Charpter1
1.1.1
1. a. This sentence may have three interpretations: 1) He rolled
from side to side in his grave. 2) He returned his grave. 3) He handed
in his grave.
b. There are two interpretations to this sentence: 1) They gave preference to both young men and young women. 2) They gave preference to women and young men.
2. Units that have reference: I, saw, Mary, went, the library.
Units that indicate structure: when, to.
3. a. This sentence is grammatical, but is nonsensical.
b. This sentence is ungrammatical and nonsensical.
c. This is a good sentence.
d. This is a good sentenc
e.
1.1.2
1. a. This sign is a symbol. It means we will have good luck. I know it from my cultural background, because the Chinese character "福" means "luck" and the color red symbolizes "goodness". The Chinese meaning of "upside down" is "倒", which has the similar
pronunciation of "到(arrive)". Thus, when the
character "福" is put upside down, it means that luck arrives.
b. This sign is an icon. It means no smoking, and I know it from the picture.
c. This sign is a mixture of a symbol and a icon. It means that "parking" is only allowed for disabled people.
2. I think the house is on fire because smoke is a index of fire.
3. To the physician, it means that the man has got a fever.
4. I think so, but not exactly, because the difference of the consonants does not mean the bird in different places cries differently.
1.1.3
1. according to the arbitrariness theory, the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention. Thus, the name Xiao Long is just a label for the son. However, in Chinese culture dragon was the symbol for the emperor. Thus, the name may have certain associative meanings.
2. No. The speaker of a language, based upon the convention established in the speech community, associates linguistic signs with things and concepts. In people's mind, "pig" stands for foolishness and laziness. If I name it Pig Hair Shampoo, no one will buy it.
3. Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use. Although the link between form and meaning is arbitrary, there existed certain relationship between them, which can be called rules. The individual does not have the power to
change a sign in any way once it has become established in the linguistic community.
1.1.4
1. I prefer to use the spoken language. In a supermarket, the spoken language is much more convenient for people to communicate with each other. People do not have the time and necessity to use written language in communication.
2. I think listening and speaking should come first. The primary medium of language is sound, and language is primarily vocal. What's more, children can learn to listen and speak a foreign language more quickly than they read and write.
1.1.5
1. No, I don't agree with this point of view. Language is human specific, so humans and dogs can not communicate with each other.
2. A parrot only can say what it is taught. It can not form an
infinite set of utterances from a finite use of units. So, a parrot talking can not be equated with human language.
3. That is only the result of the stimulus-response training.
4. Human language is primary over animal communication in the following aspects:
1) Human has the ability to refer to things far remote in time and space. In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey such ability.
2) Human has the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.
3) Learning is much more important as a factor in human language
than in animal communication.
4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any animal communication system.
5) Animal communication systems are closed-ended, whereas human languages are open-ended.
1.1.6
1. The advanced technology such as telephones and the Internet makes human communication become much more convenient and frequent. People can communicate with others in remote places freely.
2. There may exist several causes:
1) The sender can not express himself or herself clearly.
2) The receiver can not understand what the sender said.
3) The receiver is unwilling to communicate with the sender.
4) There exists misunderstanding because of the different cultural background of the sender and the receiver.
3. We must pay key attention to learning the knowledge of the ways
of thinking, acting and speaking of a language, for differences in this kind of knowledge may cause trouble in intercultural communication.
1.2.1
1. a. Physiological function
b. Performative function
c. Phatic function
d. Informative function
2. People like poetry because people can enjoy the rhythm and the melody of certain combinations of sounds in the poetry. And most
creative uses of language in the poetry can provide people considerable pleasure through the generation of puns, paradoxes, ambiguities and metaphors.
3. I may not say anything, but move the desk away.
1.2.2
1. General functions refer to the particular individual uses of language whilst metafunctions refer to the larger, more general purposes underlying language use.
2. No. According to Halliday, every sentence in a text is multifunctional and has three metafunctions simultaneously: ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.
3. Halliday's functional theory emphasizes the relationship between language structure and the language functions in social life, while the traditional grammar emphasizes the forms of the sentence.
1.3.1
1. I agree to the evolutionary theory which tends to believe that man evolved from lower forms of life, and so did language. This is a scientific approach to the origin of language as it is based on a wide range of studies over years by biologists, anthropologists, psychologists, neurologists, primatologists and linguists. With many significant changes since its early introduction, the evolutionary
theory shows us the origin of language from various aspects, such as the organic evolution, environmental factors.
