn to listen and speak a foreign language more quickly than they read and write.1.1.51. No, I don't agree with this point of view. Language is human specific, so humans and dogs can not communicate with each other.2. A parrot only can say what it is taught. It can not form an infinite set of utterances from a finite use of units. So, a parrot talking can not be equated with human language.3. That is only the result of the stimulus-response training.4. Human language is primary over animal communication in the following aspects:1) Human has the ability to refer to things far remote in time and space. In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey such ability.2) Human has the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any animal communication system.5) Animal communication systems are closed-ended, whereas human languages are open-ended.1.1.61. The advanced technology such as telephones and the Internet makes human communication become much more convenient and frequent. People can communicate with others in remote places freely.2. There may exist several causes:1) The sender can not express himself or herself clearly.2) The receiver can not understand what the sender said.3) The receiver is unwilling to communicate with the sender.4) There exists misunderstanding because of the different cultural background of the sender and the receiver.3. We must pay key attention to learning the knowledge of the ways of thinking, acting and speaking of a language, for differences in this kind of knowledge may cause trouble in intercultural communication.1.2.11. a. Physiological functionb. Performative functionc. Phatic functiond. Informative function2. People like poetry because people can enjoy the rhythm and the melody of certain combinations of sounds in the poetry. And most creative uses of language in the poetry can provide people considerable pleasure through the generation of puns, paradoxes, ambiguities and metaphors.3. I may not say anything, but move the desk away.1.2.21. General functions refer to the particular individual uses of language whilst metafunctions refer to the larger, more general purposes underlying language use.2. No. According to Halliday, every sentence in a text is multifunctional and has three metafunctions simultaneously: ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.3. Halliday's functional theory emphasizes the relationship between language structure and the language functions in social life, while the traditional grammar emphasizes the forms of the sentence.1.3.11. I agree to the evolutionary theory which tends to believe that man evolved from lower forms of life, and so did language. This is a scientific approach to the origin of language as it is based on a wide range of studies over years by biologists, anthropologists, psychologists, neurologists, primatologists and linguists. With many significant changes since its early introduction, the evolutionary theory shows us the origin of language from various aspects, such as the organic evolution, environmental factors.2. 轰隆、乒乓、叽叽嘎嘎、叽里咕噜、汪汪3. Onomatopoetic words are imitations of the sounds of nature, and emotional ejaculations of pain, fear, surprise, pleasure, anger, etc. According to the invention theory, onomatopoetic words form the basis of language, or at least the core of the basic vocabulary.1.3.21. Usually, there are two main ways of classifying languages: the genetic (or genealogical) and the typological. The historical classification is based on the assumption that languages have diverged from a common ancestor. This criteria is to research into the history and relatedness of languages. On the other hand, the typological classification is based on a comparison of the formal similarities which exist between languages.。
《语言学概论》答案一、填空题（本题共7空格，每空格1分，共7分）1．索绪尔语音语义2．语音层符号层3．词法句法二、判断是非题：对的写“√”，错的写“×”（本题共13小题，每小题1分，共13分）1× 2√ 3√ 4√ 5√ 6 √ 7× 8× 9× 10× 11× 12×三、选择题（本题共28小题，每小题1分，共28分）D C D B D B A C D C B C B C C A D C B B C C A C B C D D四、简答题（本题共4小题，每小题10分，共40分）1．语言是交际工具；语言是最重要的交际工具；语言是人类独有的。
2．语言记载和传播着文化；语言本身也是一种文化。
3．同一种语言由于语音、语汇和语法等方面的差异在不同的地区形成的地域分支或变体叫地域方言。
社会方言则是指语言或方言内部同一定的社会特征和社群相关联的变体和特点。
相同点：社会方言和地域方言都属于一种语言变体，都是语言发展变化的结果，都以共同语作为基础。
不同点：首先，社会方言是适应社会分工需要而产生的全民语言的分支，是全民语言的社会变体。
而地域方言则是全民语言在不同地域上所产生的全民语言的分支，是语言发展不平衡性在地域上的反映，虽然都叫方言，但划分的角度是不同的。
其次，地域方言之间的主要差别表现在语音上，同时也反映在词汇系统和语法系统方面，而社会方言的主要差别则在一般词汇方面，语音、语法方面没有差别最后，地域方言在一定条件下能发展为独立的语言，而社会方言在任何条件下都不可能发展成为独立的语言。
4．大家[圆圆]地坐成了一个圈儿：显性语法关系大家坐成了一个（圆圆）的圈儿：隐性语法关系显性语法关系的特点概括起来有三点：成分之间是连续的；是直接成分之间的关系；成分之间的关系是单一的。
隐性语法关系的特点是：可以是非连续性的；可以是间接成分之间的关系；一个成分可以同其他成分发生多种关系。
《语言学概论》网络课程习题与参考答案第一章导论此章内容属于新课切入和引导部分，不安排习题。
第二章语言的社会功能一、填空1.人和动物的区别是人会制造生产工具进行劳动，而且人类有，这是人和动物相区别的重要标志之一。
2.一种语言中的句子数量是无限的，人类之所以能掌握语言，是因为语言中构成句子的语言材料和的数量是十分有限的。
3.语言是人类社会最重要的，而且也是思维的。
4.人的大脑分左右两个半球，大脑的半球控制语言活动，半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。
5.儿童最早的智力活动就是学习。
6.语言是特殊的社会现象的含义是语言具有，没有。
7.语言和言语的关系可以这样理解：语言是，言语是个别的；语言是抽象的，言语是。
8.人和人之间互相传递信息，互相交流思想感情，最主要的方式是进行交际。
9.人和人之间相互交流思想表达感情的过程是非常复杂的，从信息论的角度可以将其理解为和的过程。
10.文字是建立在基础之上的工具，旗语是建立在基础之上的工具。
二、辨析正误（正确的打钩，错误的打叉）1.文字和语言一样，都是人类最重要的交际工具。
（）2.地主阶级和农民阶级之间没有共同语言，这说明语言是有阶级性的。
（）3.语言是思维的工具，没有语言，人类就无法进行有效的思维。
（）4.从语言和言语的关系来说，我们在现实生活中不可能找到一匹马，只能找到一匹具体的具有某种色彩、某种体态等等特征的马。
（）5.绘画和音乐都能表达人的思想感情，都可以算是代表语言的符号。
（）6.现代社会，随着沟通方式的日益增多，语言的重要性也在日渐削弱。
（）7.语言具有自然属性，是一种客观的纯自然现象。
（）8.没有语言，人类照样可以思维，就像聋哑人那样。
（）三、分析题：下列句子中加下划线的词哪些是语言学中所说的“语言”，哪些是语言学中所说的“言语”，哪些是其他说法的代替？1.杨朔散文的语言真美！2.你这个人真不会说话。
3.他会说好几国的话。
4.两个人熟了，自然也就有了共同语言。
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《语言学概论》习题与答案（解答仅供参考）一、名词解释1. 语言符号：语言符号是语言的基本单位，由能指和所指两部分组成，能指是符号的语音形式，所指是符号的意义。
2. 语素：语素是语言中最小的有意义的语言单位，不能再进一步分解为更小的有意义的单位。
3. 句法结构：句法结构是指语言中词语按照一定的规则组合起来的形式，包括短语结构和句子结构。
4. 语境：语境是指语言使用的环境，包括语言交际的情景、说话人的身份、听者的期待等因素，对语言的理解和使用有重要影响。
5. 社会语言学：社会语言学是研究语言与社会之间关系的学科，包括语言的社会变异、语言与社会阶级、性别、族群等因素的关系等。
二、填空题1. 语言的三大基本功能是交际功能、思维功能和______功能。
（文化功能）2. 语言的音位系统包括音素和______两个层次。
（音节）3. 语言的语法范畴主要包括时态、体、人称、数和______等。
（性）4. 语言的演变主要表现为词汇的增减、语法结构的变化和______的变化。
（语音）5. 语言的交际过程包括编码、发送、传递、接收和______五个环节。
（解码）三、单项选择题1. 下列哪个选项不是语言的特征？（D）A. 社会性B. 符号性D. 固定性2. 下列哪个选项不属于语言的音位特征？（C）A. 对立性B. 相关性C. 模仿性D. 系统性3. 下列哪个选项不是语言的变体？（B）A. 地域方言B. 书面语C. 社会方言D. 个人语言4. 下列哪个选项不属于语言的内部结构？（D）A. 词汇B. 语法C. 语义D. 语用5. 下列哪个选项不是语言接触的结果？（A）A. 语言分化B. 语言融合C. 语言借用D. 语言干扰四、多项选择题1. 下列哪些选项是语言的音位特征？（ABCD）B. 相关性C. 系统性D. 情景性2. 下列哪些选项是语言的社会功能？（ABCD）A. 交际功能B. 思维功能C. 文化功能D. 认知功能3. 下列哪些选项是语言的变异现象？（ABCD）A. 语音变异B. 词汇变异C. 语法变异D. 语用变异4. 下列哪些选项是语言的类型学分类依据？（ABC）A. 词序B. 虚词C. 形态D. 语调5. 下列哪些选项是语言的交际原则？（ABCD）A. 合作原则B. 礼貌原则C. 关联原则D. 方式原则五、判断题1. 语言是一种自然现象。
《语言学概论》参考答案一、填空1、研究语言的规律2、首先学习语言文字是掌握科学技术、提高文化水平的基础。
其次语言文字是我国的社会主义革命和建设中的交际工具。
第三像聋哑人的学话、口吃的矫正、失语症的治疗等实际工作，也需要运用语言研究的成果。
3、任意性、线条性4、第一级是语素，第二级是词，第三级是句子5、音高、音重、音长、质6、同化、异化、弱化、脱落7、性、数、格、时、体、态、人称8、孤立语、粘着语、屈折语、复综语9、理性意义、带有主观态度的意义10、社会的发展、语言中各种因素的相互影响11、渐变性、不平衡性12、社会方言、地域方言13、汉藏语系、印欧语系、乌拉尔语系、阿尔泰语系、闪-含语系、高加索语系、达罗毘荼语系、马来-玻利尼西亚语系、南亚语系等14、亚洲东南部，西起克什米尔，东至我国东部边界15、不同民族的接触或融合，语言系统的排挤和替代16、社会历史条件17、自愿融合、被迫融合18、双重语言现象，排挤、替代19、根本区别20、阶级性21、语言、辅助22、左半球二、名词解释1、语言学：是研究语言的科学。
语言是语言学的研究对象。
语言学的基本任务是研究语言的规律，使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识。
2、传统语文学：语言处于从属地位，还没有发展为独立的学科的阶段。
3、说话：通常是把几个词按照一定的顺序组合起来，造出一句句的话。
这种话的长度在理论上说是无限的。
4、语言：是一种社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具和进行思维的工具。
语言是符号系统。
5、思维：是认识现实世界时的动脑筋的过程，也指动脑筋时进行比较、分析、综合以认识现实的能力。
6、符号：包含形式和意义两个方面。
符号和自己所代表的事物是两回事，相互之间没有必然的联系。
7、语言符号：形式和意义的结合完全由社会“约定俗成”，而不是它们之间有什么必然的、本质的联系。
8、征候：是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。
9、组合关系：符号和符号组合起来的关系。
《语言学概论》答案第一批次[单选]1。
汉语拼音系统中的21个首字母之间的关系为（）。
a：聚合关系b：组合关系c:语法关系d：语义关系参考答案：a[单选题]2、按照语言间的亲属关系对语言进行分类，称之为语言的()。
a：形态分类 b:结构分类c：功能分类d：谱系分类参考答案：d[单选]3。
英语foot的复数形式变为feet，使用的语法手段是（）。
a:后缀b：加词缀改变重音的位置d：内部曲折参考答案：D[单选]4。
“笔”和“笔”在词义上的关系是（）。
同义关系b：反义关系c:下义d：组成关系参考答案：C[单选题]5、下列各组中全属于复合词的一组是（）。
