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Lesson 10 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the physics of energy, heat, work, entropy and the spontaneity of processes. Thermodynamics is closely related to statistical mechanics from which many thermodynamic relationships can be derived.
热力学是物理能量，热，工作过程，熵和自发性。热力学是密切相关的统计力学，热力学关系可以推导出。
While dealing with processes in which systems exchange matter or energy, classical thermodynamics is not concerned with the rate at which such processes take place, termed kinetics. For this reason, the use of the term “thermodynamics”usually refers to equilibrium thermodynamics. In this connection, a central concept in thermodynamics is that of quasistatic processes, which are idealized, “infinitely slow”processes. Time-dependent thermodynamic processes are studied by non-equilibrium thermodynamics.
在处理中，系统交换物质或能量的过程，经典热力学不关心这些过程发生的速率，称为动力学。为此，对“热力学”通常指的是平衡热力学的使用。在这方面，热力学中一个重要的概念是，准静态过程，是理想化的，“无限慢”的过程。时间依赖性的热力学过程的非平衡热力学研究。
1 Applications of Thermodynamics
1.热力学应用
There are two major applications of thermodynamics, both of which are important to chemical engineers:
有两个主要应用热力学，这两者都是化学工程师的重要：
(1) The calculation of heat and work effects associated with process as well as the calculation of the maximum work obtainable from a process or the minimum work required to drive a process.（1）的热量和工作的影响与过程以及从一个过程或最小工作需要驱动的过程中获得的最大工作的计算。
(2) The establishment of relationships among the variables describing systems at equilibrum.2）描述系统在平衡的变量之间的关系的建立。
The first application is suggested by the name thermodynamics, which implies heat in motion. Most of these calculations can be made by the direct implementation of the first and second laws.Examples are calculating the work of compressing a gas, performing an energy balance on an entire process or a process unit, determining the minimum work of separating a mixture of ethanol and water, or evaluating the efficiency of an ammonia synthesis plant.第一个应用是由名称热力学的建议，这意味着热运动。大多数这些计算可以由第一和第二定律直接执行。实例计算压缩气体的工作，执行对整个过程或过程单元的能量平衡，确定分离乙醇和水的混合物的最小工作，或评估一个合成氨厂的效率。
The application of thermodynamics to a particular system results in the definition of useful properties and the establishment of a network of relationships among the properties and other variables such as pressure, temperature, volume, and mol fraction. Actually, application 1 would not be possible unless a means existed for evaluating the necessary thermodynamics property changes required in implementing the first and second laws. The property changes are calculated from experimentally determined data via the established network of relationships. Additionally, the network of relationships among the variables of a system allows the calculation of values of variables which are either unknown or difficult to determine experimentally from variables which
are either available or easier to measure. For example, the heat of vaporizing a liquid can be calculated from measurements of the vapor pressure at several temperatures and the densities of the liquid and vapor phase at several temperatures, and the maximum conversion obtainable in a chemical reaction at any temperature can be calculated from calorimetric measurements performed on the individual substances participating in the reaction.
热力学的有用的特性，和其他变量，如压力，温度，体积性质之间的关系，建立一个网络的定义，一个特定的系统中，与摩尔分数。实际上，应用1将不可能存在除非手段评估必要的热力学性质的变化在执行第一和第二定律。属性的变化计算从实验确定的数据通过网络关系的建立。此外，一个系统的变量之间的关系的网络允许是未知的或难以确定实验中是可用的或容易衡量的变量的变量值的计算。例如，蒸发液体可从蒸汽压力测量在不同温度下的液体和蒸气相的密度在几个温度下计算出的热，在任何温度下化学反应得到最大的转换可以从热测量对个体物质参与的反应进行了计算。
2 The nature of Thermodynamics2热力学性质
A. Thermodynamics is a science that includes the study of energy transformations and of the relationships among the physical properties of substances that are affected by these transformations.A.热力学是一门科学，包括研究的能量转换和之间的关系，通过这些变革影响物质的物理性质之间的。
1. Definition is broad and vague.1定义是广泛的，模糊的。
2. Mechanical engineers typically focus on power and refrigeration devices such as steam power plants, fuel cells, nuclear reactors, etc.
2机械工程师通常集中在发电和制冷设备如蒸汽发电厂，燃料电池，核反应堆等。
3. Chemical engineers typically focus on phase equilibria and chemical reactions and the associated properties.3化学工程师通常集中在相平衡和化学反应和相关的性能。
4. Element which really sets thermodynamics apart from other sciences is the study of energy transformations through heat and work.4元素，真正使热力学与其他科学是通过热与功转换能量的研究。
B. Thermodynamic properties can be studied either by studying macroscopic or microscopic behavior of matter.B.热力学性质进行研究无论是通过研究宏观或微观物质的行为。
1. Classical thermodynamics treats matter as a continuum and studies the macroscopic behavior of matter1经典热力学治疗物质作为一个连续体，研究物质的宏观行为
2. Statistical thermodynamics studies the statistical behavior of large groups of individual particles. It postulates that observed physical property behavior (e.g., T, p, H, ???) is equal to the appropriate statistical average of a large number of particles.2统计热力学研究的大组的单个粒子的统计行为。它假设，观察到的物理属性的行为（例如，T，P，H，???）等于相应的统计平均的大量粒子。
C. Thermodynamics is based upon experimental observation.C.热力学是基于实验观察。1. Conclusions of observations have been cast as postulates or laws.1已被称为假设或法律结论的观察。2. Our study of thermodynamics will consider five laws or postulates; two dealing with energy transformation and three dealing with properties.2我们的热力学研究会考虑五法律或假设；两个处理的能量转换和三处理性能。
Energy Transformation Laws:能量转化规律：
a. First Law of Thermodynamics--Energy is conserved. (You can't win!)
A.热力学第一定律——能量守恒。（你不可能赢的！）
b. Second Law of Thermodynamics--Takes many forms. In essence it says that energy has
different “quality”and processes only spontaneously proceed in one direction. It isn't possible to convert all of the energy of a system into work.
B.热力学第二定律——以多种形式。从本质上说，能有不同的“质量”，只在一个方向自发进行的过程。你不可能将所有的精力投入到工作的系统。
Property Relationship Laws:
c. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics--When each of two systems is in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
C.热力学第零定律——当两个系统都是在热平衡三分之一系统，他们也彼此处于热平衡状态。
d. Third Law of Thermodynamics--The “entropy”of a perfect crystal is zero at absolute zero temperature
.D.热力学第三定律——“熵”的一个完美的晶体是零在绝对零度的温度下。
e. State Postulate--The state of a simple, single phase thermodynamic system is completely specified by two independently variable, intensive properties.
