语言学概论_课后参考答案__杨信彰

Charpter1

1.1.1

1. a. This sentence may have three interpretations: 1) He rolled from side to side in his grave. 2) He returned his grave. 3) He handed in his grave.

b. There are two interpretations to this sentence: 1) They gave preference to both young men and young women. 2) They gave preference to women and young men.

2. Units that have reference: I, saw, Mary, went, the library.

Units that indicate structure: when, to.

3. a. This sentence is grammatical, but is nonsensical.

b. This sentence is ungrammatical and nonsensical.

c. This is a good sentence.

d. This is a good sentenc

e.

1.1.2

1. a. This sign is a symbol. It means we will have good luck. I know it from my cultural background, because the Chinese character "福" means "luck" and the color red symbolizes "goodness". The Chinese meaning of "upside down" is "倒", which has the similar pronunciation of "到(arrive)". Thus, when the character "福" is put upside down, it means that luck arrives.

b. This sign is an icon. It means no smoking, and I know it from the picture.

c. This sign is a mixture of a symbol and a icon. It means that "parking" is only allowed for disabled people.

2. I think the house is on fire because smoke is a index of fire.

3. To the physician, it means that the man has got a fever.

4. I think so, but not exactly, because the difference of the consonants does not mean the bird in different places cries differently.

1.1.3

1. according to the arbitrariness theory, the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention. Thus, the name Xiao Long is just a label for the son. However, in Chinese culture dragon was the symbol for the emperor. Thus, the name may have certain associative meanings.

2. No. The speaker of a language, based upon the convention established in the speech community, associates linguistic signs with things and concepts. In people's mind, "pig" stands for foolishness and laziness. If I name it Pig Hair Shampoo, no one will buy it.

3. Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use. Although the link between form and meaning is arbitrary, there existed certain relationship between them, which can be called rules. The individual does not have the power to change a sign in any way once it has become established in the linguistic community.

1.1.4

1. I prefer to use the spoken language. In a supermarket, the spoken language is much more convenient for people to communicate with each other. People do not have the time and necessity to use written language in communication.

2. I think listening and speaking should come first. The primary medium of language is sound, and language is primarily vocal. What's more, children can learn to listen and speak a foreign language more quickly than they read and write.

1.1.5

1. No, I don't agree with this point of view. Language is human specific, so humans and dogs can not communicate with each other.

2. A parrot only can say what it is taught. It can not form an infinite set of utterances from a finite use of units. So, a parrot talking can not be equated with human language.

3. That is only the result of the stimulus-response training.

4. Human language is primary over animal communication in the following aspects:

1) Human has the ability to refer to things far remote in time and space. In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey such ability.

2) Human has the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.

3) Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.

4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any animal communication system.

5) Animal communication systems are closed-ended, whereas human languages are open-ended.

1.1.6

1. The advanced technology such as telephones and the Internet makes human communication become much more convenient and frequent. People can communicate with others in remote places freely.

2. There may exist several causes:

1) The sender can not express himself or herself clearly.

2) The receiver can not understand what the sender said.

3) The receiver is unwilling to communicate with the sender.

4) There exists misunderstanding because of the different cultural background of the sender and the receiver.

3. We must pay key attention to learning the knowledge of the ways of thinking, acting and speaking of a language, for differences in this kind of knowledge may cause trouble in intercultural communication.

1.2.1

1. a. Physiological function

b. Performative function

c. Phatic function

d. Informative function

2. People like poetry because people can enjoy the rhythm and the melody of certain combinations of sounds in the poetry. And most creative uses of language in the poetry can provide people considerable pleasure through the generation of puns, paradoxes, ambiguities and metaphors.

3. I may not say anything, but move the desk away.

1.2.2

1. General functions refer to the particular individual uses of language whilst metafunctions refer to the larger, more general purposes underlying language use.

2. No. According to Halliday, every sentence in a text is multifunctional and has three metafunctions simultaneously: ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.

3. Halliday's functional theory emphasizes the relationship between language structure and the language functions in social life, while the traditional grammar emphasizes the forms of the sentence.

1.3.1

1. I agree to the evolutionary theory which tends to believe that man evolved from lower forms of life, and so did language. This is a scientific approach to the origin of language as it is based on a wide range of studies over years by biologists, anthropologists, psychologists, neurologists, primatologists and linguists. With many significant changes since its early introduction, the evolutionary theory shows us the origin of language from various aspects, such as the organic evolution, environmental factors.

2. 轰隆、乒乓、叽叽嘎嘎、叽里咕噜、汪汪

3. Onomatopoetic words are imitations of the sounds of nature, and emotional ejaculations of pain, fear, surprise, pleasure, anger, etc. According to the invention theory, onomatopoetic words form the basis of language, or at least the core of the basic vocabulary.

1.3.2

1. Usually, there are two main ways of classifying languages: the genetic (or genealogical) and the typological. The historical classification is based on the assumption that languages have diverged from a common ancestor. This criteria is to research into the history and relatedness of languages. On the other hand, the typological classification is based on a comparison of the formal similarities which exist between languages.

It is an attempt to group languages into structural types, on the basis of phonology, grammar, or vocabulary, rather than in terms of any real or assumed historical relationship.

2. Currently, we cannot say that all languages in the world derived from one common ancestor. It might be true that some languages have diverged from one common ancestor, for example, French, Spanish, Italian and other Romance languages were clearly descended from Latin, but no evidence show that all languages in the world have the same origin. As research shows, there are at least 29 language families in the world. However, this problem will be solved when we have enough evidence to show that human beings have one common ancestor.

3. The major causes for the language diversity in the world include grammatical structure, historical factors, social factors, intercultural contact, etc.

1.4.1

1. The two sentences perform the same function of requesting. However, The two sentences have different choices of words and syntax structures. Sentence (a) is structurally an imperative sentence, while Sentence (b) takes the form of a question and the word 'please' is added. So, the effects of the two utterances are different. Sentence (b) would sound more polite. When we are decoding them, we would take into account such factors as choice of words and syntactic structures, the principle of politeness and the context.

2. As a science, linguistics demands a scientific outlook upon language. To conduct a study of language scientifically, we must take an objective view of language and all linguistic phenomena and study language and reflect on it in a detached and unbiased way. Even a local variety with few native speakers may also fall within our investigations. Moreover, we should adopt the general principles of empirical research procedures to observe and analyze data found in natural languages.

3. The real object of linguistics is to find out fundamental rules that underlie all the languages in the world. We need to look into the common features of all languages, the range of variations among languages, the difference of human languages from animal communication, the change and evolution of language, the relation of language to mind and society, and so on.

1.4.2

1. It is very important to study speech in linguistics, because language is primarily vocal. As we know, no community has a written form only, though many have a spoken language only. Children learn spoken language first and most easily. Earlier in the 20th century certain linguists began to doubt the priority of writing. Bloomfield argued that writing was not language but merely a way of recording language. The contemporary linguistics maintains that the spoken language is primary and that writing is essentially a means of representing speech in another medium. Linguistics has stressed the priority of speech because it is the "natural," or primary, medium in which language is manifest, and written language derives from the transference of speech to a secondary, visual medium.

2. There is no absolute standard of correctness because linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. Different groups of people may use different varieties of language. The correctness in language use should not be prescribed grammatically.

3. In reality, it is impossible to have a standard language. The reason is that linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. There is no absolute standard of correctness. What's more, as we know, with the passage of time, all languages are subject to change. All living languages are there to serve the different social needs of the communities that use them. As these needs change, languages will tend to change to meet the new situations. Thus, a standard language is not possible.

1.5.1

1. There are many external factors related to language. Cultural factors influence the full meaning of the language conveys. Social factors include the social backgrounds of both the speaker and the addressee (i.e. their age, sex, social class, ethnic background, degree of integration into their neighborhood, etc.), the relationship between speaker and addressee and the context and manner of the interaction. Psychological factors have effects on people's behaviors.

2. Though there are many translation softwares in the market, translations done by machines are full of errors and require much post-editing. The key problem is the lack of a good linguistic theory to provide a frame of reference for machine translation. It is unlikely that machines will replace human translators.

3. Foreign language learning and teaching involves several interrelated factors. These are: linguistic theories, situational factors, input and interaction, learner differences, learner processes, linguistic output, curriculum and

syllabus design, teaching methodology, learner and teacher roles, textbook writing, language planning, and so on.

1.5.2

1. Linguistic studies have gone through many changes. Since the 1930s down to the present, the expansion of knowledge in so many directions have led to several attempts to make synthesis and to develop a unified theory of language. Several schools of thought have emerged round a few prominent linguists such as Firth, Halliday, Hjelmslev and Chomsky, major centers of linguistic study like Prague School, Geneva School, Copenhagen School, and leading concepts such as structuralism, functionalism, tagmemics, systemic functional grammar, transformational generative grammar, speech act theory.