a：大学、人民、（英）reader 劳工，阿姨，（英国）铁路c：瓶子、老虎、（英）unhappyd：道路、材料、（英语）教室参考答案：d[多项选择]6。
“紧张”和“放松”在汉语中的意思（）答：这是相反的关系b：是重叠关系c:有时相反，有时重叠d：既有反义又有同义的因素e：没有同义因素参考答案：ad[多项选择]7。
元音的音质取决于（a）：开口的大小b：发音体整动的频率c：前后舌位d：嘴唇的圆展e：发音位置和发音方法参考答案：acd[选择题]8。
以下说法是错误的：（a）语音进化规律只在一定时期内有效b：语法发展中的类推作用是无限的，可推而广之，无一例外。
古汉语中的浊音在现代汉语中已经消失了d：随着旧事物的消失，表示它们的词语也会随之消失e:单词的替换都取决于语言系统的内部原因参考答案：bce[true或false]9[a]，[a]，？]它们是普通话中同一音素的三个自由变体。
参考答案：错误【判断问题】10。
汉字对应于汉语音节。
一个单词只记录一个音节，一个音节只记录一个汉字。
参考答案：错误第二批次[单选]1。
中文是“北平”→ “北京”和“德律风”→ “电话”，单词替换的原因是社会因素b：语言系统内部的因素c:前者是语言系统的内部因素，后者是社会因素d：前者是社会因素，后者是语言系统内部因素参考答案：D[单选]2。
Keys to LinguisticsCharpter 55.1.11. 1),2) ,3) ,4), 5) .2. 1) Red: The English word red has the associative meaning of "inciting or endorsing radical social or political change, especially by force".2) Dragon: In Western culture, the word dragon denotes a mythical animal usually represented as a monstrous winged and scaly head and enormous claws and thus has the associative meaning of "a violent, combative, or very strict person", or "something or someone formidable or baneful".3) Dog: The English word dog has the following associative meanings: (a) "a worthless person"; (b) "uncharacteristic or affected stylishness or dignity" as in put on the dogs; (c) "an unattractive person, especially a girl or woman".4) Cage: The English word cage has the associative meaning of "prison".3. I think the formation of meaning involves the cognitive patterns of the speech community, the contextual factors, the existing linguistic system, and the social-cultural conventions.5.1.21. 1) The sentence may mean "please pass me the salt". It may also mean "the food is not tasty enough". 2) This is sentence can be regarded as a question, meaning "Will Mir Smith be in his office this morning?"2. Sentence meaning refers to the conventional content or literal meaning of a sentence. It is the context-independent meaning. Utterance meaning refers to the meaning of an utterance in the context. In other words, it is the meaning dependent on the context. In some cases, the sentence meaning coincides with the utterance meaning. But in many situations, the utterance meaning differs from the sentence meaning.3. The traditional approach to meaning is only concerned with the lexical meaning of separate words and the structural meaning of sentences. In such an approach the meaning of a sentence is merely the combination of the lexical meanings of the component words and the structural meaning of the sentence. Its disadvantage is that it fails to relate the words and sentences with the context in which the words and sentences are used. In real communication, drastic discrepancy may exist between the lexical meaning and the contextual meaning of a word, between the sentence meaning and the utterance meaning.5.2.11. A. Parts of the body: shoulder, head, neck, leg, hand.B. Stationery: pencil, book, dictionary, pen, notebook.C. Flowers: rose, chrysanthemum, tulip.2. The relationship between things and events in the world are very complicated. Therefore, we cannot expect the thesauri to be capable of representing all the order of things and events in the world. Often a word may share the same semantic features with more than one group of words and thus can be included in different thesauri.3. A thesaurus is a reference book of words and its synonyms. Such a book is really useful for our study of English, especially for the study of writing. But we can never exaggerate its usefulness, for as we all know that in English pure synonyms are rare. We can always identify differences of one kind or another between the synonyms, either in origin, in the shade of meaning, in the affective and/or stylistic meaning, or in the collocation and distribution.5.2.21. True synonyms are rare. The so-called "synonyms" are always different either in their origin, in the shade of meaning, in the affective or stylistic meaning, or in collocation and distribution.2. a) statesman, politician: Roughly speaking, they are synonymous because both denote the meaning "one actively engaged in conducting the business of a government". But the two words differ in the affective meaning: while "statesman" connotes the appreciative meaning "one who exercises political leadership wisely and without narrow partisanship", "politician" connotes the derogatory meaning of "a person primarily interested in political office for selfish or other narrow usually short-sighted reasons". In this sense, they are not "true" synonyms.b) adult, grown-up: Briefly speaking, these two words are synonyms in that they both denote the meaning of "a person who is fully developed and mature". But strictly speaking, they are different in the stylistic meaning. Whereas "adult" can be used in nearly all contexts, "grown-up" is colloquial in style and thus is comparatively restricted in distribution.c) huge, gigantic, colossal, enormous: These words all denote the meaning of "very large or extensive" and thus can be viewed as synonymous. Yet they differ in the shade of meaning and distribution: whereas "huge" means "very large or extensive (as in size or area, in scale or degree, or in scope or character)", "gigantic" means "exceeding the usual or expected (as in size, force, or prominence)", "colossal" means "of a bulk, extent, power, or effect approaching or suggesting the stupendous or incredible", and "enormous" means "marked by extraordinarily great size, number, or degree, especially exceeding usual bounds or accepted notions".3. black, white: complementary antonyms; buy, sell: relational antonyms; big, small: gradable antonyms; parent, child: relational antonyms; polite, rude: complementary antonyms.5.2.31. 1) cat, dog, pet: These three words are in the relation of inclusion. While "pet" is the hypernym (or "superordinate"), "cat" and "dog" are its hyponyms (or "subordinates).2) keyboard, monitor, hard disk, mouse: These words denote parts of a computer and are all the hyponyms (or "subordinates") of the word computer.3) head, oral cavity, tongue: These three words are in the relation of meronymy: tongue is part of oral cavity and oral cavity is part of head.4) cabbage, cauliflower, celery, tomato: These four words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy: they are all the hyponyms (or "subordinates") of the hypernym (or "superordinate") of the word vegetable.2. 1) hand, foot: These two words are hyponyms (or "subordinates"), each denoting a part of the human body.2) rose, narcissus: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy; they are both the subordinates of the word flower.3) tree, willow: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy: tree is the hypernym (or "superordinate") and willow is the hyponym (or "subordinate). In other words, a willow is a kind of tree.4) bottle, cork: These two words are in the semantic relation of myronymy. "cork" is part of a bottle.5.2.41. These four entries are so separated because although they share the same form, they are not closely related in meanings. Besides, they differ in etymological origins: slug1 develops from Middle English word slugge meaning "a person or thing acting slowly or awkwardly"; slug2is believed to develop from SLUG1but the relations between them is now hard to perceive; slug3is believed to develop from the Danish verb sluge meaning "to swallow"; slug4 develops from the modern English noun slog meaning "a blow" in a Scottish regional dialect, the latter being borrowed from Old Scandinavian slag having the same meaning.2. The word "hale" has different meanings when used as an adjective and as a verb because they are derived from different origins and thus are generally arranged in dictionaries (e.g. Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary) as separate entries: hale1 (adj.) develops partly from Middle English (northern) hale, from Old English häl; partly from Middle English hail, from Old Norse heil, meaning "free from defect, disease, or infirmity; sound; rertaining exceptional health and vigor"; hale2develops from Middle English halen, from Old French haler, meaning "haul, pull; compel to go".3. When a lexeme has a multiplicity of meanings, it is polysemic. Polysemy is the result from the change of meaning and therefore semantic relations of one kind or another can be identified between the various meanings of the lexeme. In contrast, although homonyms share the same phonological form, they have no common semantic features and in many cases have different written forms. They are normally of different etymological origin and are treated in dictionaries as different entries.5.2.51. a) John has stopped smoking. →John had been smoking.b) She regretted having told him the secret.→She had told him the secret.c) The boy opened the door himself. →The door had been closed.d) The paper turned red when it was dipped into the liquid. →The paper was dipped into the liquid.2. a) He lost his bike yesterday. →His bike is missing now.b) They went to the Great Wall. →They are not here at present.c) Mary's computer is terrific.→Mary's computer is good.d) We met two of our friends at the party.→Two of our friends were at the party.5.3.11. a) pen, pencil, ruler, cat: While pen, pencil and ruler are all names of stationery, cat denotes a kind of (domestic) animal.b) bathtub, soap, towel, oven: While bathtub, soap and towel denote objects used for bathing, oven is an object used for cooking.c) carpenter, professor, student, president: While professor, student and president denote persons related to the school, carpenter does not.d) walk, stroll, run, sing: While walk, stroll and run each denote a kind of physical movement from one place to another, sing does not.e) company, university, college, school: While university, college and school each denote a kind of educational institution, company denotes a commercial or industrial institution.2. Componential analysis has a number of advantages over traditional approaches to lexical meanings. Firstly, it throws new light on semantic relations such as synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and metaphor. Secondly, componential analysis can better explain the validity of syntagmatic combination of words and phrases than the purely syntactic approach. Thirdly, componential analysis gives a better account for the formation of the meaning of a phrase or a sentence. The componential analysis has three disadvantages. Firstly, it is often difficult to determine what semantic featuresare essential to define a word, and how many are sufficient for the specification. Secondly, when faced with two equally plausible features, it is often difficult to determine which one we should specify. Thirdly, componential analysis seems to be difficult to be apply to function words, such as the, of, and, and ah, for they seem to have no semantic features.5.3.21. a) This sentence has a three-place predicate gave, which governs three arguments, the subject He, the indirect object me and the direct object (the) book.b) This sentence has a no-place predicate (was) snowing, which governs no argument. Note that the subject It here is an empty word and so does not play the role of an argument in the sentence.c) This sentence has a one-place predicate (is) working, which governs one argument (the) computer.d) This sentence has a two-place predicate invented, which governs two arguments, the subject Someone and the object (the) story.2. a) We wish you to come back soon. (No error.)b) He rose the heave box easily. → He raised the heavy box easily. Explanation: The predicate verb rise(rose) is a one-place predicate, but in the sentence it is misused as a two-place predicate. So it should be replaced by its corresponding two-place predicate raise(d).c) Mary laughed me before the students. → Mary laughed at me before the students.The predicate verb laugh(ed)is a one-place predicate, but in the sentence, it is misused as a two-place predicate. Hence it is corrected into its corresponding two-place verb phrase laugh(ed) at.5.3.31. a) Generally, this utterance is tautological. But in a context when the speaker doubts the identity of the addressee and thus wants to check. the use of this utterance is also valid.b) This generally tautological utterance can be used in a context in which the addressee intends to pass the speaker the salt but in the process the addressee's action is somehow interrupted. Then the speaker may use this utterance as a reminding or urging expression.c) This utterance may be used by an annoyed or enraged parent to a naughty or choosy child who is pretending to eat some food but does not swallow them. In this case, the parent is using the utterance as a urging or commanding expression for sake of the child's health or good manners.2. This utterance involves tow tautological expressions ("冰箱是冰箱", "彩电是彩电"). It can be uttered by a complaining wife to her husband to show her desire to keep up with the Joneses on the one hand and on the other hand to urge her husband to make more money so that they can also afford those household appliances.3. Metaphor is common in verbal communication. In the traditional approach, metaphor is generally interpreted as a rhetorical device to add novelty to verbal communication. But according to the cognitive and functional linguistic approach, metaphor is a basic cognitive facility with which human beings organize the world in the system of language. Much of the history of every language, according to Halliday (1994: 348), is a history of demetaphorizing: of expressions which began as metaphors gradually losing their metaphorical character. Metaphorical modes of expression are characteristic of adult discourse. On the other hand, metaphor is also an important stylistic feature. For example, literary works (such as novels and poetry) normally abound in lexical metaphor while scientific and technical registers are characterized with nominalizing metaphors.Charpter 66.1.11. 1) While (a) is an explicit performative containing the performative verb "admit", (b) is an implicit performative, meaning "I admit (or acknowledge, confess, etc.) that I was wrong."2) While (a) is an explicit performative containing the performative verb "order",(b) is an implicit performative, meaning "I order (or command, demand, request, etc.) you to leave the room right now."3) While (a) is an explicit performative containing the perfromative verb "warn",(b) is an implicit performative, meaning "I warn (or tell, caution, etc.) you that the dog is vicious."4) While (a) is an explicit perfromative containing the performative verb "apologize", (b) is an implicit performative, meaning "I declare that I'm sorry.2. 1) This is not a performative, because the subject of the main clause is not in the first-person singular number.2) This is a performative utterance.3) This is not a performative, because the verb "require" is not in the active voice.4) This is not a performative, because the verb "fire" is not in the simple present tense.5) This is not a performative, because this utterance is lacking in any performative.6.1.21. a) As an indirect suggestion, implicitly asking the addressee to stay indoors. This may occur when the speaker and the addressee are in a cozy room when the weather outside is very cold.b) As an indirect request, implicitly demanding the addressee to close the door or the window. This may occur when the speaker is speaking to the addressee in a cold room when the weather outside is rather cold.c) As an indirect exclamation, implicitly expressing the speaker's regret for not being able to have an intended excursion. This may occur when the speaker intended to have an excursion but the weather suddenly turns cold outside.2. a) Would you please sit here and have a rest?b) Do you mind sitting here and having a rest?c) Don't you feel tired?d) How do you like sitting here and having a rest?e) You're quite out of breath now.3. 