2. 轰隆、乒乓、叽叽嘎嘎、叽里咕噜、汪汪
3. Onomatopoetic words are imitations of the sounds of nature, and emotional ejaculations of pain, fear, surprise, pleasure, anger, etc. According to the invention theory, onomatopoetic words form the basis of language, or at least the core of the basic
vocabulary.
1.3.2
1. Usually, there are two main ways of classifying languages: the genetic (or genealogical) and the typological. The historical classification is based on the assumption that languages have diverged from a common ancestor. This criteria is to research into the history and relatedness of languages. On the other hand, the typological classification is based on a comparison of the formal similarities which exist between languages.
It is an attempt to group languages into structural types, on the basis of phonology, grammar, or vocabulary, rather than in terms of any real or assumed historical relationship.
2. Currently, we cannot say that all languages in the world derived from one common ancestor. It might be true that some languages have diverged from one common ancestor, for example, French, Spanish, Italian and other Romance languages were clearly descended from Latin, but no evidence show that all languages in the world have the same origin. As
research shows, there are at least 29 language families in the world. However, this problem will be solved when we have enough evidence to show that human beings have one common ancestor.
3. The major causes for the language diversity in the world include grammatical structure, historical factors, social factors, intercultural contact, etc.
1.4.1
1. The two sentences perform the same function of requesting. However, The two sentences have different choices of words and syntax structures. Sentence (a) is structurally an imperative sentence, while Sentence (b) takes the form of a question and the word 'please' is added. So, the effects of the two utterances are different. Sentence (b) would sound more polite. When we are decoding them, we would take into account such factors as choice of words and syntactic structures, the principle of politeness and the context.
2. As a science, linguistics demands a scientific outlook upon language. To conduct a study of language scientifically, we must take an objective view of language and all linguistic phenomena and study language and reflect on it in a detached and unbiased way. Even a local variety with few native speakers may also fall within our investigations. Moreover, we should adopt the general principles of empirical research procedures to observe and analyze data found in natural languages.
3. The real object of linguistics is to find out fundamental rules that underlie all the languages in the world. We need to look into the
common features of all languages, the range of variations among languages, the difference of human languages from animal communication, the change and evolution of language, the relation of language to mind and society, and so on.
1.4.2
1. It is very important to study speech in linguistics, because language is primarily vocal. As we know, no community has a written form only, though many have a spoken language only. Children learn spoken language first and most easily. Earlier in the 20th century certain linguists began to doubt the priority of writing. Bloomfield argued that writing was not language but merely a way of recording language. The contemporary linguistics maintains that the spoken language is primary and that writing is essentially a means of representing speech in another medium. Linguistics has stressed the priority of speech because it is the "natural," or primary, medium in which language is manifest, and written language derives from the transference of speech to a secondary, visual medium.
2. There is no absolute standard of correctness because linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. Different groups of people may use different varieties of language. The correctness in language use should not be prescribed grammatically.
3. In reality, it is impossible to have a standard language. The reason is that linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. There is no absolute standard of correctness. What's more, as we know, with the
passage of time, all languages are subject to change. All living languages are there to serve the different social needs of the communities that use them. As these needs change, languages will tend to change to meet the new situations. Thus, a standard language is not possible.
1.5.1
1. There are many external factors related to language. Cultural factors influence the full meaning of the language conveys. Social factors include the social backgrounds of both the speaker and the addressee (i.e. their age, sex, social class, ethnic background, degree of integration into their neighborhood, etc.), the relationship between speaker and addressee and the context and manner of the interaction. Psychological factors have effects on people's behaviors.
2. Though there are many translation softwares in the market, translations done by machines are full of errors and require much post-editing. The key problem is the lack of a good linguistic theory to provide a frame of reference for machine translation. It is unlikely
that machines will replace human translators.
3. Foreign language learning and teaching involves several interrelated factors. These are: linguistic theories, situational factors, input and interaction, learner differences, learner processes, linguistic output,
curriculum and syllabus design, teaching methodology, learner and teacher roles, textbook writing, language planning, and so on.
1.5.2
1. Linguistic studies have gone through many changes. Since the
1930s down to the present, the expansion of knowledge in so many directions have led to several attempts to make synthesis and to develop a unified theory of language. Several schools of thought have emerged round a few prominent linguists such as Firth, Halliday, Hjelmslev and Chomsky, major centers of linguistic study like Prague School, Geneva School, Copenhagen School, and leading concepts such as structuralism, functionalism, tagmemics, systemic functional grammar, transformational generative grammar, speech act theory.