E状态的假设——一个简单的状态，单相的热力学系统完全由两个独立的变量指定的，密集的性质。
D. Energy Conversion and Efficiency
能量转换效率
1.A primary concern in thermodynamics is energy conversion and a measure of energy conversion success is called the efficiency. For energy consuming or producing devices it is called the thermal efficiency:
1热力学中的一个主要关注的是能源转换和衡量成功的被称为能量转换效率。对能源的消耗及生产设备，它被称为热效率：
3 Definitions and Thermodynamic V ocabulary
3定义和热力学的词汇
A. Thermodynamic System
A.热力系统
1. Definition--A three dimensional region of space bounded by arbitrary surfaces (which may be real or imaginary and may change size or shape) which delineate the portion of the universe we are interested in.
1定义——一三维空间区域范围内的任意曲面（这可能是真实的或想象的，可能会改变大小或形状），勾画出我们感兴趣的是宇宙的一部分。
a. Closed System is a system that is closed with respect to the flow of matter, e.g., fixed, closed volume. A closed system is defined by a fixed quantity of mass.
封闭的系统是一个系统，是相对于物质流，例如，固定的闭合，闭合容积。一个封闭的系统是由一个固定数量的质量定义。
b. Open System is a system that is open with respect to the flow of matter such as a compressor. The system is defined by an imaginary volume surrounding the region of interest. The surface of this volume is called the control or sigma (s ) surface. Mass, heat, work and momentum can flow across the control surface.
打开系统是一个系统，是相对于物质如压缩机流量开放。该系统是由周围感兴趣区域的一个假想的体积定义。本卷的表面被称为控制或σ（的）表面。质量，动量和热量，工作可以流过控制面。
c. Isolated System is a system that is not influenced in any way by the part of space which is
external to the system boundaries. No heat, work, mass or momentum can cross the boundary of an isolated system. (N, V, U) are fixed and constant in a closed system.
C.孤立系统是一个系统，不影响任何方式的空间是系统边界外的部分。没有热，质量和动量的工作，可以跨一个孤立的系统边界。（N，V，U）是固定的，在一个封闭的系统常数。
d. Simple System is a system that does not contain any internal adiabatic, rigid and impermeable boundaries and is not acted upon by external forces.
D.简单的系统是一个系统，不包含任何内部绝热，刚性和不透水边界并不是由外力驱动。
e. Composite System is a system that is composed of two or more simple systems.
E.复合系统是一个系统，由两个或两个以上的简单系统。
B. Property
B.属性
1. Definition--A characteristic of a system.
1定义一个系统的一个特性—。
a. Primitive Property is a property that can in principle be specified by describing an operation or test to which the system is subjected. Examples include mechanical measurements (e.g., pressure, volume, and thermometric temperature T) and heat capacity.
原始的财产是财产，原则上可以在指定的描述一个操作或测试该系统受到。例子包括机械测量（例如，压力，体积和温度，温度T）和热容量。
b. Derived Property is a property that is mathematically defined in terms of primitive properties. B.派生属性，是数学中的原始定义属性的属性。
c. Intensive Property is a property that is independent of the extent of or mass of the system. Examples are T, P, density, (x), etc.
C.密集的属性是独立的程度，或系统的质量属性。的例子是T，P，密度，（x），等。
d. Extensive Property is a property whose value for the system is dependent upon the mass or extent of the system. Examples are the enthalpy, internal energy, volume, etc.
D.广泛性是系统的值是依赖于系统的质量或程度的财产的例子是内部的能量，焓，体积，等。
e. Specific Property is an extensive property per unit mass. Specific properties are intensive.
E.特性是一个广泛的每单位质量特性。具体性能密集型。
f. State Property is a property that only depends on the thermodynamic state of the system, not the path taken to get to that state.
F.国家财产是财产，仅取决于系统的热力学状态，而不是采取的路径到达这一状态。
C. State of a System
C.系统状态
1. Thermodynamic State--The condition of the system as characterized by the values of its properties.
1热力学状态——系统的状况为特征的自身属性的值。
2. Stable Equilibrium State is a state in which the system is not capable of finite spontaneous change to another state without a finite change in the state of the surroundings.
2稳定平衡状态是不能够有限自然变化到另一种状态是系统的状态不在周围的区域有限的改变。
a. Many types of equilibrium must be fulfilled -- thermal, mechanical, phase (material) and chemical.
许多类型的平衡必须满足——热，机械，化学和相位（材料）。
3. State Postulate: The equilibrium state of a simple closed system can be completely
characterized by two independently variable properties and the masses of the species contained within the system.
3状态公理：一个简单的封闭系统的平衡状态可以完全由两个独立变量的属性和包含在系统中的物种的群众。
D. Thermodynamic Process
D.热力过程
1. Definition--A transformation from one equilibrium state to another.
1定义——一个从一个平衡状态转换到另一个。
a. Quasi-static Process is a process where every intermediate state is a stable equilibrium state.准静态过程是一个过程，每一个中间状态，是一种稳定的平衡状态。
b. Reversible Process is one in which a second process could be performed so that the system and surroundings can be restored to their initial states with no change in the system or surroundings. B.可逆过程是一种第二过程可以进行这样的体制环境可以恢复到其初始状态与系统或环境没有变化。
1) Reversible processes are quasi-static but quasi-static processes are not necessarily reversible.1）可逆过程是准静态的，准静态过程并不一定是可逆的。
2) A quasi-static process in a simple system is also reversible.
2）在一个简单的系统的准静态过程是可逆的。
3) Some factors which render processes irreversible are friction, unrestrained expansion of gasses, heat transfer through a finite temperature difference, mixing, chemical reaction, etc.3）的一些因素，使过程的不可逆的摩擦，无限膨胀的气体，通过传热有限的温度差异，混合，化学反应，等。
E. Thermodynamic Path
E.热力学路径
1. The specification of a series of states through which a system passes in a process.
1规范的一系列状态通过该系统通过一个过程。
4 The Laws of Thermodynamics
4个热力学定律
First law of Thermodynamics
热力学第一定律
The first law of thermodynamics is simply a statement of the conservation of energy. The sum of all the energy leaving a process must equal the sum of all the energy entering, in the steady state. The laws of conservation of mass and energy are followed implicitly by engineers designing and operating processes of all kinds. Unfortunately, taken by itself, the first law has led to much confusion when attempting to evaluate process efficiency. People talk of energy conservation being an important effort, but in fact, no effort is required to conserve energy－it is naturally conserved.
热力学第一定律是一个简单的声明，能量守恒。所有能留下一个过程之和必须等于所有的能量进入和，在稳定状态。的质量和能量守恒定律是隐式的工程师设计和各种操作过程。不幸的是，所采取的本身，第一定律有LED很大的混乱，试图评估过程的效率。人们谈论节能是一个重要的努力，但事实上，没有努力是需要节约能源－这自然是保守的。
The conclusions which can be drawn from the first law are limited because it does not distinguish among the various energy forms. Shaft work introduced by a reflux pump will leave a column as heat to the condenser just as readily as will heat introduced at the reboiler. Some engineers have
fallen into the trap of lumping all forms of energy together in attempting to determine process efficiency. This is obvious not justified－the various energy forms have different costs.