1) Literally, B's reply is irrelevant to A's utterance and this dialogue is thus lacking in coherence. But in effect, it is a coherent conversation. The coherence hereis achieved by the conversational implicatures. When A utters "That's telephone", A conveys to B the illocutionary force that B is wanted on the phone. When B replies "I'm in the bathroom", B conveys the illocutionary force "I'm engaged in the bathroom and so I can't answer the phone now." This conversational implicature is grasped by A, who thus responds with "Okay".2) At first sight, this dialogue is lacking in coherence. When the son utters the statement "I need a ten-speed bicycle", his illocutionary force is to ask his mother to buy a ten-speed bicycle for him. This implicit request is, however, tacitly declined when the mother responds to its literal meaning ("I'm sure you do need a ten-speed bicycle") rather than to its conversational implicature (e.g. "I'll buy a ten-speed bicycle for you" or "I'll talk your dad into buying a ten-speed bicycle for you").6.2.11) In this dialogue, B has flouted the maxim of Manner. Here B uses an obscure expression and fails to give a brief and direct answer to A's question. The implicature of B's utterance is probably "I don't know the exact place. What I can tell you is that Miss Rosebery lives somewhere in the suburbs of the city."2) In this dialogue, B has flouted the maxim of Relevance. B's answer is not relevant to A's statement. The implicature of B's utterance is probably "There is a garage round the corner, so you can have your car refilled there."3) In this dialogue, B has flouted the maxim of Quantity. B's reply is more informative than is required for the current purposes of the exchange. The conversational implicature of B's utterance is that "I don't think too much of Cathy's singing."4) In this dialogue, the student is more informative than is required for the current purposes of the exchange and has thus flouted the maxim of Quantity. The implicature of the student's utterance is probably "It's high time you finished the lecture."5) In this dialogue, B fails to give a direct answer to A's question and has flouted the maxim of Relevance. The conversational implicature of B's utterance is probably "I don't want any coffee because coffee would make me awake."6.2.21. 1) In this dialogue, the woman politely refuses the man's request to go upstairs to the woman's flat by flouting the maxim of Relevance. Instead of directly refusing the man's request, she claims that her place is in a terrible mess and thus tacitly implies that it is unsuitable to receive anybody in her flat.2) In this dialogue, the guest tacitly declines the host's suggestion for a drink by claiming that they don't drink. Here the guest has flouted the maxim of Relevance. Instead of directly (and also impolitely) refuses the host's suggestion, the guest says that they have not the ability to drink and thus politely turns down the host's offer of a drink of cocktail.3) In this conversation, Mother has flouted the maxim of Manner. Instead of directly criticizing the son for having eaten the icing off the cake, she uses the obscure expression "someone" so as not to threaten the son's positive face. This conversational implicature is grasped by the son, who immediately declares "It wasn't ME."4) In this dialogue, B at first responds to A's question directly. Then B realizes that it is impolite to talk evil of others behind their backs. So B flouts the maxim of Quantity by gradually softening the comment ("small" ' "smallish" ' "not really small but certainly not very big").2. 1) Generally speaking, the less face-threatening an expression is, the more polite it is. Among the three alternative responses given here, (b) is negative and thus the most face-threatening, (c) is neutral and less face-threatening, and (a) is positive and thus the least face-threatening. Therefore, the increasing order of politeness of the three alternative responses is: (b) < (c) < (a).2) Generally speaking, the more indirect a request is, the more polite it is. Among the three alternative responses given here, (b) is an imperative sentence and expresses the request most directly, (c) is a question inquiring the addressee's response to the intended request and is more indirect than (b), whereas (a) is a question inquiring the addressee's ability to perform the intended request and is the most indirect. Therefore, the three alternative responses can be put in the following increasing order of politeness: (b) < (c) < (a).6.3.11. Among the five utterances, 2), 3) and 4) contain the presupposition "The dog barked at the shadow". These three utterances have one thing in common - they all presuppose that the dog barked at the shadow. In other words, the truth value of the three utterances is dependent on the truth value of the presupposition. If the presupposition is true, then the three utterances are true. If the presupposition is false, then the three utterances are false. In contrast, in 1) and 5), the truth value of the statement "The dog barked at the shadow" is uncertain. In other words, we do not know for sure from the two utterances whether the dog barked at the shadow or not.2. 1) This utterance presupposes that "You have been eaten raw oysters". The presupposition trigger is the verb "stop".2) This utterance presupposes that "Little Franz had not studied French better before". The presupposition trigger is the verb "regretted".3) This utterance presupposes that "Catherine does not know anything about this event". The presupposition trigger is the verb "pretends".4) This utterance presupposes that "Mark Twain found the best setting for most of his best novels in the Mississippi valley". The presupposition trigger is the emphatic construction "It was … that …".5) This utterance presupposes that "You have helped us in the experiment". The presupposition trigger is the verb "appreciate".6.3.21) Here (b) is the preferred response while (a) is the dispreferred. When A invitesB to come and join them in the picnic, he or she normally expects the addressee to accept the invitation rather than decline it.2) Here (a) is the preferred response while (b) is the dispreferred. When A asks B to comment on a certain lady's performance, the positive response is more preferable than the negative (though modulated for the sake of politeness) one.3) Here (a) is the preferred response while (b) is the dispreferred. When A requestsB to do him or her a favor, he or she normally expects a positive response rather thana negative (though indirect for the sake of politeness) one.6.4.11) In this utterance, 6 reference items are used in the second sentence to contribute to the coherence of the text. Firstly, the possessive determiner their and the possessive pronoun theirs, and the personal pronouns them and they are used to refer anaphorically to "the children next door". Secondly, the definite article the is used together with the noun toy to refer anaphorically to the noun phrase "a toy". Thirdly, the personal pronoun it is used to refer anaphorically to the noun phrase "a toy" and "the toy".2) In this utterance, 1 reference item is used in the first clause to contribute to the coherence of the text. Namely, the personal pronoun he is used to refer cataphorically to the proper name "Alex".3) In this utterance, the personal pronoun it is used in the fourth clause to refer anaphorically to the previous sentence "If it rained day and night for two weeks, the basement flooded and everything was under water". This clausal reference contributes to the coherence of the text by connecting the second sentence with the first one.4) In this utterance, the pronoun one is used in the second clause to refer anaphorically to the noun phrase "a stamp" in the first clause. This helps to connect the second clause with the first and thus contributes to the coherence of the text.5) In this utterance, the comparative Adjunct otherwise is used to make a contrast between Daddy's having a bit of cold and other aspects of his health. This helps to connect the two clauses into a coherent text.6.4.21. 