2. I think discourse analysis is a proper way to study language. Traditional linguistic analysis has concentrated on the internal
structure of sentences, but discourse analysis is interested in the analysis of units larger than sentences. Thus, the term discourse or
text refers to all linguistic units with a definable communicative function, spoken or written. It stresses the need to see language as a dynamic, social, and interactive phenomenon.
3. A corpus is always needed in linguistics. Over the past few years, the study of language in actual use has required a corpus-based research. Scholars need a corpus to analyze patterns of use in natural texts. The importance of corpus to language study is aligned to the importance of empirical data because empirical data enable the linguist to make objective statements, rather than those based upon the individual's own
subjective perception of language. So, corpus linguistics should be seen as a subset of the activity within an empirical approach to linguistics.
Charpter 2
2.1.1
1. Articulatory phonetics deals with the identification and classification of individual sounds. It attempts to provide a framework of the nature of speech sounds and how they are produced. Acoustic phonetics focuses on the analysis and measurement of sound waves. It studies the physical characteristics of speech sounds as they are determined and measured by machines, and attempts to deduce the acoustic basis of speech production and perception.
2. The speech chain consists of three stages: the production of the message, the transmission of the message and the reception of the message. According to Ball and Rahilly, there are a series of activities in the speech chain. First, there is physiological activity in the brain of the speaker. Then the brain sends instructions to a variety of muscles of vocal organs. The result is a range of muscle contractions
and physical movement of structures such as the rib cage, the larynx,
the tongue and so on. In turn, these movements give rise to an aerodynamic phase of the speech chain, whereby air flows through the vocal tract. This airflow interacts with continued movement of
structures such as the vocal folds, tongue, lips and soft palate to produce the different features of speech. This modified airflow through the vocal tract impinges on the air surrounding the speaker.
3. Spelling is not the same as pronunciation in English. For example, in pronunciation, the "h" in the word "hour" is silent. "ph" in the word "elephant" is pronounced as [f], which seems to have nothing to do with its spelling. Another example might be a pair of words like "meet" and "meat", who have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings.
2.1.2
1. In the production of speech, the vocal tract sets a column of air into motion, and then modifies this moving air-stream in a number of ways to produce the sounds of speech.
2. When describing individual sound segments, phoneticians and linguists often employ two parameters to examine how sounds are articulated: manner of articulation and place of articulation. In terms of manner, sounds are classified into plosives, nasals, fricatives, affricates, approximants, trills and taps. When examined from view of place of articulation, sounds are divided into groups like bilabials, dentals, post-alveolar, retroflex, uvular, glottal, labiodentals, alveolar, palatal, velar and pharyngeal sounds.
3. Bilabial, dental and labiodental sounds are different from one another in terms of place of articulation. Bilabials are articulations made with the upper and lower lips brought together. In bilabial stops they form an
air-tight seal producing the plosives [p, b] or, if the velum is lowered, the nasal [m]. Dentals are produced by the front of the tongue
touching the back of the upper front teeth. Dental sounds are generally apical. Dental fricatives occur in English as pronunciations of the 'th' spellings. The voiceless dental fricative is the sound
of 'th' in 'thin', whereas its voiced counterpart is the sound of
'th' in 'then'. Labiodentals are articulations
produced with the lower lip approximating to the underside of the upper front teeth. For example, in English the [f] in fat and the [v] in vat are labiodental fricatives.
2.1.3
3. First of all, vowels and consonants appear in different places in English words. Secondly, vowels and consonants are produced differently. Vowels are made by egressive pulmonic airflow through vibrating or constricted vocal folds and through the vocal tract, and the sound is modified in the oral cavity. Consonants are made by constricting the vocal tract at some point thereby diverting, impeding, or completely shutting off the flow of air in the oral cavity.
2.1.4
1. Narrow transcription captures the exact articulatory details of each sound. It records as many features of an utterance as can be ascertained by the person doing the recording. On the contrary, broad transcription is a less subtle transcription. It omits many of the irrelevant and predictable details of pronunciation and is perfectly suitable for many users.
2. Omitted.
2.2.1
1. Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units susceptible of concomitant occurrence. In other words, a phoneme is a block that cannot be broken down into smaller parts; it is the smallest element relevant to phonemic analysis. Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme.
2. Omitted.
3. [p] and [b] are different phonemes because they represent distinctive sounds. In addition, if we substitute one sound for the other, it results in a change of meaning.