这可以从第一定律得出的结论是有限的，它不区分不同的能量形式之间。轴通过回流泵介绍会留下一个柱热凝汽器一样容易因为将热量在再沸器的介绍。一些工程师落入陷阱，将所有形式的能量，在试图确定过程的效率。这是明显不合理的－各种能源形式有不同的成本。Second law of Thermodynamics
Entropy plays a critical role in thermodynamic analysis, because it is the missing factor that we were seeking to allow us to predict the direction of change in atomic or molecular systems. The essential result constitutes the second law of thermodynamics, which can be stated in several ways, not all of them obviously equivalent, but in fact all of them providing the same message.
熵是热力学分析的一个关键的作用，因为它是缺失的因素，我们试图让我们预测在原子或分子系统改变方向。重要的结果是热力学第二定律，它可以有几种表达方式，不是所有的人显然是等价的，但事实上他们都提供相同的信息。
Here are some of them:1. Heat does not spontaneously flow from a cold body to a hot body.2. Spontaneous processes are not thermodynamically reversible.3. The complete conversion of heat into work is impossible without leaving some effect elsewhere.4. It is impossible to convert heat into work by means of a constant temperature cycle5. All natural processes are accompanied by a net gain in entropy of the system and its surroundings.This last statement is most useful to us. Let us write
这里有一些人：1。热不自发地从冰冷的身体流到热的物体。2。自发过程的热力学不可逆的。3。没有留下一些影响其他地方的热转化为功的完整的转换是不可能的。4。这是不可能的热能转换成工作在恒定的温度cycle5手段。所有的自然过程都伴随着系统的熵及其周围的净增益。最后这句话对我们最有用的。让我们写的。
Lesson 11 Heat Transfer
1 Basics of Heat Transfer
1基本传热
In the simplest of terms, the discipline of heat transfer is concerned with only two things: temperature, and the flow of heat. Temperature represents the amount of thermal energy available, whereas heat flow represents the movement of thermal energy from place to place.
在最简单的术语，传热学科关注的只有两件事：温度，和热流量。温度是热能源的数量，而热流代表的热能从一个地方移动到的地方。
On a microscopic scale, thermal energy is related to the kinetic energy of molecules. The greater a material's temperature, the greater the thermal agitation of its constituent molecules (manifested both in linear motion and vibrational modes). It is natural for regions containing greater molecular kinetic energy to pass this energy to regions with less kinetic energy.
在微观尺度，热能是分子的动能相关。更大的物质的温度，其组成分子的热运动更大的（表现在直线运动模式）和振动。含有大分子的动能来传递能量到较小的动能的地区是自然的。Several material properties serve to modulate the heat transferred between two regions at differing temperatures. Examples include thermal conductivities, specific heats, material densities, fluid velocities, fluid viscosities, surface emissivities, and more. Taken together, these properties serve to make the solution of many heat transfer problems an involved process.
几种材料的性能起到调节转移之间的两个区域在不同温度下的热。例子包括的热传导率，比热，密度，流体速度，流体粘度，表面的发射率，和更多。总之，这些特性使许多传热问题，一个复杂的过程，解决方案。
2. Heat Transfer Mechanisms
2传热机制
Heat transfer mechanisms can be grouped into 3 broad categories:
传热机制可以分为3大类：
Conduction: Regions with greater molecular kinetic energy will pass their thermal energy to regions with less molecular energy through direct molecular collisions, a process known as conduction. In metals, a significant portion of the transported thermal energy is also carried by conduction-band electrons.
传导：更大的分子动能的地区将通过他们的热能通过分子的直接碰撞不分子的能量区域，这个过程被称为传导。在金属的热能源，运输的一个重要部分，也是由导带电子进行。Convection: When heat conducts into a static fluid it leads to a local volumetric expansion. As a result of gravity-induced pressure gradients, the expanded fluid parcel becomes buoyant and displaces, thereby transporting heat by fluid motion (i.e. convection) in addition to conduction. Such heat-induced fluid motion in initially static fluids is known as free convection.
对流：当热传递到一个静态流体导致局部体积膨胀。作为一个结果，诱导的压力梯度，重力，浮力和流体包裹成为扩大移除，从而输送热流体运动（即对流）除了传导。这样的热诱导的流体运动的最初的静态液体被称为自由对流。
Radiation: For cases where the fluid is already in motion, heat conducted into the fluid will be transported away chiefly by fluid convection. These cases, known as forced convection, require a pressure gradient to drive the fluid motion, as opposed to a gravity gradient to induce motion through buoyancy.
辐射：对于流体已经在运动，进行了流体热将被运走，主要是由流体对流。这些情况下，被称为强制对流，需要的压力梯度驱动的流体的运动，而不是一个重力梯度诱导运动通过浮力.
Lesson 12 Reactor Types
1 Stirred tank reactor
1搅拌釜式反应器
A batch stirred tank reactor is the simplest type of reactor. It is composed of a reactor and a mixer such as a stirrer, a turbine wing or a propeller. The batch stirred tank reactor is illustrated below:
间歇搅拌反应器是最简单的一种反应堆。是由反应器和混合器，如搅拌器，涡轮翼或螺旋桨。在间歇搅拌反应器的说明如下：
This reactor is useful for substrate solutions of high viscosity and for immobilized enzymes with relatively low activity. However, a problem that arises is that an immobilized enzyme tends to decompose upon physical stirring. The batch system is generally suitable for the production of rather small amounts of chemicals.
该反应器可用于高粘度基质溶液和固定化酶的活性较低。然而，出现的一个问题是，固定化酶会分解后的物理搅拌。批处理系统一般适用于较少量的化学品的生产。
A continuous stirred tank reactor is shown below:
连续搅拌釜式反应器，如下所示：
The continuous stirred tank reactor is more efficient than a batch stirred tank reactor but the equipment is slightly more complicated.
连续搅拌釜式反应器的效率比间歇搅拌反应器但稍微复杂一设备。
2 Tubular Reactor
2管式反应器
Tubular reactors are generally used for gaseous reactions, but are also suitable for some liquid-phase reactions.管式反应器一般用于气体反应，但也可用于液相反应。
If high heat-transfer rates are required, small-diameter tubes are used to increase the surface area to volume ratio. Several tubes may be arranged in parallel, connected to a manifold or fitted into a tube sheet in a similar arrangement to a shell and tube heat exchanger. For high-temperature reactions the tubes may be arranged in a furnace.