2. I think discourse analysis is a proper way to study language. Traditional linguistic analysis has concentrated on the internal structure of sentences, but discourse analysis is interested in the analysis of units larger than sentences. Thus, the term discourse or text refers to all linguistic units with a definable communicative function, spoken or written. It stresses the need to see language as a dynamic, social, and interactive phenomenon.

3. A corpus is always needed in linguistics. Over the past few years, the study of language in actual use has required a corpus-based research. Scholars need a corpus to analyze patterns of use in natural texts. The importance of corpus to language study is aligned to the importance of empirical data because empirical data enable the linguist to make objective statements, rather than those based upon the individual's own subjective perception of language. So, corpus linguistics should be seen as a subset of the activity within an empirical approach to linguistics.

Charpter 2

2.1.1

1. Articulatory phonetics deals with the identification and classification of individual sounds. It attempts to provide a framework of the nature of speech sounds and how they are produced. Acoustic phonetics focuses on the analysis and measurement of sound waves. It studies the physical characteristics of speech sounds as they are determined and measured by machines, and attempts to deduce the acoustic basis of speech production and perception.

2. The speech chain consists of three stages: the production of the message, the transmission of the message and the reception of the message. According to Ball and Rahilly, there are a series of activities in the speech chain. First, there is physiological activity in the brain of the speaker. Then the brain sends instructions to a variety of muscles of vocal organs. The result is a range of muscle contractions and physical movement of structures such as the rib cage, the larynx, the tongue and so on. In turn, these movements give rise to an aerodynamic phase of the speech chain, whereby air flows through the vocal tract. This airflow interacts with continued movement of structures such as the vocal folds, tongue, lips and soft palate to produce the different features of speech. This modified airflow through the vocal tract impinges on the air surrounding the speaker.

3. Spelling is not the same as pronunciation in English. For example, in pronunciation, the "h" in the word "hour" is silent. "ph" in the word "elephant" is pronounced as [f], which seems to have nothing to do with its spelling. Another example might be a pair of words like "meet" and "meat", who have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings.

2.1.2

1. In the production of speech, the vocal tract sets a column of air into motion, and then modifies this moving air-stream in a number of ways to produce the sounds of speech.

2. When describing individual sound segments, phoneticians and linguists often employ two parameters to examine how sounds are articulated: manner of articulation and place of articulation. In terms of manner, sounds are classified into plosives, nasals, fricatives, affricates, approximants, trills and taps. When examined from view of place of articulation, sounds are divided into groups like bilabials, dentals, post-alveolar, retroflex, uvular, glottal, labiodentals, alveolar, palatal, velar and pharyngeal sounds.

3. Bilabial, dental and labiodental sounds are different from one another in terms of place of articulation. Bilabials are articulations made with the upper and lower lips brought together. In bilabial stops they form an air-tight seal producing the plosives [p, b] or, if the velum is lowered, the nasal [m]. Dentals are produced by the front of the tongue touching the back of the upper front teeth. Dental sounds are generally apical. Dental

fricatives occur in English as pronunciations of the 'th' spellings. The voiceless dental fricative is the sound

of 'th' in 'thin', whereas its voiced counterpart is the sound of 'th' in 'then'. Labiodentals are articulations produced with the lower lip approximating to the underside of the upper front teeth. For example, in English the

[f] in fat and the [v] in vat are labiodental fricatives.

2.1.3

3. First of all, vowels and consonants appear in different places in English words. Secondly, vowels and consonants are produced differently. Vowels are made by egressive pulmonic airflow through vibrating or constricted vocal folds and through the vocal tract, and the sound is modified in the oral cavity. Consonants are made by constricting the vocal tract at some point thereby diverting, impeding, or completely shutting off the flow of air in the oral cavity.

2.1.4

1. Narrow transcription captures the exact articulatory details of each sound. It records as many features of an utterance as can be ascertained by the person doing the recording. On the contrary, broad transcription is a less subtle transcription. It omits many of the irrelevant and predictable details of pronunciation and is perfectly suitable for many users.

2. Omitted.

2.2.1

1. Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units susceptible of concomitant occurrence. In other words, a phoneme is a block that cannot be broken down into smaller parts; it is the smallest element relevant to phonemic analysis. Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme.

2. Omitted.

3. [p] and [b] are different phonemes because they represent distinctive sounds. In addition, if we substitute one sound for the other, it results in a change of meaning.

2.2.2

1. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs. For instance, "deed" and "seed" are minimal pairs, but "deed" and "dog" are not because the vowel and final consonant in these two sounds are different.

2. a) /p/-/b/: pig-big; gap-gab;

b) /k/-/g/: coat-goat; back-bag;

c) /f/-/v/: life-live; fife-five;

d) /m/-/n/: meat-neat; time-tine;

e) /r/-/l/: right- light; sear-seal

3.

2.2.3

1. Distinctive features can be used to distinguish one phoneme from another or one group of sounds from another group. Thus, "distinctive" means serving to identify, distinguishing.

2. The distinctive features for each group of sounds are:

a) [p, t, b, d]: [-high, -back]

b) [j, w, i, u]: [+voiced, +high]

3. a) life, lives: similarities: [-high, -back], differences: life [f]: [-voiced]; lives[v]: [+voiced]

b) choice, choose: similarities: [-high, -back]; differences: choice[s]: [-voiced], choose [z]: [+voiced]

c) deduce, deduction: similarities: [+back]; differences: deduce: [-high, -round], deduction: [+high, +round]

2.3.1

1. Edinburgh, Wednesday, Thames are words in which pronunciation does not match the spelling.

2. These words are not permissible in English. All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes. *tpray, *btry, *tgharg do not sound like an English word because it does not conform to the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes. When three consonants occur, the first must be [s].

2.3.2

1. When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution. That is to say, complementary distribution refers to the case in which one of two or more sounds occur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), i.e. in a context in which the other sound(s) never occur(s).

2. For the speaker, the Chinese consonants [sh] and [x] are the same. So, to him, there is no need to distinguish these two sounds, and he pronounces the two consonants in the same way..

2.4.1

1. Structurally, the syllable may be divided into three parts: the onset, the peak, and the coda. The onset of a syllable consists of all the segments that precede the peak and are tautosyllabic with it. The peak is realized by a vowel. The coda consists of all the tautosyllabic segments that follow the peak. A syllable that has no coda is called an unchecked or open syllable; one with a coda is called a checked or closed syllable.

2. The word "yesterday" has three syllables. ye-ster-day.

"extra" has two syllables. ex-tra

"secretarial" has four syllables. se-cre-ta-rial

"camera" has three syllables. ca-me-ra

"appreciation" has five syllables. a-pre-ci-a-tion

3. English has syllables that begin with vowels and onsets of from one to three consonants. In English, three-consonant onsets are highly restricted in their composition. The first consonants in such onsets must be an s, the second a voiceless stop, and the third a liquid. Moreover, if the second consonant is t, the third must be r.

2.4.2

1.

2. Stress in English is very important. English is a stress language. The rhythm of spoken English is to a very large extent determined by strong beats falling on the stressed syllables of words. Thus, a typical spoken utterance of English will consist of a number of rhythmic units. Each unit is dominated by the beat of the stressed syllable. In verse, the wording is characteristically and deliberately organized to yield a regular rhythm, and the units of this rhythm are commonly called 'feet'. This kind of rhythm puts a characteristic stamp on the nature of spoken English.

2.4.3

1. Pitch is a suprasegmental quality which extends over individual segments and longer stretches of speech. Pitch is the perceived frequency of a sound wave. Perceived pitch is largely determined by the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, and to some extent by the intensity of the sound.

2. Pitch is very important in Chinese. Different pitches on Chinese characters can lead to meaning differences. For example, "fei", when given different pitches, may mean "飞(fly)", "肥(fat)", "匪(bandit)" or "沸(boil)".

2.4.4

1. The intonation patterns of the following English questions are:

a) It begins with a mid pitch, rises to a higher pitch and then falls.

b) Falling.

c) Rising.

d) It begins with a mid pitch, falls to a lower pitch and then rises.

2. Intonations refer to the pitch differences that extend over phonetic units larger than the syllable. Intonation serves several functions in verbal communication such as grouping words, emphasizing words and differentiating meanings.

3. Intonation plays a very important role in daily conversations. In some languages, such as English and Chinese, the same sequence of segments may have different meanings if uttered at different relative pitches.

Keys to Linguistics of Xiamen University

Charpter 3

3.1.1

1. A word is characterized with the following four features: (1) A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal organs. (2) A word is symbolic, i.e. it stands for something else, such as objects, happenings or ideas.

(3) A word is part of the large communication system we call language. (4) Words help human beings to interact culturally with one another.