1) In this utterance, the pronoun one is used in the second sentence to substitute the noun "book". This establishes a comparison between the two sentences and connect them into a cohesive text.2) In this dialogue, B uses the pro-verb "(have) done" to substitute the verb phrase "(have) succeeded in his ambitions". This helps to connect B's utterances with A's intoa cohesive text.3) In this dialogue, B uses the pronoun so to substitute the previous clause "The Chicago Bulls will win the game". This (together the ellipsis in the next clause, i.e. they will [win the game]) helps to connect the two utterances into a cohesive text.4) In this dialogue, B uses the clausal substitute not to replace the previous clause(i.e. We will probably join in your excursion this weekend) to avoid unnecessary repetition. This helps to connect the two utterances into a cohesive text.2. 1) In this dialogue, two clausal ellipses can be identified in B's utterance (i.e. I don't know how long I will be in here. You could ask matron how long I will be in here.). They help to connect B's utterance with A's into a cohesive text.2) In this dialogue, a verbal ellipsis can be identified in B's utterance (i.e. but Bob didn't care to take the course). This, together with the verbal substitution of did for the verb phrase "take the course", connects B's utterance with A's into a cohesive text.6.4.31) In this passage, there is one conjunctive expression, namely, moreover at the beginning of the second sentence. This conjunctive expression contributes to the cohesion of the passage by adding more information to the first sentence concerning the role of the media in shaping the social and moral norms in the American society.2) Three sequences of conjunctive expressions are used in this passage. The first sequence is the conjunctive expressions of listing, i.e. to begin in sentence 2 - following (the recording) in sentence 3 - finally in sentence (12). The second sequence is the repetition of some of the questions in sentence 6 - some of the questions in sentence 8 - some of them in sentence 10. The third sequence includes two expressions of exemplification, i.e. for example in sentence 7 and for instance in sentence 11. Together they contribute to make the passage a cohesive text.6.4.41) In this passage, the author uses many expressions to describe his miserable life as a member of the working class. Such expressions include beneath the point at which I had started in sentence 1, down in the cellar of society and down in the subterranean depths of misery in sentence 3, the pit, the abyss, the human cesspool, the shambles and charnel-house of our civilization in sentence 3, the part of the edifice of society in sentence 4. Besides, the author also repeats the infinitive phrase "to ignore" in sentences 4 and 5. With these lexical cohesive ties, the author makes the passage a cohesive text.2) In this passage, the author uses the following lexical cohesive ties: (a) the repetition of the adjectives "clean", "noble" and "clean" and their derivatives, including "(men who were) clean, noble, and alive" and "(whose ideas were) clean, noble, and alive in sentence 2, "(many that were) clean and noble" and "not alive" in。
Charpter11.1.11. a. This sentence may have three interpretations: 1) He rolled from side to side in his grave. 2) He returned his grave. 3) He handed in his grave.b. There are two interpretations to this sentence: 1) They gave preference to both young men and young women. 2) They gave preference to women and young men.2. Units that have reference: I, saw, Mary, went, the library.Units that indicate structure: when, to.3. a. This sentence is grammatical, but is nonsensical.b. This sentence is ungrammatical and nonsensical.c. This is a good sentence.d. This is a good sentence.1.1.21. a. This sign is a symbol. It means we will have good luck. I know it from my cultural background, because the Chinese character "福" means "luck" and the color red symbolizes "goodness". The Chinese meaning of "upside down" is "倒", which has the similar pronunciation of "到(arrive)". Thus, when the character "福" is put upside down, it means that luck arrives.b. This sign is an icon. It means no smoking, and I know it from the picture.c. This sign is a mixture of a symbol and a icon. It means that "parking" is only allowed for disabled people.2. I think the house is on fire because smoke is a index of fire.3. To the physician, it means that the man has got a fever.4. I think so, but not exactly, because the difference of the consonants does not mean the bird in different places cries differently.1.1.31. according to the arbitrariness theory, the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention. Thus, the name Xiao Long is just a label for the son. However, in Chinese culture dragon was the symbol for the emperor. Thus, the name may have certain associative meanings.2. No. The speaker of a language, based upon the convention established in the speech community, associates linguistic signs with things and concepts. In people's mind, "pig" stands for foolishness and laziness. If I name it Pig Hair Shampoo, no one will buy it.3. Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use. Although the link between form and meaning is arbitrary, there existed certain relationship between them, which can be called rules. The individual does not have the power to change a sign in any way once it has become established in the linguistic community.1.1.41. I prefer to use the spoken language. In a supermarket, the spoken language is much more convenient for people to communicate with each other. People do not have the time and necessity to use written language in communication.2. I think listening and speaking should come first. The primary medium of language is sound, and language is primarily vocal. What's more, children can learn to listen and speak a foreign language more quickly than they read and write.1.1.51. No, I don't agree with this point of view. Language is human specific, so humans and dogs can not communicate with each other.2. A parrot only can say what it is taught. It can not form an infinite set of utterances from a finite use of units. So, a parrot talking can not be equated with human language.3. That is only the result of the stimulus-response training.4. Human language is primary over animal communication in the following aspects:1) Human has the ability to refer to things far remote in time and space. In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey such ability.2) Human has the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any animal communication system.5) Animal communication systems are closed-ended, whereas human languages are open-ended.1.1.61. The advanced technology such as telephones and the Internet makes human