如果高传热率的要求，小直径管是用来增加表面积体积比。几个管可能被安排在平行，连接到一个流形或装成一个类似的安排，管板的管壳式热交换器。用于高温反应管可布置在炉。
3 Fluidized bed Reactor
3流化床反应器
A fluidized bed reactor (FBR) is a type of reactor device that can be used to carry out a variety of multiphase chemical reactions. In this type of reactor, a fluid (gas or liquid) is passed through a granular solid material (usually a catalyst possibly shaped as tiny spheres) at high enough velocities to suspend the solid and cause it to behave as though it were a fluid. This process, known as fluidization, imparts many important advantages to the FBR. As a result, the fluidized bed reactor is now used in many industrial applications.
流化床反应器（FBR）是一种可以用来进行各种多相化学反应的反应装置。在这种类型的反应器，流体（气体或液体）通过固体颗粒材料（通常是一个催化剂可能形成微小的球体）在足够高的速度，暂停固体和使它的行为就好像它是一个流体。这个过程，称为流化，赋予了许多重要的优势，FBR。作为一个结果，流化床反应器现在是用在许多工业应用。
Basic principles
基本原则
The solid substrate (the catalytic material upon which chemical species react) material in the fluidized bed reactor is typically supported by a porous plate, known as a distributor. The fluid is then forced through the distributor up through the solid material. At lower fluid velocities, the solids remain in place as the fluid passes through the voids in the material. This is known as a packed bed reactor. As the fluid velocity is increased, the reactor will reach a stage where the force of the fluid on the solids is enough to balance the weight of the solid material. This stage is known as incipient fluidization and occurs at this minimum fluidization velocity. Once this minimum velocity is surpassed, the contents of the reactor bed begin to expand and swirl around much like an agitated tank or boiling pot of water. The reactor is now a fluidized bed. Depending on the operating conditions and properties of solid phase various flow regimes can be observed in this reactor.
固体基质（在化学物种的反应催化材料）在流化床反应器的材料通常是由一个多孔板支撑，称为分配器。流体然后被迫通过分配器通过固体材料。在较低的流速，固体留在地方，流体通过在材料中的空隙。这就是众所周知的填充床反应器。随着空气流速的增加，反应器将达到一个阶段，在固体的流体力足以平衡的固体材料的重量。这一阶段被称为初始流态化和发生在这个最小流化速度。一旦这个最小速度超过了，床层的内容开始扩大，旋转，就像一个
搅拌罐或壶沸腾的水。现在是一个流化床反应器。根据不同的操作条件和固相的各种流型特性可以在此反应器中观察到的。
Advantages优势
The increase in fluidized bed reactor use in today’s industrial world is largely due to the inherent advantages of the technology.
在流化床反应器中使用，在今天的工业世界的增加主要是由于技术的固有的优点。Uniform Particle Mixing: Due to the intrinsic fluid-like behavior of the solid material, fluidized beds do not experience poor mixing as in packed beds. This complete mixing allows for a uniform product that can often be hard to achieve in other reactor designs. The elimination of radial and axial concentration gradients also allows for better fluid-solid contact, which is essential for reaction efficiency and quality.
均匀颗粒混合：由于固有的流体状的固体材料的行为，流化床不经历不良混合在填充床。这完全混合，允许一个统一的产品，往往很难在其他反应器的设计实现。径向和轴向的浓度梯度，也可以更好的流固接触的消除，这是反应的效率和质量的关键。
Uniform Temperature Gradients: Many chemical reactions produce or require the addition of heat. Local hot or cold spots within the reaction bed, often a problem in packed beds, are avoided in a fluidized situation such as an FBR. In other reactor types, these local temperature differences, especially hotspots, can result in product degradation. Thus FBRs are well suited to exothermic reactions. Researchers have also learned that the bed-to-surface heat transfer coefficients for FBRs are high.
均匀的温度梯度：许多化学反应产生或需要另外的热量。局部热点或冷点反应床内，经常在填充床的一个问题，是在一个流化床情况如FBR避免。在其他类型的反应堆，这些地方的温度差异，特别是热点，可使产品降解。因此，非常适合于放热反应中。研究人员还发现中的表面传热系数高的床。
allows for the ability to continuously withdraw product and introduce new reactants into the reaction vessel. Operating at a continuous process state allows manufacturers to produce their various products more efficiently due to the removal of startup conditions in batch processes.
能力连续操作反应器：流化床这些自然的反应器允许连续撤回产品和引进新的反应物在反应容器的能力。在一个连续的过程状态操作允许制造商生产的各种产品更有效地由于在分批启动条件的去除过程。
Disadvantages缺点
As in any design, the fluidized bed reactor does have it draw-backs, which any reactor designer must take into consideration.
在任何设计，流化床反应器也有它的局限，任何反应器设计时必须考虑的。
ncreased Reactor Vessel Size: Because of the expansion of the bed materials in the reactor, a larger vessel is often required than that for a packed bed reactor. This larger vessel means that more must be spent on initial startup costs.
增加反应器的容器的大小：由于在反应器的床材料的膨胀，一个更大的容器通常需要比固定床反应器。这意味着更大的容器必须花在初始启动成本。
Pumping Requirements and Pressure Drop: The requirement for the fluid to suspend the solid material necessitates that a higher fluid velocity is attained in the reactor. In order to achieve this, more pumping power and thus higher energy costs are needed. In addition, the pressure drop
associated with deep beds also requires additional pumping power.
抽水的要求和压力降：为暂停固体材料要求较高的流体速度是在反应器中的流体达到要求。为了实现这一点，更多的泵浦功率，从而更高的能源成本是必要的。此外，深床的压降也需要额外的泵功率。
Particle Entrainment: The high gas velocities present in this style of reactor often result in fine particles becoming entrained in the fluid. These captured particles are then carried out of the reactor with the fluid, where they must be separated. This can be a very difficult and expensive problem to address depending on the design and function of the reactor. This may often continue to be a problem even with other entrainment reducing technologies.
颗粒夹带的高的气体速度在这种风格的反应往往成为流体夹带的细颗粒。这些捕获的颗粒进行了反应器的流体，在那里他们必须分开。这是地址取决于反应器的设计和功能非常困难和昂贵的问题。这可能会继续是一个问题，即使与其他夹带减少技术。
Lack of Current Understanding: Current understanding of the actual behavior of the materials in a fluidized bed is rather limited. It is very difficult to predict and calculate the complex mass and heat flows within the bed. Due to this lack of understanding, a pilot plant for new processes is required. Even with pilot plants, the scale-up can be very difficult and may not reflect what was experienced in the pilot trial.
缺乏目前的理解：流化床中的材料的实际行为，目前的理解是相当有限的。它是预测和计算复杂的热质流在床上很难。由于缺乏理解，对新工艺中试所。即使飞行员厂，规模是非常困难的，可能没有反映出什么是在试点经验。
Erosion of Internal Components: The fluid-like behavior of the fine solid particles within the bed eventually results in the wear of the reactor vessel. This can require expensive maintenance and upkeep for the reaction vessel and pipes.