2. The relation between the sound or sound combination of a word and its meaning is almost always arbitrary. There is no logical relationship between the sound or the combination of sounds which stands for an entity (including a thing, a happening or an idea) and the entity itself. On the one hand, the same sound may stand for different entities in different languages. On the other hand, the same meaning can be represented by different sound of combination of sounds.

3. Apart from the conceptual meaning (also called "denotative", "logical" or "cognitive" meaning), a word normally has various associated meanings, including the connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, and collocative meaning. We can turn to the dictionary for its conceptual meaning. As for its various associated meanings, however, we have to relate the word with its context, including the linguistic context as well as the context of situation and the context of culture. 3.1.2

1. In (prep.) practice (n.), writers (n.) on (prep.) style (n.) have (primary v.) differed (full v.) a (det.) great (adj.) deal (n.) in (prep.) their (pron.) understanding (n.) of (prep.) the (det.) subject (n.), and (conj.) one (num.) source (n.) of (prep.) disagreement (n.) has (primary v.) been (full v.) the (det.) question (n.) "To (prep.) what (pron.) or whom (pron.) do (primary v.) we (pron.) attribute (full v.) style (n.)? In (prep.) the (det.) broadest (adj.) sense (n.), STYLE (n.) can (modal v.) be (primary v.) applied (full v.) to (prep.) both (adv.) spoken (adj.) and (conj.) written (adj.), both (adv.) literary (adj.) and (conj.) non-literary

(adj.) varieties (n.) of (prep.) language (n.); but (conj.) by (prep.) tradition (n.), it (pron.) is (full v.) particularly (adv.) associated (full v.) with (prep.) written (adj.) literary (adj.) texts (n.), and (conj.) this (pron.) is (full v.) the (det.) sense (n.) of (prep.) the (det.) term (n.) which (pron.) will (modal v.) concern (full v.) us (pron.).

2. No. These two categories of words have different distribution in speech and writing. Lexical words denote objects, happenings, ideas and their attributes, features, and/or manners, thus relating the words with entities existing outside the text. Grammatical words, instead, denote certain grammatical meanings, thus relating one element within the text with another. In speech there are more grammatical words, while in writing there are more lexical words. Moreover, the more formal the style is, the more lexical words there are.

3. Open-class words refer to those classes of words to which we can add new words. In English, nouns, notional verbs, adjectives and adverbs belong to this category. Such words normally convey certain semantic contents and thus are also called "content words". Closed-class words refer to those classes to which new words can hardly be added. In English, closed-class words include pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, relatives, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, modal verbs and the linking verb "to be". Their roles in the linguistic system are partly or wholly grammatical and thus are also called "grammatical words".

3.2.1

1. 1) un- + bear + -able 2) watch + -ful 3) person+ -ify (i) + -cation4) un- + exception + -al + -ly 5) un- +educate +-(e)d 6) inspir(e) + -ing 7) soft + heart + -ed 8) horse + man + -ship

2. 1) 3: geo- + -graph + -y 2) 4: inter- +nation + -al + -ly 3) 2: forget + -(t)en 4) 1: Washington 5) 2: inform + -ation 6) 4: industry (i) + -al +-iz(e) + -ation 7) 3: pre- + dominat(e) + -ant 8) 2: pre- + conscious

3. The plural s has 5 morphologically-conditioned allomorphs: (1) -(e)s, as in "cats", "matches"; (2) -(r)en: as in "oxen", "children"; (3) -e-: as in "men", "women"; (4) -ee-, as in "feet", "teeth"; and (5) zero, as in "sheep", "deer".

3.2.2

1. 1) inspire: into 2) intransigent: not 3) insufficient: not 4) insert: into5) insoluble: not 6) intact: not 7) impenetrable: not 8) immutable: not9) illicit: not 10) irretrievable: not

2. 1) prince - princess 2) emperor - empress 3) waiter - waitress 4) Paul – Paula 5) fiancé - fiancée 6) hero - heroine 7) king - queen8) ox - cow9) wolf - she-wolf 10) doctor- woman doctor

3. 1) operation - operations 2) responsibility - responsibilities 3) proposal - proposals 4) modernize - modernization 5) beautify - beautifies 6) activate - activates7) funny - funnier 8) friendly - friendlier

3.3.1

1. Inflection refers to the process of adding an affix to a word or changing it in some other way according to the grammatical rules of the language. English inflections are used to express certain grammatical meanings: the plural morpheme {s} to change the noun into the plural-number form, the generative-case morpheme {'s} to indicate the relation of possession, the feminine-gender morpheme {ess} to change the masculine noun into its corresponding feminine-gender form, the third-person singular {s} to change the verb into the third-person singular form, the -ing participle {ing} to change the verb into the -ing participle, the past-form morpheme {ed} to change the verb into the past-tense form, the past-participle morpheme {ed} to change the verb into the -ing participle, the comparative {er} to change an adjective into the comparative-degree form, and the superlative {est} to change an adjective into the superlative-degree form.

2. No, inflection is not universal. Different languages have different morphology. There are languages, like Latin and Sanskrit, which abound in inflectional morphemes. There are also languages, like Chinese, which have no inflectional morphemes. Between these two extremes are some intermediate languages, like English, which have comparatively few inflectional morphemes than languages of the first category.

3. Omitted.

3.3.2

1. 1) password: word to be passed 2) housewife: wife in charge of a household3) sunshine: shine of the sun 4) milkman: man who sells or delivers milk5) sunflower: plant whose flower faces the sun6) apple pie: pie consisting of a filling of apples7) mosquito net: net to prevent mosquitoes 8) daydream: dream in the daytime9) freezing-point: point at which a liquid freezes 10) flashlight: light of a flash

2. Abbreviation refers to the way in which a longer word or expression is abbreviated or shortened. In both English and Chinese, longer words can be abbreviated via clipping, blending, and initials and acronyms. However, differences exist. While English words are made up of letters which can be pronounced into syllables, Chinese words are made up of characters each of which is normally pronounced as a separate syllable. While the English language differentiates blending, initials and acronyms, the

Chinese language makes no such differentiation. In Chinese, the major approach to abbreviating a longer expression is usually to combine the first character of each of the constituent words into a shortened expression, in which the constituent characters are pronounced individually. Another commonly-used way of abbreviation in Chinese is to combine a numeral and the head word of a series of parallel constructions, as in "四化".

3. The English language normally adds new words to its vocabulary through coinage, compounding, derivation, abbreviation, imitation, and borrowing.

3.4.1

1. 1) 11：他/在/学校/表现/很/好/，是/个/优秀/学生/干部/。

2) 12：这里/的/水果/真/多/，到处/是/荔枝/、香蕉/、芒果/、樱桃/、西瓜/。

3) 24：Had/ the/ construction/ worker/ not/ seen/ the/ attack/ as/ he/ was/ driving/ to/ work/ early/ and/ jumped/ in/ to/ try/ and/ help/, she/ might/ have/ died/, police/ said/. （The following lexemes occur twice in the sentence: the primary verb "have" (had/have), the determiner "the", the infinitive marker "to".）

4) 12：Astronomers/ are/ elated/ by/ the/ discovery/ of/ an/ object/ that/ rivals/ the/ size/ of/ Pluto's/ moon/. (The determiner "the" occurs twice in the sentence.)

2. A lexeme refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units whereas a word refers to the smallest form of a language that can occur by itself. A lexeme may be or may not be identical with a word. For example, the definite article "the" is both a lexeme and a word. However, the lexeme "put up with" has three different words.

3. Collocation refers to the habitual co-occurrence of individual lexical items. In a word, collocation is the linguistic reflection of certain conventional relations conceived by the native speakers of a language between the lexical items and/or between the realities represented by these lexical items. Collocated lexical items fall into four categories: (1) Logical collocations: Some lexical items are allowable to co-occur because the objects, happenings, ideas and/or their properties they denote normally co-occur in the context of situation or culture. (2) Semantic collocations: Some lexical items are collocations because the contents they denote are normally related with each other. (3) Lexical collocations: Such collocations involve the habitual co-occurrence of lexical items of different categories because of certain expressional conventions. (4) Grammatical collocations: Some lexical items co-occur because of certain grammatical restrictions.

3.4.2

1. Idioms refer to phrasal lexemes which have relatively regular lexical meaning and restricted grammatical variation. By definition, idioms are relatively fixed in structure. We cannot alter or substitute its component words of our own will. For example, we cannot alter the idiomatic greeting "How do you do?" into "How did you do?", nor can we substitute the adjective "green" in the idiomatic expression "green with envy" with "red".

2. Language is the reflection of human knowledge of the world. With the constant economic, technological, social and cultural development and the expansion of human beings' knowledge of nature, the society and themselves, they have to create new words and expressions to denote the new natural and/or social phenomena, their new discoveries, new inventions and new perceptions. As a result, the lexicon of a language is constantly expanding.