communication become much more convenient and frequent. People can communicate with others in remote places freely.2. There may exist several causes:1) The sender can not express himself or herself clearly.2) The receiver can not understand what the sender said.3) The receiver is unwilling to communicate with the sender.4) There exists misunderstanding because of the different cultural background of the sender and the receiver.3. We must pay key attention to learning the knowledge of the ways of thinking, acting and speaking of a language, for differences in this kind of knowledge may cause trouble in intercultural communication.1.2.11. a. Physiological functionb. Performative functionc. Phatic functiond. Informative function2. People like poetry because people can enjoy the rhythm and the melody of certain combinations of sounds in the poetry. And most creative uses of language in the poetry can provide people considerable pleasure through the generation of puns, paradoxes, ambiguities and metaphors.3. I may not say anything, but move the desk away.1.2.21. General functions refer to the particular individual uses of language whilst metafunctions refer to the larger, more general purposes underlying language use.2. No. According to Halliday, every sentence in a text is multifunctional and has three metafunctions simultaneously: ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.3. Halliday's functional theory emphasizes the relationship between language structure and the language functions in social life, while the traditional grammar emphasizes the forms of the sentence.1.3.11. I agree to the evolutionary theory which tends to believe that man evolved from lower forms of life, and so did language. This is a scientific approach to the origin of language as it is based on a wide range of studies over years by biologists, anthropologists, psychologists, neurologists, primatologists and linguists. With many significant changes since its early introduction, the evolutionary theory shows us the origin of language from various aspects, such as the organic evolution, environmental factors.2. 轰隆、乒乓、叽叽嘎嘎、叽里咕噜、汪汪3. Onomatopoetic words are imitations of the sounds of nature, and emotional ejaculations of pain, fear, surprise, pleasure, anger, etc. According to the invention theory, onomatopoetic words form the basis of language, or at least the core of the basic vocabulary.1.3.21. Usually, there are two main ways of classifying languages: the genetic (or genealogical) and the typological. The historical classification is based on the assumption that languages have diverged from a common ancestor. This criteria is to research into the history and relatedness of languages. On the other hand, the typological classification is based on a comparison of the formal similarities which exist between languages.It is an attempt to group languages into structural types, on the basis of phonology, grammar, or vocabulary, rather than in terms of any real or assumed historical relationship.2. Currently, we cannot say that all languages in the world derived from one common ancestor. It might be true that some languages have diverged from one common ancestor, for example, French, Spanish, Italian and other Romance languages were clearly descended from Latin, but no evidence show that all languages in the world have the same origin. As research shows, there are at least 29 language families in the world. However, this problem will be solved when we have enough evidence to show that human beings have one common ancestor.3. The major causes for the language diversity in the world include grammatical structure, historical factors, social factors, intercultural contact, etc.1.4.11. The two sentences perform the same function of requesting. However, The two sentences have different choices of words and syntax structures. Sentence (a) is structurally an imperative sentence, while Sentence (b) takes the form of a question and the word 'please' is added. So, the effects of the two utterances are different. Sentence (b) would sound more polite. When we are decoding them, we would take into account such factors as choice of words and syntactic structures, the principle of politeness and the context.2. As a science, linguistics demands a scientific outlook upon language. To conduct a study of language scientifically, we must take an objective view of language and all linguistic phenomena and study language and reflect on it in a detached and unbiased way. Even a local variety with few native speakers may also fall within our investigations. Moreover, we should adopt the general principles of empirical research procedures to observe and analyze data found in natural languages.3. The real object of linguistics is to find out fundamental rules that underlie all the languages in the world. We need to look into the common features of all languages, the range of variations among languages, the difference of human languages from animal communication, the change and evolution of language, the relation of language to mind and society, and so on.1.4.21. It is very important to study speech in linguistics, because language is primarily vocal. As we know, no community has a written form only, though many have a spoken language only. Children learn spoken language first and most easily. Earlier in the 20th century certain linguists began to doubt the priority of writing. Bloomfield argued that writing was not language but merely a way of recording language. The contemporary linguistics maintains that the spoken language is primary and that writing is essentially a means of representing speech in another medium. Linguistics has stressed the priority of speech because it is the "natural," or primary, medium in which language is manifest, and written language derives from the transference of speech to a secondary, visual medium.2. There is no absolute standard of correctness because linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. Different groups of people may use different varieties of language. The correctness in language use should not be prescribed grammatically.3. In reality, it is impossible to have a standard language. The reason is that linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. There is no absolute standard of correctness. What's more, as we know, with the passage of time, all languages are subject to change. All living languages are there to serve the different social needs of the communities that use them. As these needs change, languages will tend to change to meet the new situations. Thus, a standard language is not possible.1.5.11. There are many external factors related to language. Cultural factors influence the full meaning of the language conveys. Social factors include the social backgrounds of both the speaker and the addressee (i.e. their age, sex, social class, ethnic background, degree of integration into their neighborhood, etc.), the relationship between speaker and addressee and the context and manner of the interaction. Psychological factors have effects on people's behaviors.2. Though there are many translation softwares in the market, translations done by machines are full of errors and require much post-editing. The key problem is the lack of a good linguistic theory to provide a frame of reference for machine translation. It is unlikely that machines will replace human translators.3. Foreign language learning and teaching involves several interrelated factors. These are: linguistic theories, situational factors, input and interaction, learner differences, learner processes, linguistic output, curriculum andsyllabus design, teaching methodology, learner and teacher roles, textbook