侵蚀内部组件：类似流体的固体微粒的行为在床的最终结果在反应堆容器的磨损。这就需要对反应容器和管道的维护和保养。
4 Packed bed Reactor
4填充床反应器
There are two basic types of packed-bed reactor: those in which the solid is a reactant, and those in which the solid is a catalyst. Many examples of the first type can be found in the extractive metallurgical industries.
填充床反应器有两种基本类型：那些在固体反应物，和那些在其中的固体催化剂。的第一类型的许多例子可以在提取冶金行业。
In the chemical process industries the designer will normally be concerned with the second type: catalytic reactors. Industrial packed-bed catalytic reactors range in size from small tubes, a few centimeters diameter to large diameter packed beds. Packed-bed reactors are used for gas and gas-liquid reactions. Heat-transfer rates in large diameter packed beds are poor and where high heat-transfer rates are required fluidized beds should be considered.
在化工流程工业设计师通常会关注的第二类：催化反应器。工业固定床催化反应器的范围的大小从几厘米直径小，管，对大直径填充床。填充床反应器是用于气-液反应。在大直径填充床的传热速率是穷人和高传热率所需的流化床中应考虑。
agitated tank n. 搅拌槽
batch stirred tank reactor n. 间歇搅拌反应釜
catalytic reactor n. 催化反应器
continuous stirred tank n. 连续搅拌釜
exothermic reactions n. 放热反应
fluidized bed Reactor n. 流动床反应釜
multiphase chemical reactions n. 多相化学反应
packed bed reactor n. 填充床反应器
pilot plant n. 试验工厂
Lesson 14 Air Pollution
Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damages the natural environment. Air pollution causes deaths and respiratory disease. Air pollution is often identified with major stationary sources, but the greatest source of emissions is mobile sources, mainly automobiles. Gases such as carbon dioxide, which contribute to global warming, have recently gained recognition as pollutants by climate scientists, while they also recognize that carbon dioxide is essential for plant life through photosynthesis.
空气污染颗粒物的人引入化学，大气，或生物材料，造成伤害或不适的人类或其他生物，或破坏自然环境。空气污染造成的死亡和呼吸系统疾病。空气污染往往是确定的主要固定污染源，但排放的最大来源是移动的来源，主要是汽车。二氧化碳之类的气体，是导致全球变暖，最近的气候科学家的污染物得到了认可，而他们也承认，二氧化碳是通过光合作用的植物生命所必需的。
The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.
大气是一个复杂的，动态的天然气系统，来支持地球上的生命本质。平流层臭氧耗竭因空气污染一直是威胁人类健康和地球的生态系统。
Pollutants污染物
An air pollutant is known as a substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and the environment. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In addition, they may be natural or man-made.
一种空气污染物被称为空气中的物质，可以对人体和环境造成的危害。污染物可在固体颗粒，形成液滴，或气体。此外，他们可能是天然的或人造的。
Pollutants can be classified as either primary or secondary. Usually, primary pollutants are substances directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories.
污染物可以被归类为主要或次要。通常，一个过程的主要污染物是从直接排放的物质，如火山喷发的火山灰，一氧化碳气体来自汽车废气、二氧化硫释放从工厂。
Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary pollutant is ground level ozone - one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog.
二次污染物不能直接排放。相反，它们形成在空气中主要污染物反应或相互作用。一种二次污染的一个重要的例子是地面臭氧是光化学烟雾，使许多二次污染
Note that some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.
请注意，有些污染物可能是原发性和继发性：即，他们都是直接排放和其他主要污染物的形
成。
Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:
主要由人类活动产生的主要污染物包括：
Sulfur oxides (SOx) especially sulfur dioxide a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources.
硫氧化物（SOx）尤其是二氧化硫和二氧化硫的化学化合物公式。二氧化硫是由火山和各种工业过程产生的。从煤和石油中常含有硫化合物，其燃烧产生的二氧化硫。SO2的进一步氧化，通常在催化剂的存在下，如NO2，形成硫酸，从而酸雨。这是[ 2 ]在使用这些燃料作为动力来源的环境影响问题的原因之一。
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high temperature combustion. Can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume downwind of cities.Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor. NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants.
氮氧化物（NOx）特别是二氧化氮是高温燃烧排放。可以被看作是棕色的圆顶或羽顺风的城市。二氧化氮NO2与公式的化合物。这是一个几个氮氧化物。这红棕色的有毒气体，有一个特点鲜明，咬的气味。二是其中最为突出的空气污染物。
Carbon monoxide is colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.
一氧化碳是无色，无味，无刺激性的但非常有毒气体。它是由燃料如天然气不完全燃烧的产物，煤和木材。汽车尾气是一氧化碳的主要来源。
Carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas emitted from combustion.
二氧化碳（CO2），一种温室气体排放燃烧。
V olatile organic compounds VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field they are often divided into the separate categories of methane ((CH4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound which is often associated with industrial uses.
挥发性有机化合物是一种重要的室外空气污染物。在这场他们往往分为不同的类别（甲烷（CH4）和非甲烷（NMVOCs）。甲烷是一种非常有效的温室气体，有助于增强全球变暖。其他烃类VOCs是重要的温室气体，通过产生臭氧和延长了甲烷在大气中的寿命的作用，虽然效果取决于当地的空气质量。在NMVOCs芳香族化合物，苯，甲苯和二甲苯是可疑致癌物质，可以通过延长曝光导致白血病。丁二烯是另一个危险的化合物，通常是用工业用途有关的。
Particulate matter Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM) or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to particles and the gas together. Sources of particulate matter can be man made or natural. Some particulates
occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account for about 10 percent of the total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease, altered lung function and lung cancer.
颗粒物质的微粒，或者称为颗粒物（PM）或细颗粒，是固体或液体悬浮在空气中的微小颗粒。相反，气溶胶是指颗粒与气体一起。大气颗粒物源可以是人造或天然。有些颗粒物是自然发生的，从火山，沙尘暴，森林和草原火灾，有生命的植物，和浪花。人类活动，如燃烧化石燃料的车辆，电厂和各种工业过程中也产生了大量的气溶胶。全球平均的，人为气溶胶由人类活动使目前约占大气中的气溶胶总金额的百分之10。空气中的微粒的水平升高与健康的危害，如心脏病，肺功能的改变与肺癌。
oxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper.
有毒金属，如铅，镉和铜。
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products currently banned from use. 氯氟烃（CFCs），从目前禁止使用的产品排放破坏臭氧层。
formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. 氨（NH3）从农业过程中排放。氨是一种具有氨化合物公式。它通常是作为一种气体具有刺鼻的气味遇到。氨对陆地生物的营养需求明显作为食品和肥料的前兆。氨，直接或间接的影响，也对许多药物的合成砌块。尽管广泛使用，是碱和有害的氨。
Odors, such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
气味，如垃圾，污水，工业过程
Radioactive pollutants produced by nuclear explosions, war explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.