3. Proverbs refer to a brief epigram or maxim. They are always succinct in language and pregnant in meaning. In other words, they are the condensed summary of the experiences and wisdom of a culture. They not only help the members of a culture to express themselves wittily and tersely but also enable the community to pass their experiences and wisdom from one generation to another. Some proverbs are instructive.

Charpter 4

4.1.1

1. No. Immediate constituent analysis is solely concerned with the surface structures of language, which only shows the physical manifestation of the language, for example, linear order of a sentence. One approach to explain sentences with discontinuous constituents is to represent them by two phrase markers, which will be structurally related. One phrase marker is derived from another. By transformational grammar, the discontinuous constituents can be accounted for effectively. Transformational rules are responsible for the generation of infinitely many phrase markers not generated directly by the phrase-structure rules.

2. 1)

2)

3. (a) a) The door was shut down.

b) The store was not open for business.

(b) a) I don't like the painting of Jack.

b) I don't like the painting owned by Jack.

(c) a) I chalked a picture of the woman on the blackboard.

b) I drew a picture of the woman who had a piece of chalk in her hand.

4.1.2

1. (b)

2. (a)

(b)

(c)

3. (a) complex; (b) coordinate; (c) simple

4.2.1

(a) One clause. Main clause. Declarative.

S ——→ NP VP

Subject + Predicate

b) One clause. Main clause. Declarative.

S ——→ NP VP NP

Subject + Predicate + Complement

(c) Two clauses. Main clause, and relative clause. Declarative.

S ——→ NP VP

VP ——→ V NP S'

Subject + Predicate + Complement

Subject + Predicate + Adjunct

(d) Three clauses. Main clause, complement clause, and relative clause. Interrogative.

S ——→ (Q) NP VP NP S'

S ——→ NP S'' VP NP

Subject + Predicate + Complement

Subject + Predicate

4.2.2

1. 1) (a)

(b)

2)

3)

2. (1) O, (2) O, (3) N, (4) O

4.3.1

1. Surface structure can be derived from deep structure. A surface structure may be represented by more than one phrase marker, which in sense is the same to a single phrase marker. This one single phrase marker is said to be the deep structure. In the operation from deep structure to surface structure, phrase structure rules and modifications are needed to add, delete, or permute constituents. The relations between deep and surface structures are to be revealed through transformational rules. In this process, the order or hierarchic relationship of the constituents is to be changed. The actual pronunciation is based on the surface structure.

2. The above two sentences have different deep structures. They appear to be similar in surface structure, but speakers of English know that in (a), the subject "He" is the doer of the action, and it is different from the object complement "a good wife" in reference. In (b), the subject "He" and the object complement "a good husband" are identical in reference.

4.3.2

1. (a) The relevant parts for the passive transformational rule of the above sentence are the subject NP (here the public), the object NP (here the boss, which will change positions with the public), the V (criticize) and AUX, and then a be + en auxiliary will be inserted. The deep structure should be its corresponding active variant, which is The public criticized the boss of the bus company severely.

(b) In the derivation of The woman threw the rake away in the yard., the underlying structure, The woman threw away the rake in the yard. is also the deep structure. It is generated by the phrase-structure rules, including the rule which states that a V (verb) consists of a Vprt (verbs that can combine with verbal particles) and a Prt (verbal particles). In the surface structure, a new phrase marker is produced in which the particle is moved to the right of the NP.

(c) The question rule formulates that in order to form a yes-no question from the declarative sentence, move the first auxiliary verb of the main sentence (in this case, will) immediately before the first NP of that sentence (here, the new school master). So, the deep structure of the question should be its declarative variant, which is The new school master will hire her.

2. (a) A wh interrogative sentence is derived by a movement rule from a deep structure similar to that of the declarative counterpart. So, the sentence like What can the computer program do for us? would derive from a deep structure in the form of The computer program can do "what" for us?. The wh-element occurs initially and is followed by tense and an auxiliary. In this sentence, the object is fronted. First, the interrogative transformation which switches round the auxiliary verb can and the subject the computer program - known as 'I' (inflexion) movement, and in the second step, a 'wh' transformation - known as 'wh' movement - that moves the noun phrase what- "the content", to the front of the sentence, see the following diagram.

(b) This sentence is traditionally called the "passive" sentence, and its variant is "active". This pair is broadly speaking the same in meaning. The formulations of the passive rules must capture the fact that the active sentence and the passive sentence have their NP's (here the window and Jack) in reverse order, and that both a be + en auxiliary and the preposition by occur in the

passive sentences and not in the active ones. AUX refers to past tense in this sentence.

(c) A corresponding sentence to the sentence is They gave a gentle push to the door. Both of which have the same basic meaning, and differ in the order of NP's in the VP. In the corresponding sentence we find NP1 + to + NP2, in the above given sentence. Yet, in the sentence They gave the door a gentle push., we have reversed NP's. Transformational rules capture these facts by viewing the sentence, They gave the door a gentle push. as derived from the sentence, They gave a gentle push to the door., by deleting to and reverses the order of (i.e., permutes) the two NP's. A phrase marker is changed into a new one.

3. (a) a) The cigars that are giving off the smoke can be nauseating.

b) The inhaling of the smoke of the cigars can be nauseating.

(b) a) The woman is so heavy that she cannot be moved.

b) The woman cannot move it, because it is so heavy.

(c) a) After a three-day debate, they reached a final decision while they were on the plane.

b) After a three-day debate, they finally decided to use the plane.

(d) a) The little boy saw the old man through his telescope.

b) The little boy saw the old man who carried his telescope.

Keys to Linguistics

Charpter 5

5.1.1

1. 1),2) ,3) ,4), 5) .

2. 1) Red: The English word red has the associative meaning of "inciting or endorsing radical social or political change, especially by force".

2) Dragon: In Western culture, the word dragon denotes a mythical animal usually represented as a monstrous winged and scaly head and enormous claws and thus has the associative meaning of "a violent, combative, or very strict person", or "something or someone formidable or baneful".

3) Dog: The English word dog has the following associative meanings: (a) "a worthless person"; (b) "uncharacteristic or affected stylishness or dignity" as in put on the dogs; (c) "an unattractive person, especially a girl or woman".

4) Cage: The English word cage has the associative meaning of "prison".

3. I think the formation of meaning involves the cognitive patterns of the speech community, the contextual factors, the existing linguistic system, and the social-cultural conventions.

5.1.2

1. 1) The sentence may mean "please pass me the salt". It may also mean "the food is not tasty enough". 2) This is sentence can be regarded as a question, meaning "Will Mir Smith be in his office this morning?"

2. Sentence meaning refers to the conventional content or literal meaning of a sentence. It is the context-independent meaning. Utterance meaning refers to the meaning of an utterance in the context. In other words, it is the meaning dependent on the context. In some cases, the sentence meaning coincides with the utterance meaning. But in many situations, the utterance meaning differs from the sentence meaning.

3. The traditional approach to meaning is only concerned with the lexical meaning of separate words and the structural meaning of sentences. In such an approach the meaning of a sentence is merely the combination of the lexical meanings of the component words and the structural meaning of the sentence. Its disadvantage is that it fails to relate the words and sentences with the context in which the words and sentences are used. In real communication, drastic discrepancy may exist between the lexical meaning and the contextual meaning of a word, between the sentence meaning and the utterance meaning.

5.2.1

1. A. Parts of the body: shoulder, head, neck, leg, hand.

B. Stationery: pencil, book, dictionary, pen, notebook.

C. Flowers: rose, chrysanthemum, tulip.

2. The relationship between things and events in the world are very complicated. Therefore, we cannot expect the thesauri to be capable of representing all the order of things and events in the world. Often a word may share the same semantic features with more than one group of words and thus can be included in different thesauri.

3. A thesaurus is a reference book of words and its synonyms. Such a book is really useful for our study of English, especially for the study of writing. But we can never exaggerate its usefulness, for as we all know that in English pure synonyms are rare. We can always identify differences of one kind or another between the synonyms, either in origin, in the shade of meaning, in the affective and/or stylistic meaning, or in the collocation and distribution.

5.2.2

1. True synonyms are rare. The so-called "synonyms" are always different either in their origin, in the shade of meaning, in the affective or stylistic meaning, or in collocation and distribution.

2. a) statesman, politician: Roughly speaking, they are synonymous because both denote the meaning "one actively engaged in conducting the business of a government". But the two words differ in the affective meaning: while "statesman" connotes the appreciative meaning "one who exercises political leadership wisely and without narrow partisanship", "politician" connotes the derogatory meaning of "a person primarily interested in political office for selfish or other narrow usually short-sighted reasons". In this sense, they are not "true" synonyms.

b) adult, grown-up: Briefly speaking, these two words are synonyms in that they both denote the meaning of "a person who is fully developed and mature". But strictly speaking, they are different in the stylistic meaning. Whereas "adult" can be used in nearly all contexts, "grown-up" is colloquial in style and thus is comparatively restricted in distribution.

c) huge, gigantic, colossal, enormous: These words all denote the meaning of "very large or extensive" and thus can be viewed as synonymous. Yet they differ in the shade of meaning and distribution: whereas "huge" means "very large or extensive (as in size or area, in scale or degree, or in scope or character)", "gigantic" means "exceeding the usual or expected (as in size, force, or prominence)", "colossal" means "of a bulk, extent, power, or effect approaching or suggesting the stupendous or incredible", and "enormous" means "marked by extraordinarily great size, number, or degree, especially exceeding usual bounds or accepted notions".