2.2.2
1. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs. For instance, "deed" and "seed" are minimal pairs, but "deed" and "dog" are not
because the vowel and final consonant in these two sounds are different.
2. a) /p/-/b/: pig-big; gap-gab;
b) /k/-/g/: coat-goat; back-bag;
c) /f/-/v/: life-live; fife-five;
d) /m/-/n/: meat-neat; time-tine;
e) /r/-/l/: right- light; sear-seal
3.
2.2.3
1. Distinctive features can be used to distinguish one phoneme from another or one group of sounds from another group. Thus, "distinctive" means serving to identify, distinguishing.
2. The distinctive features for each group of sounds are:
a) [p, t, b, d]: [-high, -back]
b) [j, w, i, u]: [+voiced, +high]
3. a) life, lives: similarities: [-high, -back], differences: life
[f]: [-voiced]; lives[v]: [+voiced]
b) choice, choose: similarities: [-high, -back]; differences:
choice[s]: [-voiced], choose [z]: [+voiced]
c) deduce, deduction: similarities: [+back]; differences: deduce: [-high, -round], deduction: [+high, +round]
2.3.1
1. Edinburgh, Wednesday, Thames are words in which pronunciation does not match the spelling.
2. These words are not permissible in English. All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes. *tpray, *btry,
*tgharg do not sound like an English word because it does not conform to the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes. When three consonants occur, the first must be [s].
2.3.2
1. When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementary
distribution. That is to say, complementary distribution refers to the case in which one of two or more sounds occur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), i.e. in a context in which the other
sound(s) never occur(s).
2. For the speaker, the Chinese consonants [sh] and [x] are the same. So, to him, there is no need to distinguish these two sounds, and he pronounces the two consonants in the same way..
2.4.1
1. Structurally, the syllable may be divided into three parts: the onset, the peak, and the coda. The onset of a syllable consists of all the segments that precede the peak and are tautosyllabic with it. The peak is realized by a vowel. The coda consists of all the tautosyllabic segments that follow the peak. A syllable that has no coda is called an unchecked or open syllable; one with a coda is called a checked or
closed syllable.
2. The word "yesterday" has three syllables. ye-ster-day.
"extra" has two syllables. ex-tra
"secretarial" has four syllables. se-cre-ta-rial
"camera" has three syllables. ca-me-ra
"appreciation" has five syllables. a-pre-ci-a-tion
3. English has syllables that begin with vowels and onsets of from one to three consonants. In English, three-consonant onsets are highly restricted in their composition. The first consonants in such onsets
must be an s, the second a voiceless stop, and the third a liquid. Moreover, if the second consonant is t, the third must be r.
2.4.2
1.
2. Stress in English is very important. English is a stress language. The rhythm of spoken English is to a very large extent determined by strong beats falling on the stressed syllables of words. Thus, a typical spoken utterance of English will consist of a number of rhythmic units. Each unit is dominated by the beat of the stressed syllable. In verse, the wording is characteristically and deliberately organized to yield a regular rhythm, and the units of this rhythm are commonly called 'feet'. This kind of rhythm puts a characteristic stamp on the nature of spoken English.
2.4.3
1. Pitch is a suprasegmental quality which extends over individual segments and longer stretches of speech. Pitch is the perceived
frequency of a sound wave. Perceived pitch is largely determined by the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, and to some extent by the intensity of the sound.
2. Pitch is very important in Chinese. Different pitches on Chinese characters can lead to meaning differences. For example, "fei", when given different pitches, may mean "飞(fly)", "肥(fat)", "匪(bandit)" or "
沸(boil)".
2.4.4
1. The intonation patterns of the following English questions are:
a) It begins with a mid pitch, rises to a higher pitch and then
falls.
b) Falling.
c) Rising.
d) It begins with a mid pitch, falls to a lower pitch and then rises.
2. Intonations refer to the pitch differences that extend over
phonetic units larger than the syllable. Intonation serves several functions in verbal communication such as grouping words, emphasizing words and differentiating meanings.
3. Intonation plays a very important role in daily conversations. In some languages, such as English and Chinese, the same sequence of segments may have different meanings if uttered at different relative pitches.
Charpter 3
3.1.1
1. A word is characterized with the following four features: (1) A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal organs. (2) A word is symbolic, i.e. it stands for something else, such as objects, happenings or
ideas. (3) A word is part of the large communication system we call language. (4) Words help human beings to interact culturally with one another.