放射性污染物的核爆炸产生的爆炸，战争，和自然过程，如氡的放射性衰变。
Secondary pollutants include:
二次污染物包括：Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog .Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word “smog” is a portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
颗粒物质从气态污染物和光化学烟雾形成的化合物。烟雾是一种空气污染；“烟雾”是一个合成烟与雾。结果经典的烟雾从大量的煤炭燃烧面积混合引起的烟尘和二氧化硫。现代的烟雾不经常来自于煤，但从汽车和工业排放物，作用在大气中经阳光照射产生的二次污染物，也与主要排放物结合形成光化学烟雾。
Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the troposphere (it is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer). Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the
chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.
地面臭氧（O3）的NOx和VOCs形成。臭氧（O3）是对流层的关键组成部分（也是俗称的平流层臭氧层的某些地区一个重要的组成部分）。光化学和化学反应驱动多发生在白天和夜间的大气化学过程。在由人类活动带来的异常高浓度（主要是化石燃料的燃烧），它是一种污染物，和烟雾的一个组成部分。
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.
过氧硝酸（PAN）的NOx和VOCs同样构成。
Minor air pollutants include:
轻微的空气污染物包括：
A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive.
大量小的有害空气污染物。这些规定在美国清洁空气法案下，欧洲的空气框架指令。
A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulate matter.
各种持久性有机污染物，它可以附着在颗粒物。
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have potential significant impacts on human health and the environment.
持久性有机污染物（POPs）是耐环境退化是通过化学，生物有机化合物，和光解过程。正因为如此，他们已观察到持续存在于环境中，能远距离运输，生物蓄积在人体和动物的组织，在食物链的生物放大作用，并具有潜在的显着的对人类健康和环境的影响
anthropogenic adj. 人为的
carbon dioxide n. 二氧化碳
carbon monoxide n. 一氧化碳
chlorofluorocarbon n. 氟氯碳
particulate matter n. 颗粒物质
peroxyacetyl nitrate n. 硝酸过氧化乙酰
photochemical smog n. 光化烟雾
primary pollutants n. 一次污染物
secondary pollutants n. 二次污染物
stratospheric ozone depletion n. 平流层臭氧消耗
sulfur dioxide n. 二氧化硫
volcanic eruption n. 火山爆发
Lesson 21 Medical Chemistry
Chemistry has long been an integral part of the pharmaceutical industry and its importance should not diminish. Many currently marketed drugs such as the antineoplastic agent, paclitaxel, and the antibiotic, vancomycin, are natural products. The extracts of plants and marine organisms and the products of soil bacteria fermentation will continue to be investigated as potential sources of powerful new drug substances. Chemists are certainly involved in this arena of drug discovery as they conduct the painstaking isolation, purification, and structural characterization of
pharmacologically active components which most often are present in minute amounts in the natural source and which have extremely complex chemical structures. The enormous advances in molecular biology have resulted in the successful development of bio-engineered therapeutic agents, for example, human insulin, Herceptin (Genentech drug for breast cancer), and Enbrel (Immunex drug for rheumatoid arthritis). It is anticipated that many other biomolecules may be forthcoming for the treatment of human disease.
化学一直是制药行业的一个组成部分，其重要性不应该减少。许多已上市的药物如抗肿瘤药物，紫杉醇，和抗生素，万古霉素，是天然产品。植物和海洋生物和土壤细菌的发酵产品提取将继续研究的强大的新的药物的潜在来源。化学家确实参与了这一领域的药物发现他们进行艰苦的分离，纯化和药理活性成分，其中最常见的是存在于微量的天然来源，具有极其复杂的化学结构表征。在分子生物学的巨大进步已导致在生物工程药物的研制成功，例如，人胰岛素，赫赛汀（Genentech的药物对乳腺癌），和Enbrel（内克斯风湿性关节炎药物）。据预计，许多其他生物分子可能是即将到来的人类疾病的治疗。
However the great majority of existing drugs are small organic molecules (MW-200-600) that have been synthesized by medicinal chemists. There is no reason to doubt that most drugs of the future will also f all in this category. It is thus important to define what is meant by “medicinal chemist” and what role is played by the practitioners of this sub-discipline in the pharmaceutical industry. A traditional and perhaps somewhat narrow definition of medicinal chemist is that of a researcher engaged in the design and synthesis of bioactive molecules. As part of their academic training，many medicinal chemists carried out doctoral and postdoctoral work that involved the total synthesis of natural products andor the development of synthetic methodology. They are hired by pharmaceutical companies because of the skills they have gained in planning and conducting the synthesis of organic compounds. While such skills can remain important throughout chemists’ careers, t hey alone are insufficient for the challenging task of drug discovery in which, unlike the academic environment, synthetic chemistry is just a means to an end rather than an end in itself. Thus, the enterprising young chemical researcher who enters the industry must be able and willing to undergo an evolution from that of pure synthetic chemist who knows how to make compounds to that of medicinal chemist who also has an insight into what to make and why.