3. black, white: complementary antonyms; buy, sell: relational antonyms; big, small: gradable antonyms; parent, child: relational antonyms; polite, rude: complementary antonyms.

5.2.3

1. 1) cat, dog, pet: These three words are in the relation of inclusion. While "pet" is the hypernym (or "superordinate"), "cat" and "dog" are its hyponyms (or "subordinates).

2) keyboard, monitor, hard disk, mouse: These words denote parts of a computer and are all the hyponyms (or "subordinates") of the word computer.

3) head, oral cavity, tongue: These three words are in the relation of meronymy: tongue is part of oral cavity and oral cavity is part of head.

4) cabbage, cauliflower, celery, tomato: These four words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy: they are all the hyponyms (or "subordinates") of the hypernym (or "superordinate") of the word vegetable.

2. 1) hand, foot: These two words are hyponyms (or "subordinates"), each denoting a part of the human body.

2) rose, narcissus: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy; they are both the subordinates of the word flower.

3) tree, willow: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy: tree is the hypernym (or "superordinate") and willow is the hyponym (or "subordinate). In other words, a willow is a kind of tree.

4) bottle, cork: These two words are in the semantic relation of myronymy. "cork" is part of a bottle.

5.2.4

1. These four entries are so separated because although they share the same form, they are not closely related in meanings. Besides, they differ in etymological origins: slug1 develops from Middle English word slugge meaning "a person or thing acting slowly or awkwardly"; slug2 is believed to develop from SLUG1but the relations between them is now hard to perceive; slug3 is believed to develop from the Danish verb sluge meaning "to swallow"; slug4 develops from the modern English noun slog meaning "a blow" in a Scottish regional dialect, the latter being borrowed from Old Scandinavian slag having the same meaning.

2. The word "hale" has different meanings when used as an adjective and as a verb because they are derived from different origins and thus are generally arranged in dictionaries (e.g. Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary) as separate entries: hale1 (adj.) develops partly from Middle English (northern) hale, from Old English h?l; partly from Middle English hail, from Old Norse heil, meaning "free from defect, disease, or infirmity; sound; rertaining exceptional health and vigor"; hale2 develops from Middle English halen, from Old French haler, meaning "haul, pull; compel to go".

3. When a lexeme has a multiplicity of meanings, it is polysemic. Polysemy is the result from the change of meaning and therefore semantic relations of one kind or another can be identified between the various meanings of the lexeme. In contrast, although homonyms share the same phonological form, they have no common semantic features and in many cases have different written forms. They are normally of different etymological origin and are treated in dictionaries as different entries. 5.2.5

1. a) John has stopped smoking. →John had been smoking.

b) She regretted having told him the secret.→She had told him the secret.

c) The boy opened the door himself. →The door had been closed.

d) The paper turned red when it was dipped into the liquid. →The paper was dipped into the liquid.

2. a) He lost his bike yesterday. →His bike is missing now.

b) They went to the Great Wall. →They are not here at present.

c) Mary's computer is terrific.→Mary's computer is good.

d) We met two of our friends at the party.→Two of our friends were at the party.

5.3.1

1. a) pen, pencil, ruler, cat: While pen, pencil and ruler are all names of stationery, cat denotes a kind of (domestic) animal.

b) bathtub, soap, towel, oven: While bathtub, soap and towel denote objects used for bathing, oven is an object used for cooking.

c) carpenter, professor, student, president: While professor, student and president denote persons related to the school, carpenter does not.

d) walk, stroll, run, sing: While walk, stroll and run each denote a kind of physical movement from one place to another, sing does not.

e) company, university, college, school: While university, college and school each denote a kind of educational institution, company denotes a commercial or industrial institution.

2. Componential analysis has a number of advantages over traditional approaches to lexical meanings. Firstly, it throws new light on semantic relations such as synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and metaphor. Secondly, componential analysis can better explain the validity of syntagmatic combination of words and phrases than the purely syntactic approach. Thirdly, componential analysis gives a better account for the formation of the meaning of a phrase or a sentence. The componential analysis has three disadvantages. Firstly, it is often difficult to determine what semantic features are essential to define a word, and how many are sufficient for the specification. Secondly, when faced with two equally plausible features, it is often difficult to determine which one we should specify. Thirdly, componential analysis seems to be difficult to be apply to function words, such as the, of, and, and ah, for they seem to have no semantic features.

5.3.2

1. a) This sentence has a three-place predicate gave, which governs three arguments, the subject He, the indirect object me and the direct object (the) book.

b) This sentence has a no-place predicate (was) snowing, which governs no argument. Note that the subject It here is an empty word and so does not play the role of an argument in the sentence.

c) This sentence has a one-place predicate (is) working, which governs one argument (the) computer.

d) This sentence has a two-place predicate invented, which governs two arguments, the subject Someone and the object (the) story.

2. a) We wish you to come back soon. (No error.)

b) He rose the heave box easily. → He raised the heavy box easily.Explanation: The predicate verb rise (rose) is a one-place predicate, but in the sentence it is misused as a two-place predicate. So it should be replaced by its corresponding two-place predicate raise(d).

c) Mary laughed me before the students. → Mary laughed at me before the students.The predicate verb laugh(ed) is a one-place predicate, but in the sentence, it is misused as a two-place predicate. Hence it is corrected into its corresponding

two-place verb phrase laugh(ed) at.

5.3.3

1. a) Generally, this utterance is tautological. But in a context when the speaker doubts the identity of the addressee and thus wants to check. the use of this utterance is also valid.

b) This generally tautological utterance can be used in a context in which the addressee intends to pass the speaker the salt but in the process the addressee's action is somehow interrupted. Then the speaker may use this utterance as a reminding or urging expression.

c) This utterance may be used by an annoyed or enraged parent to a naughty or choosy child who is pretending to eat some food but does not swallow them. In this case, the parent is using the utterance as a urging or commanding expression for sake of the child's health or good manners.

2. This utterance involves tow tautological expressions ("冰箱是冰箱", "彩电是彩电"). It can be uttered by a complaining wife to her husband to show her desire to keep up with the Joneses on the one hand and on the other hand to urge her husband to make more money so that they can also afford those household appliances.

3. Metaphor is common in verbal communication. In the traditional approach, metaphor is generally interpreted as a rhetorical device to add novelty to verbal communication. But according to the cognitive and functional linguistic approach, metaphor is a basic cognitive facility with which human beings organize the world in the system of language. Much of the history of every language, according to Halliday (1994: 348), is a history of demetaphorizing: of expressions which began as metaphors gradually losing their metaphorical character. Metaphorical modes of expression are characteristic of adult discourse. On the other hand, metaphor is also an important stylistic feature. For example, literary works (such as novels and poetry) normally abound in lexical metaphor while scientific and technical registers are characterized with nominalizing metaphors.

Charpter 6

6.1.1

1. 1) While (a) is an explicit performative containing the performative verb "admit", (b) is an implicit performative, meaning "I admit (or acknowledge, confess, etc.) that I was wrong."

2) While (a) is an explicit performative containing the performative verb "order", (b) is an implicit performative, meaning "I order (or command, demand, request, etc.) you to leave the room right now."

3) While (a) is an explicit performative containing the perfromative verb "warn", (b) is an implicit performative, meaning "I warn (or tell, caution, etc.) you that the dog is vicious."

4) While (a) is an explicit perfromative containing the performative verb "apologize", (b) is an implicit performative, meaning "I declare that I'm sorry.

2. 1) This is not a performative, because the subject of the main clause is not in the first-person singular number.

2) This is a performative utterance.

3) This is not a performative, because the verb "require" is not in the active voice.

4) This is not a performative, because the verb "fire" is not in the simple present tense.

5) This is not a performative, because this utterance is lacking in any performative.

6.1.2

1. a) As an indirect suggestion, implicitly asking the addressee to stay indoors. This may occur when the speaker and the addressee are in a cozy room when the weather outside is very cold.

b) As an indirect request, implicitly demanding the addressee to close the door or the window. This may occur when the speaker is speaking to the addressee in a cold room when the weather outside is rather cold.

c) As an indirect exclamation, implicitly expressing the speaker's regret for not being able to have an intended excursion. This may occur when the speaker intended to have an excursion but the weather suddenly turns cold outside.