2. The relation between the sound or sound combination of a word and its meaning is almost always arbitrary. There is no logical relationship between the sound or the combination of sounds which stands for an
entity (including a thing, a happening or an idea) and the entity itself. On the one hand, the same sound may stand for different entities in different languages. On the
other hand, the same meaning can be represented by different sound
of combination of sounds.
3. Apart from the conceptual meaning (also called "denotative", "logical" or "cognitive" meaning), a word normally has various
associated meanings, including the connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, and collocative meaning. We can turn to the dictionary for its conceptual meaning. As for its various associated meanings, however,
we have to relate the word with its context, including the
linguistic context as well as the context of situation and the context
of
culture.
3.1.2
1. In (prep.) practice (n.), writers (n.) on (prep.) style (n.) have (primary v.) differed (full v.) a (det.) great (adj.) deal (n.) in
(prep.) their (pron.) understanding (n.) of (prep.) the (det.) subject (n.), and (conj.) one (num.) source (n.) of (prep.) disagreement (n.) has (primary v.) been (full v.) the (det.)
question (n.) "To (prep.) what (pron.) or whom (pron.) do (primary v.) we (pron.) attribute (full v.) style (n.)? In (prep.) the (det.) broadest (adj.) sense (n.), STYLE (n.) can (modal v.) be (primary v.) applied (full v.) to (prep.) both (adv.) spoken (adj.) and (conj.) written (adj.), both (adv.) literary (adj.) and (conj.) non-literary (adj.) varieties (n.) of (prep.) language (n.); but (conj.) by (prep.) tradition (n.), it (pron.) is (full v.) particularly (adv.) associated
(full v.) with (prep.) written (adj.) literary (adj.) texts (n.), and (conj.) this (pron.) is (full v.) the (det.) sense (n.) of (prep.) the
(det.) term (n.) which (pron.) will (modal v.) concern (full v.) us (pron.).
2. No. These two categories of words have different distribution in speech and writing. Lexical words denote objects, happenings, ideas and their attributes, features, and/or manners, thus relating the words with entities existing outside the text. Grammatical words, instead, denote certain grammatical meanings, thus relating one element within the text with another. In speech there are more grammatical words, while in writing there are more lexical words. Moreover, the more formal the
style is, the more lexical words there are.
一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 （一）课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 （二）本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 （三）本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标
2020年英语专业考研参考攻略——参考书目 2020年考研的同学们应该已经把参考书目大致浏览了一遍。有的同学已经购买了大量的参考复习资料，大部分学校已经不给参考书目，只列出了考试科目或者大纲。这么多参考书目，如何选择最适合的一本，哪本书对我们的考试最有帮助，下面小编一一为你解答。 我们先看看“英语专业考研”的概念。它是针对报考英语专业研究生的考生而进行的考试，具体考核科目为：政治（100分）、二外（100分）、基础英语（150分）以及综合英语（150分）。部分学校的两门专业课名称会有出入，但基本上都考察学生对英语各个方面的掌握，包括最基本的语法、写作、阅读以及涉及到专业知识的英语语言国家文化、英美文学、外国语言学与应用语言学和翻译（包括理论）等。 我们首先盘点有哪些复习用书： 一、基础英语复习用书 1.张汉熙的《高级英语》1、2册（最热门的英专考研用书，基本上每个学校都会将其列入。大部分学校都把张汉熙先生的书作为大三大四的授课教材） 2.邹申《写作教程》（1-4册）上海外语教育出版社，2011年。 3.李观仪《新编英语教程》第5~8册 4.蒋显璟《英美散文选读》1、2册（第二版）（对外经贸大学英语学院考研特色书籍，值得推荐） 二、英语语言学的复习用书 1.胡壮麟《语言学教程》（最热门、最经典的英专语言学考研用书，高校英语系授课经典用书）最好配上一套《胡壮麟语言学教程笔记和考研真题详解》，中国石化出版社 2.刘润清、文旭《新编语言学教程》 3.桂诗春《应用语言学》 4.戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（也有一本《语言学教程学习指南》，高校英语系授课经典用书，备考经典书目） 5.蓝纯《语言导论》 6.杨信彰《语言学概论》
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