然而，现有的药物，绝大多数是有机小分子（mw-200-600）已被药物化学家合成了。没有理由怀疑大多数药物的未来也属于这一类。因此，定义什么是“药用化学家”和什么角色是由这一分支学科的从业者在制药工业中起着重要的。传统甚至有些狭隘的药物化学家是一个研究员，从事与生物活性分子的设计合成。作为他们的学术训练的一部分，许多药物化学家进行博士和博士后工作涉及天然产物的全合成及合成方法的发展。他们受雇于制药公司因为他们在策划和进行合成有机化合物获得的技能。虽然这样的技能可以在药店的事业仍然是重要的，他们还不足以在药物发现的具有挑战性的任务，不同的学术环境，合成化学只是达到目的的一种手段，而不是目的本身。因此，有进取心的年轻化学研究员进入行业必须能够和愿意接受一个从纯的合成化学家谁知道如何使化合物的药物化学家谁也洞察到做和为什么。Such insight is gained by acquiring an expanded knowledge base. It is important for the medicinal chemist to know what structural components act as pharmacophores in existing drugs. Pharmacophores, which can be of varying complexity, comprise the essential structural elements of a drug molecule that enable it to interact on the molecular level with a biological macromolecule such as a receptor or enzyme and thus impart a pharmacological effect. The medicinal chemist must become skilled at analyzing the structure activity relationships (SAR) that
, 每小题2分，共
20分） 1、 NaCN Sodium cyanide 2、 Ba(OH)2 Barium hydroxide 3、 KMnO 4 Potassium permanganate 4、 H 2SO 4 Sulfuric acid 5、 ZnSO 4 zinc sulfate or zinc sulphate 6、 FeS Iron (II) sulfide or Ferrous sulfide 7、 H 3PO 4 phosphoric acid 8、 H 2SO 3 Sulfurous acid 9、 HClO 4 Perchloric acid 10、FeCl 3 iron (III) chloride or ferric chloride 二、给下列有机化合物的英语名称（共5小题, 每小题4分，共20分） 1. 甲乙醚 ethyl methyl ether 2. 对甲基苯酚 4-methyl phenol 3. 苯乙烯 styrene 4. CH 3CH ＝C(CH 2CH 3) CH 2 OH 2-ethyl-2-buten-1-ol 5. (CH 3)3CCH 2CH 2OH 4,4-dimethyl-1-butanol or 4,4-dimethyl butanol 三、英译汉（共10小题, 每小题4分，共40分） 1、 Carbon-sodium and carbon-potassium bonds are largely ionic in character; carbon-lead, carbon-tin, carbon-thallium and carbon-mercury bonds are essentially covalent. 碳-钠键和碳-钾键有较大的离子性，碳-铅键，碳-锡键，碳-铊键和碳-汞键基本上属于共价键。 2、 The reactivity of organometallic compounds increases with the percent ionic character of the carbon-metal bond. 金属有机化合物的反应活性随着碳金属键中离子性所占的百分数的增大而增强。 3、 Organometallic compounds of lithium and magnesium are of great importance in organic synthesis. 锂和镁的金属有机化合物在有机合成上有重大的意义。
01.THE ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 01元素和元素周期 表。 The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is referred to as the atomic number, or proton number, Z. The number of electrons in an electrically neutral atom is also equal to the atomic number, Z. The total mass of an atom is determined very nearly by the total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. This total is called the mass number, A. The number of neutrons in an atom, the neutron number, is given by the quantity A-Z. 原子核中的质子数的原子称为原子序数，或质子数，卓电子数的电中性的原子也等于原子序数Z，总质量的原子是非常接近的总数量的质子和中子在原子核。这被称为质量数，这个数的原子中的中子，中子数，给出了所有的数量 The term element refers to, a pure substance with atoms all of a single kind. To the chemist the "kind" of atom is specified by its atomic number, since this is the property that determines its chemical behavior. At present all the atoms from Z = 1 to Z = 107 are known; there are 107 chemical elements. Each chemical element has been given a name and a distinctive symbol. For most elements the symbol is simply the abbreviated form of
第二章科技英语构词法 词是构成句子的要素，对词意理解的好坏直接关系到翻译的质量。 所谓构词法即词的构成方法，即词在结构上的规律。科技英语构词特点是外来语多（很多来自希腊语和拉丁语）；第二个特点是构词方法多，除了非科技英语中常用的三种构词法—转化、派生及合成法外，还普遍采用压缩法、混成法、符号法和字母象形法。 2.1转化法（Conversion） 由一种词类转化成另一种词类，叫转化法。例如： water(n.水)→water(v.浇水) charge(n.电荷) →charge(v.充电) yield(n.产率) →yield(v.生成) dry(a.干的) →dry（v.烘干） slow(a.慢的) →slow(v.减慢) back(ad.在后、向后) →back（v.使后退、倒车） square(n.正方形) →square(a.正方形的) 2.2派生法（Derivation） 通过加前、后缀构成一新词。派生法是化工类科技英语中最常用的构词法。 例如“烷烃”就是用前缀（如拉丁或希腊前缀）表示分子中碳原子数再加上“-ane”作词尾构成的。若将词尾变成“-ane”、“-yne”、“-ol”、“-al”、“-yl”，则分别表示“烯”、“炔”、“醇”、“醛”、“基”、等。依此类推，从而构成千成种化学物质名词。常遇到这样的情况，许多化学化工名词在字典上查不到，全若掌握这种构词法，能过其前、后缀分别代表的意思，合在一起即是该词的意义。下面通过表1举例说明。需要注意的是，表中物质的数目词头除前四个另有名称外，其它均为表上的数目词头。 本书附录为化学化工专业常用词根及前后缀。此外还可参阅《英汉化学化工词汇》（第三版）附录中的“英汉对照有机基名表”、“西文化学名词中常用的数止词头”及“英汉对照有机词尾表”。 据估计，知道一个前缀可帮助人们认识450个英语单词。一名科技工作者至少要知道近50个前缀和30个后缀。这对扩大科技词汇量，增强自由阅读能力，提高翻译质量和加快翻译速度都是大有裨益的。 2．3合成法（Composition） 由两个或更多的词合成一个词，叫合成法。有时需加连字符。 如副词+过去分词well-known 著名的 名词+名词carbon steel 碳钢 rust-resistance 防锈 名词+过去分词computer-oriented 研制计算机的 介词+名词by-product 副产物 动词+副词makeup 化妆品 check-up 检查 形容词+名词atomic weight 原子量 periodic table 周期表 动词+代词+副词pick-me-up 兴奋剂 副词+介词+名词out-of-door 户外 2．4压缩法（Shortening） (1)只取词头字母 这种方法在科技英语中较常用。
2012—2013学年度第一学期 应用化学专业《专业英语》课程试卷（A ） 注意事项：1. 考生务必将自己姓名、学号、专业名称写在指定位置； 2. 密封线和装订线内不准答题。 一、词汇填空 （写出下列每个词汇对应的英 汉单词）（共20小题，每空1分，共20分） 1、化学性质 （chemical property ） 2、物理性质 （physical property ） 3、溶解度 （solubility ） 4、密度 （density ） 5、沸点 （boiling point ） 6、熔点 （melting point ） 7、反应 （reaction ） 8、无机的 （inorganic ） 9、有机的 （organic ） 10、化合物 （c ompound ） 11、烷烃 （alkane ） 12、乙醇 （ethanol ） 13、烯烃 （alkene ） 14、炔烃 （alkyne ） 15、ester （ 酯 ） 16、ether （ 醚 ） 17、acetone （ 丙酮 ） 18、formaldehyde （ 甲醛 ） 19、ammonia （ 氨 ）
20、benzene （ 苯 ） 二、给下列无机化合物的英语名称（共10小题, 每小题2分，共20分） 1、CaO calcium oxide 2、HClO 4 perchloric acid 3、CuSO 4 copper sulfate 4、NaBr sodium bromide 5、NaCl sodium chloride 6、HNO 3 nitric acid 7、HNO 2 nitrous acid 8、Al 2O 3 aluminum oxide 9、KNO 3 potassium nitrate 10、FeBr 3 ferric bromide 三、给下列有机化合物的英语名称（共5小题, 每小题4分，共20分） 1.辛烷 octane 2.CH 2=CHCH 2CH 3 1-butene 3.CH 3CH 2CH 2CH 2OH butanol 4.CH 3CH 2OCH 3