2. a) Would you please sit here and have a rest?

b) Do you mind sitting here and having a rest?

c) Don't you feel tired?

d) How do you like sitting here and having a rest?

e) You're quite out of breath now.

3. 1) Literally, B's reply is irrelevant to A's utterance and this dialogue is thus lacking in coherence. But in effect, it is a coherent conversation. The coherence here is achieved by the conversational implicatures. When A utters "That's telephone", A conveys to B the illocutionary force that B is wanted on the phone. When B replies "I'm in the bathroom", B conveys the illocutionary force "I'm engaged in the bathroom and so I can't answer the phone now." This conversational implicature is grasped by A, who thus responds with "Okay".

2) At first sight, this dialogue is lacking in coherence. When the son utters the statement "I need a ten-speed bicycle", his illocutionary force is to ask his mother to buy a ten-speed bicycle for him. This implicit request is, however, tacitly declined when the mother responds to its literal meaning ("I'm sure you do need a ten-speed bicycle") rather than to its conversational implicature (e.g. "I'll buy a ten-speed bicycle for you" or "I'll talk your dad into buying a ten-speed bicycle for you").

6.2.1

1) In this dialogue, B has flouted the maxim of Manner. Here B uses an obscure expression and fails to give a brief and direct answer to A's question. The implicature of B's utterance is probably "I don't know the exact place. What I can tell you is that Miss Rosebery lives somewhere in the suburbs of the city."

2) In this dialogue, B has flouted the maxim of Relevance. B's answer is not relevant to A's statement. The implicature of B's utterance is probably "There is a garage round the corner, so you can have your car refilled there."

3) In this dialogue, B has flouted the maxim of Quantity. B's reply is more informative than is required for the current purposes of the exchange. The conversational implicature of B's utterance is that "I don't think too much of Cathy's singing."

4) In this dialogue, the student is more informative than is required for the current purposes of the exchange and has thus flouted the maxim of Quantity. The implicature of the student's utterance is probably "It's high time you finished the lecture." 5) In this dialogue, B fails to give a direct answer to A's question and has flouted the maxim of Relevance. The conversational implicature of B's utterance is probably "I don't want any coffee because coffee would make me awake."

6.2.2

1. 1) In this dialogue, the woman politely refuses the man's request to go upstairs to the woman's flat by flouting the maxim of Relevance. Instead of directly refusing the man's request, she claims that her place is in a terrible mess and thus tacitly implies that it is unsuitable to receive anybody in her flat.

2) In this dialogue, the guest tacitly declines the host's suggestion for a drink by claiming that they don't drink. Here the guest has flouted the maxim of Relevance. Instead of directly (and also impolitely) refuses the host's suggestion, the guest says that they have not the ability to drink and thus politely turns down the host's offer of a drink of cocktail.

3) In this conversation, Mother has flouted the maxim of Manner. Instead of directly criticizing the son for having eaten the icing off the cake, she uses the obscure expression "someone" so as not to threaten the son's positive face. This conversational implicature is grasped by the son, who immediately declares "It wasn't ME."

4) In this dialogue, B at first responds to A's question directly. Then B realizes that it is impolite to talk evil of others behind their backs. So B flouts the maxim of Quantity by gradually softening the comment ("small" ' "smallish" ' "not really small but certainly not very big").

2. 1) Generally speaking, the less face-threatening an expression is, the more polite it is. Among the three alternative responses given here, (b) is negative and thus the most face-threatening, (c) is neutral and less face-threatening, and (a) is positive and

thus the least face-threatening. Therefore, the increasing order of politeness of the three alternative responses is: (b) < (c) < (a).

2) Generally speaking, the more indirect a request is, the more polite it is. Among the three alternative responses given here, (b) is an imperative sentence and expresses the request most directly, (c) is a question inquiring the addressee's response to the intended request and is more indirect than (b), whereas (a) is a question inquiring the addressee's ability to perform the intended request and is the most indirect. Therefore, the three alternative responses can be put in the following increasing order of politeness: (b) < (c) < (a).

6.3.1

1. Among the five utterances, 2), 3) and 4) contain the presupposition "The dog barked at the shadow". These three utterances have one thing in common - they all presuppose that the dog barked at the shadow. In other words, the truth value of the three utterances is dependent on the truth value of the presupposition. If the presupposition is true, then the three utterances are true. If the presupposition is false, then the three utterances are false. In contrast, in 1) and 5), the truth value of the statement "The dog barked at the shadow" is uncertain. In other words, we do not know for sure from the two utterances whether the dog barked at the shadow or not.

2. 1) This utterance presupposes that "You have been eaten raw oysters". The presupposition trigger is the verb "stop".

2) This utterance presupposes that "Little Franz had not studied French better before". The presupposition trigger is the verb "regretted".

3) This utterance presupposes that "Catherine does not know anything about this event". The presupposition trigger is the verb "pretends".

4) This utterance presupposes that "Mark Twain found the best setting for most of his best novels in the Mississippi valley". The presupposition trigger is the emphatic construction "It was … that …".

5) This utterance presupposes that "You have helped us in the experiment". The presupposition trigger is the verb "appreciate".

6.3.2

1) Here (b) is the preferred response while (a) is the dispreferred. When A invites B to come and join them in the picnic, he or she normally expects the addressee to accept the invitation rather than decline it.

2) Here (a) is the preferred response while (b) is the dispreferred. When A asks B to comment on a certain lady's performance, the positive response is more preferable than the negative (though modulated for the sake of politeness) one.

3) Here (a) is the preferred response while (b) is the dispreferred. When A requests B to do him or her a favor, he or she normally expects a positive response rather than a negative (though indirect for the sake of politeness) one.

6.4.1

1) In this utterance, 6 reference items are used in the second sentence to contribute to the coherence of the text. Firstly, the possessive determiner their and the possessive pronoun theirs, and the personal pronouns them and they are used to refer anaphorically to "the children next door". Secondly, the definite article the is used together with the noun toy to refer anaphorically to the noun phrase "a toy". Thirdly, the personal pronoun it is used to refer anaphorically to the noun phrase "a toy" and "the toy".

2) In this utterance, 1 reference item is used in the first clause to contribute to the coherence of the text. Namely, the personal pronoun he is used to refer cataphorically to the proper name "Alex".

3) In this utterance, the personal pronoun it is used in the fourth clause to refer anaphorically to the previous sentence "If it rained day and night for two weeks, the basement flooded and everything was under water". This clausal reference contributes to the coherence of the text by connecting the second sentence with the first one.

4) In this utterance, the pronoun one is used in the second clause to refer anaphorically to the noun phrase "a stamp" in the first clause. This helps to connect the second clause with the first and thus contributes to the coherence of the text.

5) In this utterance, the comparative Adjunct otherwise is used to make a contrast between Daddy's having a bit of cold and other aspects of his health. This helps to connect the two clauses into a coherent text.

6.4.2

1. 1) In this utterance, the pronoun one is used in the second sentence to substitute the noun "book". This establishes a comparison between the two sentences and connect them into a cohesive text.

2) In this dialogue, B uses the pro-verb "(have) done" to substitute the verb phrase "(have) succeeded in his ambitions". This helps to connect B's utterances with A's into a cohesive text.

3) In this dialogue, B uses the pronoun so to substitute the previous clause "The Chicago Bulls will win the game". This (together the ellipsis in the next clause, i.e. they will [win the game]) helps to connect the two utterances into a cohesive text.

4) In this dialogue, B uses the clausal substitute not to replace the previous clause (i.e. We will probably join in your excursion this weekend) to avoid unnecessary repetition. This helps to connect the two utterances into a cohesive text.

2. 1) In this dialogue, two clausal ellipses can be identified in B's utterance (i.e. I don't know how long I will be in here. You could ask matron how long I will be in here.). They help to connect B's utterance with A's into a cohesive text.

2) In this dialogue, a verbal ellipsis can be identified in B's utterance (i.e. but Bob didn't care to take the course). This, together with the verbal substitution of did for the verb phrase "take the course", connects B's utterance with A's into a cohesive text. 6.4.3

1) In this passage, there is one conjunctive expression, namely, moreover at the beginning of the second sentence. This conjunctive expression contributes to the cohesion of the passage by adding more information to the first sentence concerning the role of the media in shaping the social and moral norms in the American society.

2) Three sequences of conjunctive expressions are used in this passage. The first sequence is the conjunctive expressions of listing, i.e. to begin in sentence 2 - following (the recording) in sentence 3 - finally in sentence (12). The second sequence is the repetition of some of the questions in sentence 6 - some of the questions in sentence 8 - some of them in sentence 10. The third sequence includes two expressions of exemplification, i.e. for example in sentence 7 and for instance in sentence 11. Together they contribute to make the passage a cohesive text.