writing, language planning, and so on.1.5.21. Linguistic studies have gone through many changes. Since the 1930s down to the present, the expansion of knowledge in so many directions have led to several attempts to make synthesis and to develop a unified theory of language. Several schools of thought have emerged round a few prominent linguists such as Firth, Halliday, Hjelmslev and Chomsky, major centers of linguistic study like Prague School, Geneva School, Copenhagen School, and leading concepts such as structuralism, functionalism, tagmemics, systemic functional grammar, transformational generative grammar, speech act theory.2. I think discourse analysis is a proper way to study language. Traditional linguistic analysis has concentrated on the internal structure of sentences, but discourse analysis is interested in the analysis of units larger than sentences. Thus, the term discourse or text refers to all linguistic units with a definable communicative function, spoken or written. It stresses the need to see language as a dynamic, social, and interactive phenomenon.3. A corpus is always needed in linguistics. Over the past few years, the study of language in actual use has required a corpus-based research. Scholars need a corpus to analyze patterns of use in natural texts. The importance of corpus to language study is aligned to the importance of empirical data because empirical data enable the linguist to make objective statements, rather than those based upon the individual's own subjective perception of language. So, corpus linguistics should be seen as a subset of the activity within an empirical approach to linguistics.Charpter 22.1.11. Articulatory phonetics deals with the identification and classification of individual sounds. It attempts to provide a framework of the nature of speech sounds and how they are produced. Acoustic phonetics focuses on the analysis and measurement of sound waves. It studies the physical characteristics of speech sounds as they are determined and measured by machines, and attempts to deduce the acoustic basis of speech production and perception.2. The speech chain consists of three stages: the production of the message, the transmission of the message and the reception of the message. According to Ball and Rahilly, there are a series of activities in the speech chain. First, there is physiological activity in the brain of the speaker. Then the brain sends instructions to a variety of muscles of vocal organs. The result is a range of muscle contractions and physical movement of structures such as the rib cage, the larynx, the tongue and so on. In turn, these movements give rise to an aerodynamic phase of the speech chain, whereby air flows through the vocal tract. This airflow interacts with continued movement of structures such as the vocal folds, tongue, lips and soft palate to produce the different features of speech. This modified airflow through the vocal tract impinges on the air surrounding the speaker.3. Spelling is not the same as pronunciation in English. For example, in pronunciation, the "h" in the word "hour" is silent. "ph" in the word "elephant" is pronounced as [f], which seems to have nothing to do with its spelling. Another example might be a pair of words like "meet" and "meat", who have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings.2.1.21. In the production of speech, the vocal tract sets a column of air into motion, and then modifies this moving air-stream in a number of ways to produce the sounds of speech.2. When describing individual sound segments, phoneticians and linguists often employ two parameters to examine how sounds are articulated: manner of articulation and place of articulation. In terms of manner, sounds are classified into plosives, nasals, fricatives, affricates, approximants, trills and taps. When examined from view of place of articulation, sounds are divided into groups like bilabials, dentals, post-alveolar, retroflex, uvular, glottal, labiodentals, alveolar, palatal, velar and pharyngeal sounds.3. Bilabial, dental and labiodental sounds are different from one another in terms of place of articulation. Bilabials are articulations made with the upper and lower lips brought together. In bilabial stops they form an air-tight seal producing the plosives [p, b] or, if the velum is lowered, the nasal [m]. Dentals are produced by the front of the tongue touching the back of the upper front teeth. Dental sounds are generally apical. Dental fricatives occur in English as pronunciations of the 'th' spellings. The voiceless dental fricativeis the sound of 'th' in 'thin', whereas its voiced counterpartis the sound of 'th' in 'then'. Labiodentals are articulations produced with the lower lip approximating to the underside of the upper front teeth. For example, in English the[f] in fat and the [v] in vat are labiodental fricatives.2.1.33. First of all, vowels and consonants appear in different places in English words. Secondly, vowels and consonants are produced differently. Vowels are made by egressive pulmonic airflow through vibrating or constricted vocal folds and through the vocal tract, and the sound is modified in the oral cavity. Consonants are made by constricting the vocal tract at some point thereby diverting, impeding, or completely shutting off the flow of air in the oral cavity.2.1.41. Narrow transcription captures the exact articulatory details of each sound. It records as many features of an utterance as can be ascertained by the person doing the recording. On the contrary, broad transcription is a less subtle transcription. It omits many of the irrelevant and predictable details of pronunciation and is perfectly suitable for many users.2. Omitted.2.2.11. Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units susceptible of concomitant occurrence. In other words, a phoneme is a block that cannot be broken down into smaller parts; it is the smallest element relevant to phonemic analysis. Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme.2. Omitted.3. [p] and [b] are different phonemes because they represent distinctive sounds. In addition, if we substitute one sound for the other, it results in a change of meaning.2.2.21. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs. For instance, "deed" and "seed" are minimal pairs, but "deed" and "dog" are not because the vowel and final consonant in these two sounds are different.2. a) /p/-/b/: pig-big; gap-gab;b) /k/-/g/: coat-goat; back-bag;c) /f/-/v/: life-live; fife-five;d) /m/-/n/: meat-neat; time-tine;e) /r/-/l/: right- light; sear-seal3.2.2.31. Distinctive features can be used to distinguish one phoneme from another or one group of sounds from another group. Thus, "distinctive" means serving to identify, distinguishing.2. The distinctive features for each group of sounds are:a) [p, t, b, d]: [-high, -back]b) [j, w, i, u]: [+voiced, +high]3. a) life, lives: similarities: [-high, -back], differences: life [f]: [-voiced]; lives[v]: [+voiced]b) choice, choose: similarities: [-high, -back]; differences: choice[s]: [-voiced], choose [z]: [+voiced]c) deduce, deduction: similarities: [+back]; differences: deduce: [-high, -round], deduction: [+high, +round]2.3.11. Edinburgh, Wednesday, Thames are words in which pronunciation does not match the spelling.2. These words are not permissible in English. All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes. *tpray, *btry, *tgharg do not sound like an English word because it does not conform to the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes. When three consonants occur, the first must be [s].2.3.21. When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution. That is to say, complementary