阅读材料语言学流派 历史比较语言学 历史比较语言学的产生有两个不可或缺的条件，一是广泛收集世界各种语言材料，二是认识到梵语在语言比较中的地位和作用。 在初始阶段，丹麦的R·Rask、德国的J·Grimm和F·Bopp被称为历史比较语言学的奠基者。 Rask在他的《古代北欧语或冰岛语起源研究》一书中第一个对基本语汇中的词进行系统的比较，找出其中的语音对应规律，由此确定语言的亲缘关系。Grimm在其书的启发下，在他的《日耳曼语语法》里确定了希腊语、峨特语和高地德语之间的语音对应关系，即所谓的“格里木定律”（Grimm?s Law）。Bopp 的主要著作是《梵语、禅德语、亚美尼亚语、希腊语、拉丁语、立陶宛语、古斯拉夫语、峨特语和德语比较语法》，旨在把梵语和欧洲、亚洲的几种其他语言相比较，找出它们在形态上的共同来源。 历史比较语言学发展到第二阶段，最有代表性的人物是德国的施莱歇尔（August Schleicher），其代表作是《印度日耳曼语系语言比较语法纲要》。他受到生物学物种分类的启发，为有亲属关系的语言的历史演变过程设计了一种树形谱系图，使语言之间的亲属关系以直观的形式呈现在人们的面前。这是历史比
较语言学的一大进展。 19世纪的最后25年是历史比较语言学的“新语法学派”时期。这个学派的代表人物是奥斯特霍夫（H·Osthoff）和布鲁克曼（K·Brugmann），他们在自己创办的刊物《形态学研究》上正式宣布语音演变规律不允许任何例外。他们在坚持这个原则时，以语言材料为依据，借鉴生理学和心理学的研究成果，强调“类推”在语言演变中的作用。这个学派的代表著作有布鲁克曼和德尔布吕克合著的《印度日耳曼语比较语法纲要》和保罗的《语言史原理》。19世纪历史比较语言学家为语言学的发展做出了重要贡献。他们收集了丰富的语言材料，进行了广泛深入的调查和比较，不仅提出了人类语言演变过程的假设，画出了世界语言的谱系，而且还创造出比较科学的研究方法，提出了有关语言起源、语言本质的新理论，为后来结构主义和描写语言学的产生和发展创造了有利条件。 结构语言学 布拉格学派，又称“结构-功能学派”或“功能学派”。其先驱者是马泰修斯，成员主要有雅科布逊、特鲁贝茨柯伊、哈弗阿奈克等。 1926年10月，由马泰修斯和雅克布逊等6人发起，建立了布拉格语言学会。该学会在第一届国际语言学会议上第一次把音位学的观点公诸于世，引起很大反响。1929年出版了会刊《布拉格语言学会论丛》。
Chapter 1 Introduction Ⅰ.What is language? 1. Different definitions of language (1) Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in their synchronic solidarity. (de Saussure, 1916) (2) [Language is] a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957) (3) Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. 2. Each of the definitions above has pointed out some aspects of the essence of language, but all of them have left out something. We must see the multi-faceted nature of language. 3. As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Ⅱ.Features of human language 1. Creativity (1) Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding brand new messages. (2) The grammar rules and the words are finite, but the sentences are infinite. Every speaker uses language creatively. 2. Duality (1) Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meanings. (2) Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings. (3) Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequences of speech sounds. 3. Arbitrariness (1) The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary. (2) There is no logical connection between sound and meaning. 4. Displacement (1) There is no limit in time or space for language. (2) Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future. 5. Cultural transmission (1) Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned. (2) Language is a way of transmitting culture. 6. Interchangeability All members of a speech community can send and receive messages. 7. Reflexivity (1) Human languages can be used to describe themselves. (2) The language used to talk about language is called meta-language. Ⅲ.Functions of language – three meta-functions 1. The ideational function
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
?名家名篇 ?（一）名家 ?历史语言学：徐通锵、王洪君、陈保亚。 ?生成语言学：徐烈炯、宁春岩、徐杰、沈阳、程工。 ?功能语言学：胡壮麟、朱永生、黄国文、张伯江、方梅。 ?认知语言学：沈家煊、陆丙甫、袁毓林、储泽祥、石毓智、赵艳芳、束定芳。 ?配价理论：陆俭明、袁毓林、、张国宪、沈阳。 ?心理语言学：桂诗春、沈家煊、王德春、彭聃龄、朱智贤、李宇明。 ?神经、病理语言学：杨亦鸣、王德春、崔刚。 ?对比语言学：刘重德、杨自俭、王宗炎、赵世开、潘文国、许余龙。 ?语法化：沈家煊、吴福祥。 ?类型学：沈家煊、刘丹青。 ?语言哲学：钱冠连、潘文国。
?实验语音学：石锋 ?计算语言学：冯志伟、俞士汶、刘群、詹卫东 ?社会语言学：陈原、陈章太、李宇明、郭熙 ?数理语言学：方立、冯志伟 ?文化语言学：邢福义 ?模糊语言学：伍铁平、吴振国 ?现代汉语语法：吕叔湘、朱德熙、黎锦熙、王力、邢福义、陆俭明、马真、胡裕树、张斌、胡明扬、 马庆株、邵敬敏、储泽祥 ?现代汉语方言：丁声树、吴宗济、李荣、张振兴、汪国胜、詹伯慧、李如龙、潘悟云、麦耘、游汝 杰 ?少数民族语言：戴庆厦、道布、孙宏开 对外汉语教学：陆俭明、赵金铭、吕必松、崔希亮、 周小兵、张德鑫、鲁健骥、李晓琪、李泉、张和生、 李扬、崔永华、郑懿德、王还、刘珣、孙德金、张凯、 张旺熹、杨寄洲、王建勤、赵日新、郑艳群?（二）名篇