6.4.4

1) In this passage, the author uses many expressions to describe his miserable life as a member of the working class. Such expressions include beneath the point at which I had started in sentence 1, down in the cellar of society and down in the subterranean depths of misery in sentence 3, the pit, the abyss, the human cesspool, the shambles and charnel-house of our civilization in sentence 3, the part of the edifice of society in sentence 4. Besides, the author also repeats the infinitive phrase "to ignore" in sentences 4 and 5. With these lexical cohesive ties, the author makes the passage a cohesive text.

2) In this passage, the author uses the following lexical cohesive ties: (a) the repetition of the adjectives "clean", "noble" and "clean" and their derivatives, including "(men who were) clean, noble, and alive" and "(whose ideas were) clean, noble, and alive in sentence 2, "(many that were) clean and noble" and "not alive" in sentence 4, "(they were) not alive", "unclean (life)", "clean and noble" and "not alive" in sentence 6. (b) the use of a series of parallel constructions ate with them, drank wine with them, automobiled with them, and studied them in sentence 4. (c) the repetition of the adjective passionless in sentence 7. The author uses these expressions to describe the sharp contrast between his expectation of the "masters" and the reality.

6.5.1

1) He owed the tailor twenty dollars.

→ It was the tailor whom he owed twenty dollars.

2) "there" is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.

3) "Trees, forced by the damp heat" is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.

4) "Whether they come or not" is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.

5) "Getting the car on the boat" is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.

6) "It …getting the car on the boat" i s the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.

7) "Is" is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.

8) "Only once" is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.

6.5.2

1) He owed the tailor twenty dollars.

→ It was the tailo r whom he owed twenty dollars.

2) The impossible has often proved possible.

→ It is the impossible that has often proved possible.

Or: What has often proved possible is the impossible.

3) We have oral practice every other day.

→ It is every other day tha t we have oral practice.

4) We didn't leave the flat until we could smell the smoke in the corridor.

→ It was not until we could smell the smoke in the corridor that we left the flat.

5) The football match was cancelled because of the rain.

→ It was becaus e of the rain that the football match was cancelled.

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语言学概论试题及答案 语言学概论作业1 导言、第一章、第二章 一、名词解释 1、历时语言学——就各种语言的历史事实用比较的方法去研究它的“亲属”关系和历史发展的，叫历时语言学。 2、语言——语言是一种社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具和进行思维的工具。就语言本身的结构来说，语言是由词汇和语法构成的系统。 3、符号——符号是用来代表事物的一种形式，词这样的符号是声音和意义相结合的统一体。任何符号都是由声音和意义两方面构成的。 4、语言的二层性——语言是一种分层装置，其底层是一套音位；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，这一层又分为若干级，第一级是语素，第二级是由语素构成的词，第三级是由词构成的句子。 5、社会现象——语言是一种社会现象和人类社会有紧密的联系。所谓“社会”，就是指生活在一个共同的地域中，说同一种语言，有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体。语言对于社会全体成员来说是统一的、共同的；另一方面，语言在人们的使用中可以有不同的变异、不同的风格。 二、填空 1、结构主义语言学包括布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学三个学派。 2、历史比较语言学是在19世纪逐步发展和完善的，它是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。 3、人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的左半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。 4、一个符号，如果没有意义，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有声音，我们就无法感知，符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。 5、用什么样的语音形式代表什么样的意义，完全是由使用这种语言的社会成员约定俗成。 6、语言符号具有任意性和线条性特点。 7、语言的底层是一套音位，上层是符号和符号的序列，可以分为若干级，第一级是语素，第二级是词，第三级是句子。 8、语言系统中的所有符号，既可以同别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换，符号之间的这两种关系是组合和聚合。 9、组合是指符号与符号相互之间在功能上的联系，聚合是指符号在性质上的归类。 三、判断正误（正确的打钩，错误的打叉） 1、文字是人类最重要的交际工具。（×） 2、地主阶级和农民阶级之间没有共同语言，这说明语言是有阶级性的。（×） 3、在现代社会，文字比语言更加重要。（×） 4、现代社会，沟通的方式很多，语言的重要性日渐削弱。（×） 5、语言是思维的工具，没有语言，人类就无法思维。（√） 6、语言和思维互相依存，共同发展。（√） 7、任何一种符号，都是由内容和意义两个方面构成的。（×） 8、从本质上看，语言其实是一种符号系统。（√）