distribution refers to the case in which one of two or more sounds occur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), i.e. in a context in which the other sound(s) never occur(s).2. For the speaker, the Chinese consonants [sh] and [x] are the same. So, to him, there is no need to distinguish these two sounds, and he pronounces the two consonants in the same way..2.4.11. Structurally, the syllable may be divided into three parts: the onset, the peak, and the coda. The onset of a syllable consists of all the segments that precede the peak and are tautosyllabic with it. The peak is realized by a vowel. The coda consists of all the tautosyllabic segments that follow the peak. A syllable that has no coda is called an unchecked or open syllable; one with a coda is called a checked or closed syllable.2. The word "yesterday" has three syllables. ye-ster-day."extra" has two syllables. ex-tra"secretarial" has four syllables. se-cre-ta-rial"camera" has three syllables. ca-me-ra"appreciation" has five syllables. a-pre-ci-a-tion3. English has syllables that begin with vowels and onsets of from one to three consonants. In English, three-consonant onsets are highly restricted in their composition. The first consonants in such onsets must be an s, the second a voiceless stop, and the third a liquid. Moreover, if the second consonant is t, the third must be r.2.4.21.2. Stress in English is very important. English is a stress language. The rhythm of spoken English is to a very large extent determined by strong beats falling on the stressed syllables of words. Thus, a typical spoken utterance of English will consist of a number of rhythmic units. Each unit is dominated by the beat of the stressed syllable. In verse, the wording is characteristically and deliberately organized to yield a regular rhythm, and the units of this rhythm are commonly called 'feet'. This kind of rhythm puts a characteristic stamp on the nature of spoken English.2.4.31. Pitch is a suprasegmental quality which extends over individual segments and longer stretches of speech. Pitch is the perceived frequency of a sound wave. Perceived pitch is largely determined by the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, and to some extent by the intensity of the sound.2. Pitch is very important in Chinese. Different pitches on Chinese characters can lead to meaning differences. For example, "fei", when given different pitches, may mean "飞(fly)", "肥(fat)", "匪(bandit)" or "沸(boil)".2.4.41. The intonation patterns of the following English questions are:a) It begins with a mid pitch, rises to a higher pitch and then falls.b) Falling.c) Rising.d) It begins with a mid pitch, falls to a lower pitch and then rises.2. Intonations refer to the pitch differences that extend over phonetic units larger than the syllable. Intonation serves several functions in verbal communication such as grouping words, emphasizing words and differentiating meanings.3. Intonation plays a very important role in daily conversations. In some languages, such as English and Chinese, the same sequence of segments may have different meanings if uttered at different relative pitches.Keys to Linguistics of Xiamen UniversityCharpter 33.1.11. A word is characterized with the following four features: (1) A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal organs. (2) A word is symbolic, i.e. it stands for something else, such as objects, happenings or ideas.(3) A word is part of the large communication system we call language. (4) Words help human beings to interact culturally with one another.2. The relation between the sound or sound combination of a word and its meaning is almost always arbitrary. There is no logical relationship between the sound or the combination of sounds which stands for an entity (including a thing, a happening or an idea) and the entity itself. On the one hand, the same sound may stand for different entities in different languages. On the other hand, the same meaning can be represented by different sound of combination of sounds.3. Apart from the conceptual meaning (also called "denotative", "logical" or "cognitive" meaning), a word normally has various associated meanings, including the connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, and collocative meaning. We can turn to the dictionary for its conceptual meaning. As for its various associated meanings, however, we have to relate the word with its context, including the linguistic context as well as the context of situation and the context of culture.3.1.21. In (prep.) practice (n.), writers (n.) on (prep.) style (n.) have (primary v.) differed (full v.) a (det.) great (adj.) deal (n.) in (prep.) their (pron.) understanding (n.) of (prep.) the (det.) subject (n.), and (conj.) one (num.) source (n.) of (prep.) disagreement (n.) has (primary v.) been (full v.) the (det.) question (n.) "To (prep.) what (pron.) or whom (pron.) do (primary v.) we (pron.) attribute (full v.) style (n.)? In (prep.) the (det.) broadest (adj.) sense (n.), STYLE (n.) can (modal v.) be (primary v.) applied (full v.) to (prep.) both (adv.) spoken (adj.) and (conj.) written (adj.), both (adv.) literary (adj.) and (conj.) non-literary (adj.) varieties (n.) of (prep.) language (n.); but (conj.) by (prep.) tradition (n.), it (pron.) is (full v.) particularly (adv.) associated (full v.) with (prep.) written (adj.) literary (adj.) texts (n.), and (conj.) this (pron.) is (full v.) the (det.) sense (n.) of (prep.) the (det.) term (n.) which (pron.) will (modal v.) concern (full v.) us (pron.).2. No. These two categories of words have different distribution in speech and writing. Lexical words denote objects, happenings, ideas and their attributes, features, and/or manners, thus relating the words with entities existing outside the text. Grammatical words, instead, denote certain grammatical meanings, thus relating one element within the text with another. In speech there are more grammatical words, while in writing there are more lexical words. Moreover, the more formal the style is, the more lexical words there are.3. Open-class words refer to those classes of words to which we can add new words. In English, nouns, notional verbs, adjectives and adverbs belong to this category. Such words normally convey certain semantic contents and thus are also called "content words". Closed-class words refer to those classes to which new words can hardly be added. In English, closed-class words include pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, relatives, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, modal verbs and the linking verb "to be". Their roles in the linguistic system are partly or wholly grammatical and thus are also called "grammatical words".3.2.11. 1) un- + bear + -able 2) watch + -ful 3) person+ -ify (i) + -cation4) un- + exception + -al + -ly 5) un- +educate +-(e)d 6) inspir(e) + -ing 7) soft + heart + -ed 8) horse + man + -ship2. 1) 3: geo- + -graph + -y 2) 4: inter- +nation + -al + -ly 3) 2: forget + -(t)en 4) 1: Washington 5) 2: inform + -ation 6) 4: industry (i) + -al +-iz(e) + -ation 7) 3: pre- + dominat(e) + -ant 8) 2: pre- + conscious3. The plural s has 5 morphologically-conditioned allomorphs: (1) -(e)s, as in "cats", "matches"; (2) -(r)en: as in "oxen", "children"; (3) -e-: as in "men", "women"; (4) -ee-, as in "feet", "teeth"; and (5) zero, as in "sheep", "deer".3.2.21. 1) inspire: into 2) intransigent: not 3) insufficient: not 4) insert: into5) insoluble: not 6) intact: not 7) impenetrable: not 8) immutable: not9) illicit: not 10) irretrievable: not2. 1) prince - princess 2) emperor - empress 3) waiter - waitress 4) Paul – Paula 5) fiancé - fiancée 6) hero -。