?A历史语言学 ?1. 徐通锵《历史语言学》（商务印书馆1991）?2. 吴安其《历史语言学》（上海教育出版社2006） ?3. 朱晓农、寸熙导读《历史语言学和语言演变》（世界图书出版公司北京公司2007） B结构主义语言学 1. 高名凯译《普通语言学教程》（商务印书馆1980） 2. 索振羽、叶蜚声译《现代语言学教程》（北京大学出版社1986） 3. 何勇等译《语法哲学》（语文出版社1988） 4. 岑麒祥、叶蜚声译《语言》（商务印书馆1992） ?C生成语言学 ? 1.邢公畹等译《句法结构》（中国社会科学出版社1979） ? 2.赵世开译《深层结构、表层结构和语义解释》（中国社会科学出版社1980）
《语言学概论》学习指导 杨忠主编
《语言学概论》学习指导 主编杨忠 副主编：林正军魏昆 编者（按姓氏笔画排序） 王泽霞王晶芝杨忠林正军
《语言学概论学习指导》是为网络课程学历教育考生编写的学习指导书，既可用于网络语言学课程的大纲及教材辅导，亦可用作语言学课程教学的辅导材料。 语言学作为与外语教学密切相关的学科之一，在外语教学中的地位和作用越来越显著。在大学英语本科专业，语言学已被当作一门重要的专业课开设。同时，语言学也是外语教师职业发展和培训的必修课。 为了配合《语言学概论》（杨忠主编，高等教育出版社，2002）这本教材的教与学，我们组织编写了这本学习指导用书。本书与教材相对应，共分为十章，每章包括导读、重点与难点、习题及语言学名家介绍四部分。 本书的编写体例由杨忠、林正军和魏昆共同商定。具体分工如下：杨忠负责序言部分的撰写、以及全书的审校工作；王泽霞负责第一至三章及综合测试题一至四的编写；王晶芝负责第四至六章及综合测试题五至八的编写；林正军负责第七至十章及综合测试题九至十的编写、以及全书的统稿工作；魏昆负责全书的校对和编排工作。 本书语言学名家简介部分的编写参考了刘润青的《西方语言学流派》（外语教学与研究出版社，2004）、当代国外语言学与应用语言学文库的相关导读部分、以及中国学术期刊全文数据库的部分文章，在此我们向以上著作及文章的作者致谢！本书在编写过程中得到东北师范大学出版社魏昆老师以及出版社的大力支持，在此表示衷心感谢！ 编者 2006年2月19日
序 第一章语言和语言学 导读 本章重点、难点 本章习题 语言学名家介绍—费迪南·德·索绪尔 第二章语音学 导读 本章重点、难点 本章习题 语言学名家介绍—维伦·马泰休斯 第三章音位学 导读 本章重点、难点 本章习题 语言学名家介绍—路易斯·叶姆斯列夫 第四章形态学：词的构成研究 导读 本章重点、难点 本章习题 语言学名家介绍—布龙菲尔德 第五章句法：句子结构分析 导读
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示 第一章语言的性质 语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。 第二章语言学 语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。 第三章语音学 发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。 第四章音位学 音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等. 第五章词法学 词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。 第六章词汇学 词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。第七章句法 句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。 第八章语义学 语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。 第九章语言变化 语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）； 第十章语言、思维与文化 语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。 第十一章语用学 语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原 320240*********
黑龙江大学西语学院英语系研究生参考书目（历年不变） 050201英语语言文学 ①101思想政治理论②242法语二外或243俄语二外或244日语二外或245德语二外或246西班牙语二外③611基础英语④811英语语言文学基础知识 复试科目： 050英语语言文学专业知识(含汉语作文) 参考书目： 611基础英语《大学汉英翻译教程》王治奎山东大学出版社 大学本科英语专业知识、托福、GRE 试题 811英语语言文学基础知识《语言学教程（修订版）》胡壮麟北京大学出版社点击购买811英语语言文学基础知识《语言学概论》杨信彰高等教育出版社 811英语语言文学基础知识《英国文学简史（ABriefHistoryofEnglishLiterature）》刘炳善河南人民出版社 811英语语言文学基础知识《英国文学选读（SelectedReadinginEnglishLiterature）》杨岂深、孙铢上海译文出版社 811英语语言文学基础知识《英国诗歌鉴赏》李蓝玉、刘燕南等黑龙江人民出版社811英语语言文学基础知识《美国文学简史》常耀信南开大学出版社 811英语语言文学基础知识《美国文学选读》杨岂深上海译文出版社 611基础英语《大学英汉翻译教程》王治奎山东大学出版社 050[复试]英语语言文学专业知识（含汉语作文）《文学导论（IntroductiontoLiterature）》
邵锦娣等上海外语教育出版社点击购买 050[复试]英语语言文学专业知识（含汉语作文）《现代英语词汇学概论（AnIntroductiontoModernEnglishLexicology）》张韵斐北京师范大学出版社 050[复试]英语语言文学专业知识（含汉语作文）《英语词汇学教程》汪榕培、卢晓娟上海外语教育出版社 二外日语 《日语概说》皮细庚上海外语教育出版社 《日语能力测试》（一级）日本国际交流基金 《标准日语语法》顾明耀高等教育出版社 《日译中教室》陶振孝外语教学与研究出版社 法语二外，俄语二外，日语二外，德语二外，西班牙语二外，参考书全部自选
综合测试题（一） I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets：(10 points) ： () 1. General linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning. () 2. The total number of words stored in the brain is called morphology. () 3. The sentence “The woman can’t bear children” is structurally ambiguous. () 4. Categorization refers to the process by which people use language to classify the world around and inside them. () 5. Metaphors can create similarities between the target domain and the source domain. () 6. According to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis, place deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis. () 7. Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories. () 8. Modality can be categorized into probability and Usuality. () 9. Age is not the learner factor that has been an issue in second language acquisition research. ()10. Register, as a variety of language in use, is analyzed on three dimensions: field, mode and tenor. II. Multiple choice: (10 points) 1. ____________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language. A. creativity B. arbitrariness C. displacement D. interchangeability 2. Syntactically, Japanese is ____________ language. A. analytic B. isolating C. synthetic D. agglutinating 3. The general roles language plays are termed A. metalanguages B. metafunctions C. metadiscourses D. metagrammar 4. ____________ is a process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. A. Blending B. Eponyms C. Backformation D. Clipping 5. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a ___________. A. suffix B. prefix C. morpheme D. morph 6. __________ theories are those that attempt to explain acquisition on the basis of assuming an innate biological endowment that makes learning possible. A. Environmentalist B. functionalist C. nativist D. both a and b 7. Words and phrases like now, yesterday, next week, in three day, etC. are called __________. A. person deixis B. time deixis C. place deixis D. discourse deixis 8. Every syllable has a(n) __________, which is usually a vowel. A. nucleus B. onset C. code D. rhyme 9. ___________ is defined as the study of meaning. A. linguistics B. semantics C. morphology D. pragmatics 10. A ___________ is a mixed language which has become the mother tongue of a speech community. A. pidgin B. creole C. Esperanto D. natural language
1.Synchronic vs diachronic Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 2. Langue and parole Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, It does not change frequently, while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. 3. Competence and performance Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. 4. Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language. On the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature it is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated. The best examples are the onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, cackle, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. For example, while photo and copy are both arbitrary, the compound word photocopy is not entirely arbitrary. But non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language. The arbitrary nature of language is a sigh of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 5. Productivity Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Much of what we say and hear are saying or hearing for the first time. 6. Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which are found at the higher level of the system. 7. Displacement Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in faraway places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. In contrast, no animal communication system possesses this feature. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e. in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stop. 8. Cultural transmission While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted, i.e. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 9. Broad transcription and narrow transcription: Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only, this is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics, this is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose. 10. Sense and reference Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience. 11. Context It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various components of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of