《语言学概论》作业参考答案

《语言学概论》 一、名词解释 1.音位：最小的可以区别意义的语音单位，通常由一簇互相不区别意义的音素构成。如|A|音位里就有前A、后A、央A等几个音素。 2.塞擦音：辅音的发音方式之一。其特点是发音时，两个发音部位紧靠在一起形成阻碍，在保持这个阻碍的同时，留出一个窄缝，让气流从窄缝中磨擦成声，最后除去这个阻碍。如：b‘ｐ‘ｋ‘就是。 3.递归性：语言的递归性是指，组合结构中的某个单位，可以不断地被一个同功能的 短语替换，从而使基本结构里的某个扩展为非常复杂的结构，但其作用仍然等于原始项。也即语言的整体结构与基本框架不变。语法结构的这种性质，我们称之为语言结构的递归性。语言的递归性是语言结构一种非常重要的特性。如：人打倒了|敌人/凶恶的敌人/盘踞在中国大陆的敌人/ 曾经盘踞在中国大陆的不可 以一世的敌人/曾经盘踞在中国大陆不可一世但最终被人 民打倒的敌人 4.复综语：语言类型之一。这种语言的动词内有用不同 的形态表示各种复杂的语法 成分。多见于美洲印第安人的语言。举例。 5.自由变体：音位变体的一种类型。通常指对出现的组合条件没有硬性要求的音位变体。举例。 6.元音：音素的类型之一。即发音时气流在口腔中不受 阻碍而形成的音。举例。 7.语法形式：表示语法意义方式与材料。举例。 8.词干：一个词的主要部分，词汇意义的承担者。举例。 9.音色：语音四要素之一，又叫音质，指声音的特色。由物体振动的不同形式所决定。举例。 10.塞音：辅音的发音方式之一。其特征发音时两个发音部位紧靠在一起，保持一段时间，然后突然除阻，爆破成声。也叫爆破音。举例。 11.共同语：随着社会政治经济集中，会以一种方言为基础形成共同语，以满足整个社会交际往来。共同语又叫天下通语、雅言。举例。 12.数：语法范畴之一。指是用一个词的不同形态表示 出来的词语数的语法意义。在单数、复数、双数等。举例。 二、谈谈语言符号的特点 答：（1）.语言是一种工具， 即交际工具和思维工具；而思 维是一种能力和过程，即人脑 能动地反映客观现实的能力 和过程。 （2）.概念用词语表达，判断 用句子表达，但概念按照逻辑 规律构成的种种判断和词语 按语法规则构成的啊、种种句 子是有区别的。如：语言中的 每个词不一定都表示一个概 念，每个句子不一定都表示判 断。 （3）.思维过程是运用概念 按照逻辑规律构成种种判断， 语言运用过程则是运用词语， 按照句法构成各种句子。 （4）.语言是具有民族特点 的，各民族都有自己的语言特 点，世界上有许多种语言。但 思维是各民族共同的，全人类 具有共同的思维形式和思维 规律。 三、试分析汉字跨越方言交 际的特点与原因 答：汉字的特点:汉字本身 与汉语的语音不发生直接联 系，所以汉字是表意体系的文 字。 汉字有许多形声字，形声字 有表音的声旁，但这种声旁并 不是某种固定的表音的符号， 也不是直接标音的符号，所以 汉字虽有声旁，仍然是表意体 系的文字。 汉字跨方言交际的原因 汉语的居住地区幅员辽阔， 方言分歧有的不能通话，汉族 有悠久的文化传统，有大量用 汉字记载的文献典籍。超地 域、超时代的汉字既可以贯通 古今，也可以联系各地区的人 们的思想交流对于维护国家 的统一、民族的团结，便利各 地区人民的往来起着重要的 作用。 四、谈谈语言分化的原因与 结果 答：语言的分化有两大方 面：一方面是分化出地方变 体，即方言。方言的产生是与 社会的半分化状态相适应的。 随着社会的进一步分化，方言 进一步发展，就可能形成独立 的语言，即产生具有同源关系 的亲属语言。另一方面是分化 出社会变化。社会变化即社会 方言，如行业语，阶级或阶层 习惯语，隐语等。地域方言之 间的区别主要表现在语音方 面，同时也表现在词汇和语法 方面。而社会方言的区别主要 表现在词汇方面。 五、谈语言成分的借用与吸 收 答：要点：借用与吸收的条 件。民族之间的贸易往来，文 化交流，移民杂居，战争征服 等各种形态的接触，都会引起 语言的接触。语言的接触，也 会产生“洋泾浜”“混合 语”等特殊的语言现象。 主要形式有借词。借词也叫 外来词，它指的是音与义都借 自外语的词。 意译词是用本族语言的构 词材料和规则构成新词，把外 语里某个词的意义移植进来。 汉语在吸收外来成分的时 候，不喜欢借音，喜欢有自己 的语素来构词。在这一点上， 汉语和英语、日语等有很大不 同，而接近于德语。 意译词里面还有一种仿译 词。它的特点是，用本族语言 的材料逐一翻译原词的语素， 不但把它的意义，而且把神经 质内部构成形式，也转植过来 如“黑板blackboard,"球 "footba1l等。 有时候，在吸收外来外来成 分的时候，为了便于理解采用 音译加意译的方法。 如汉语中啤酒beer，卡车car 等等。 在词的借用过程中，还可能 有借出去的词再借回来的现 象。一出一进之间，音义等方 面都会有一些变化。汉语的 “百姓”借入蒙古语后成为 [paicing]意思是土房子后来 变成店铺的意思汉语后来又 把这个词从蒙古语中借回来 叫做板生简称板。 七、谈谈语言与思维的关系 思维离不开语言，语言和思 维是两种独立的现象，但形影 相随，不可分离，思维必须在 语言材料的基础上进行。语言 是思维的工具，也是认识成果 的储存。 学习语言的过程也就是认 识世界的过程，思维发展的过 程。 思维必能推语言，还有神经 生物学的根据。 抽象的思维总得以某种物 质的形式作为依托，最方便、 最灵活的依托是声音，也就是 有声语言。 八、试分析词义的派生及其 派生意义的相互关系 答：1．词义派生的条件2．词 义派生的类型3．派生义之间 的关系 词义的派生有现实的基础， 这就是派生义和派生它的那 个意义所指的事物的某一方 面特征有联系。这种联系怎么 被利用来作为派生新义的线 索，那与语言社会的生活环 境、劳动条件、风俗习惯以及 人的思维活动、语言成分之间 的相互作用等等有关。因而表 达同一类现实现象的词义在 不同的语言中各有自己的派 生历程。多义词的派生意义和 它所从出的意义之间存在着 内存的联系。而两者所表示的 事情之间的共同特征，则建立 这种联系的桥梁派生意义就 是顺着这样的桥梁从本义一 步一步扩散开去的。 派生意义产生的途径，就是 引申。引申大体上可分为隐喻 和换喻两种方式。隐喻建立在 两个意义所反映的现实现象 的某种相似的基础上。换喻的 基础是两类现实现象之间存 在着某种联系。这种联系在人 们的心中经常出现而固定化， 因而可以用指称甲类现象的 词去指称乙类现象。一个词的 意义通过隐喻和换喻这些引 申途径可以啬很多新的意义， 使语言能够用较少的词的形 式表达较多的意义。 九、试论图画文字与文字画 答：如果把图形简化，一个 图形记录语言中的一个语素 或词，那就产生了真正的文 字。文字起源于图画，所以有 人把记事的图画叫做“图画文 字”。这种用于交际的图画， 正是原始文字符号的前身，图 形象征化的最初的、最原始的 阶段是图画文字。当图形符号 不是用来代表概念而是用来 代表相应的词的声音时，文字 史上最有意义的一步就迈出 去了。用于交际的图画演变为 文字符号的标志在于它与语 言中的词或语素建立起固定 的关系，也就是说，它在图形 上比较确定，并且有了公认的 音和意。 文字画是用整幅画与语言结 合，成了能说的图画，在一定 程度上具备了文字的性质，但 是它只能图解主要的事物形 象和它们的关系，而不能象真 正的文字那样，作为一种符号 体系来记录语言，就是说它不 能把文字记录的语法关系排 列出来，它只能在比较狭小的 范围内发挥实际作用，离开了 当时的环境。别人无法理解他 的意义，因而文字画还不是真 正的文字，只能说明文字是起 源于文字画，是文字的前身。 十一、试谈洋泾浜的发展趋 势 答：“洋泾浜”这种语言现 象的产生与十七世纪以后帝 国主义的殖民扩张有联系，是 语言接触中的一种畸形的语 言现象。它的使用范围比较狭 窄，发展的前途不外两个：一 是随着社会制度的改变而消 亡，像我国的洋泾浜语在解放 后便停止通行；一个是发展为 混合语，成为某一地区人们通 用的交际工具。 十二、语言的符号特点与作 用 答：语言的符号的最大特点 是它的音和意的结合是任意 的，由社会约定俗成。语言符 号中的形式和意义的结合完 全由社会“约定俗成”，而不 是他们之间有什么必然的、本 质的联系。 语言符号的另一重要特点 是它的线条性。语言符号只能 一个跟着一个一次出现，在实 践的线条上延绵，不能在空间 的面上铺开。 这种由社会“约定俗成”的 符号在使用中还有一个重要 的特点，就是它要象机器的零 件那样能够拼装拆卸，重复使 用。 语言符号不是互不相干的 一盘散沙，而是有组织、有条 理的系统。 十三、谈谈词的形态与形态 变化 答：形态即词形变化，是指 词与词组合时，由于表示语法 意义的需要而发生的词形上 的变化。例如英语的代词有主 格和宾格的区别，第一人称单 数作主语时用I，作宾格时用 me，词形发生了变化，就是形 态变化。 汉语属于孤立语，词很少有 形态变化，少部分形容词可以 重叠表示程度加强的意义，例 如“高高兴兴、快快乐乐、结 结巴巴”等。 例如：英语动词be的八种 形态写八个句子，说明其语法 意义。 a.Hewillbeateacher：表示 将要发生的动作行为，动词用 原形。 b.Iamateacher:现在时，单 数第一人称。 c.Sheisapainter:现在时， 单数第三人称。 d.Theyareworker:现在时， 主语是复数。 e.Hewasateacher:过去时， 主语是单数。 f.wewereworker:过去时， 主语是复数。 g.Ihavebeenateacher:现 在完成时，表示从过去延续到 现在的行为状态。 h.Thenewspaperisbeingre ad:被动语态，进行时。

语言学概论名家

?名家名篇 ?（一）名家 ?历史语言学：徐通锵、王洪君、陈保亚。 ?生成语言学：徐烈炯、宁春岩、徐杰、沈阳、程工。 ?功能语言学：胡壮麟、朱永生、黄国文、张伯江、方梅。 ?认知语言学：沈家煊、陆丙甫、袁毓林、储泽祥、石毓智、赵艳芳、束定芳。 ?配价理论：陆俭明、袁毓林、、张国宪、沈阳。 ?心理语言学：桂诗春、沈家煊、王德春、彭聃龄、朱智贤、李宇明。 ?神经、病理语言学：杨亦鸣、王德春、崔刚。 ?对比语言学：刘重德、杨自俭、王宗炎、赵世开、潘文国、许余龙。 ?语法化：沈家煊、吴福祥。 ?类型学：沈家煊、刘丹青。 ?语言哲学：钱冠连、潘文国。

?实验语音学：石锋 ?计算语言学：冯志伟、俞士汶、刘群、詹卫东 ?社会语言学：陈原、陈章太、李宇明、郭熙 ?数理语言学：方立、冯志伟 ?文化语言学：邢福义 ?模糊语言学：伍铁平、吴振国 ?现代汉语语法：吕叔湘、朱德熙、黎锦熙、王力、邢福义、陆俭明、马真、胡裕树、张斌、胡明扬、 马庆株、邵敬敏、储泽祥 ?现代汉语方言：丁声树、吴宗济、李荣、张振兴、汪国胜、詹伯慧、李如龙、潘悟云、麦耘、游汝 杰 ?少数民族语言：戴庆厦、道布、孙宏开 对外汉语教学：陆俭明、赵金铭、吕必松、崔希亮、 周小兵、张德鑫、鲁健骥、李晓琪、李泉、张和生、 李扬、崔永华、郑懿德、王还、刘珣、孙德金、张凯、 张旺熹、杨寄洲、王建勤、赵日新、郑艳群?（二）名篇

?A历史语言学 ?1. 徐通锵《历史语言学》（商务印书馆1991）?2. 吴安其《历史语言学》（上海教育出版社2006） ?3. 朱晓农、寸熙导读《历史语言学和语言演变》（世界图书出版公司北京公司2007） B结构主义语言学 1. 高名凯译《普通语言学教程》（商务印书馆1980） 2. 索振羽、叶蜚声译《现代语言学教程》（北京大学出版社1986） 3. 何勇等译《语法哲学》（语文出版社1988） 4. 岑麒祥、叶蜚声译《语言》（商务印书馆1992） ?C生成语言学 ? 1.邢公畹等译《句法结构》（中国社会科学出版社1979） ? 2.赵世开译《深层结构、表层结构和语义解释》（中国社会科学出版社1980）

《语言学概论》作业参考答案

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