Unit 1 Chemical Industry 化学工业 1.Origins of the Chemical Industry Although the use of chemicals dates back to the ancient civilizations, the evolution of what we know as the modern chemical industry started much more recently. It may be considered to have begun during the Industrial Revolution, about 1800, and developed to provide chemicals roe use by other industries. Examples are alkali for soapmaking, bleaching powder for cotton, and silica and sodium carbonate for glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals. The organic chemicals industry started in the 1860s with the exploitation of William Henry Perkin‘s discovery if the first synthetic dyestuff—mauve. At the start of the twentieth century the emphasis on research on the applied aspects of chemistry in Germany had paid off handsomely, and by 1914 had resulted in the German chemical industry having 75% of the world market in chemicals. This was based on the discovery of new dyestuffs plus the development of both the contact process for sulphuric acid and the Haber process for ammonia. The later required a major technological breakthrough that of being able to carry out chemical reactions under conditions of very high pressure for the first time. The experience gained with this was to stand Germany in good stead, particularly with the rapidly increased demand for nitrogen-based compounds (ammonium salts for fertilizers and nitric acid for explosives manufacture) with the outbreak of world warⅠin 1914. This initiated profound changes which continued during the inter-war years (1918-1939). 1．化学工业的起源 尽管化学品的使用可以追溯到古代文明时代，我们所谓的现代化学工业的发展却是非常近代（才开始的）。可以认为它起源于工业革命其间，大约在1800年，并发展成为为其它工业部门提供化学原料的产业。比如制肥皂所用的碱，棉布生产所用的漂白粉，玻璃制造业所用的硅及Na2CO3. 我们会注意到所有这些都是无机物。有机化学工业的开始是在十九世纪六十年代以William Henry Perkin 发现第一种合成染料—苯胺紫并加以开发利用为标志的。20世纪初，德国花费大量资金用于实用化学方面的重点研究，到1914年，德国的化学工业在世界化学产品市场上占有75%的份额。这要归因于新染料的发现以及硫酸的接触法生产和氨的哈伯生产工艺的发展。而后者需要较大的技术突破使得化学反应第一次可以在非常高的压力条件下进行。这方面所取得的成绩对德国很有帮助。特别是由于1914年第一次世界大仗的爆发，对以氮为基础的化合物的需求飞速增长。这种深刻的改变一直持续到战后（1918-1939）。 date bake to/from: 回溯到 dated: 过时的，陈旧的 stand sb. in good stead: 对。。。很有帮助
化学化工专业英语试卷 及答案 标准化管理部编码-[99968T-6889628-J68568-1689N]
2011年春季学期应用化学专业 《08级化学化工专业英语试卷答案》 1. state-of-the-industry 中文：工业发展水平（1分） 2. alkyl ether sulfate中文：烷基醚硫酸盐（酯）（分） 3. W/O 英文： water in oil，(oil emulsion) ；中文：油乳胶（油包水）（分） 4. 2,6-Dimethy-2,7-octadien-6-ol 画出结构式： （4分） 5. The inherent tendency of the whole or a part of a molecule to pass out of or not to penetrate into a water phase. 英文： Hydrophoby ；中文：疏水性（亲油性）分) 6. A substance which, when introduced in a liquid, increases its wetting tendency. 英文： Wetting agent ；中文：润湿剂分) 7. The process by which soil is dislodged from the substrate and bought into a state of solution or dispersion. 英文： Detergency ；中文：去污性（力）分) 8. An attribute which is related to benefit not directly but through association or suggestion. 英文： Signal attribute ；中文：信号属性分) 9. A colorless gas with a characteristic pungent odor, consisting of nitrogen and hydrogen.
Unit 2 Research and Development 研究和开发 Research and development, or R&D as it is commonly referred to, is an activity which is carried out by all sectors of manufacturing industry but its extent varies considerably, as we will see shortly. Let us first understand, or at least get a feel for, what the terms mean. Although the distinction between research and development is not always clear-cut, and there is often considerable overlap, we will attempt to separate them. In simple terms research can be thought of as the activity which produces new ideas and knowledge whereas development is putting those ideas into practice as new process and products. To illustrate this with an example, predicting the structure of a new molecule which would have a specific biological activity and synthesizing it could be seen as research whereas testing it and developing it to the point where it could be marketed as a new drug could be described as the development part. 研究和开发，或通常所称R&D是制造业各个部门都要进行的一项活动。我们马上可以看到，它的内容变化很大。我们首先了解或先感觉一下这个词的含义。尽管研究和开发的定义总是分得不很清楚，而且有许多重叠的部分，我们还是要试着把它们区分开来。简单说来，研究是产生新思想和新知识的活动，而开发则是把这些思想贯彻到实践中得到新工艺和新产品的行为。可以用一个例子来描述这一点，预测一个有特殊生物活性的分子结构并合成它可以看成是研究而测试它并把它发展到可以作为一种新药推向市场这一阶段则看作开发部分。 1.Fundamental Research and Applied Research In industry the primary reason for carting out R&D is economic and is to strengthen and improve the company?s position and profitability. The purpose of R&D is to generate and provide information and knowledge to reduce uncertainty, solve problems and to provide better data on which management can base decisions. Specific projects cover a wide range of activities and time scales, from a few months to 20 years. 1．基础研究和应用研究 在工业上进行研究和开发最主要的原因是经济利益方面，是为了加强公司的地位，提高公司的利润。R&D的目的是做出并提供信息和知识以减低不确定性，解决问题，以及向管理层提供更好的数据以便他们能据此做出决定。特别的项目涵盖很大的活动范围和时间范围，从几个月到20年。 We can pick out a number of areas of R&D activity in the following paragraphs but if we were to start with those which were to spring to the mind of the academic, rather than the industrial, chemist then these would be basic, fundamental (background) or exploratory research and the synthesis of new compounds. This is also labeled “blue skies” research. 我们可以在后面的段落里举出大量的R&D活动。但是如果我们举出的点子来源于研究院而不是工业化学家的头脑，这就是基础的或探索性的研究 Fundamental research is typically associated with university research. It may be carried out for its own intrinsic interest and it will add to the total knowledge base but no immediate applications of it in the “real world” well be apparent. Note that it will provide a valuable
Unit 21 Chemical Industry and Environment 化学工业与环境 How can we reduce the amount of waste that is produced? And how we close the loop by redirecting spent materials and products into programs of recycling? All of these questions must be answered through careful research in the coming years as we strive to keep civilization in balance with nature. 我们怎样才能减少产生废物的数量？我们怎样才能使废弃物质和商品纳入循环使用的程序？所有这些问题必须要在未来的几年里通过仔细的研究得到解决，这样我们才能保持文明与自然的平衡。 1.Atmospheric Chemistry Coal-burning power plants, as well as some natural processes, deliver sulfur compounds to the stratosphere, where oxidation produces sulfuric acid particles that reflect away some of the incoming visible solar radiation. In the troposphere, nitrogen oxides produced by the combustion of fossil fuels combine with many organic molecules under the influence of sunlight to produce urban smog. The volatile hydrocarbon isoprene, well known as a building block of synthetic rubber, is also produced naturally in forests. And the chlorofluorocarbons, better known as CFCs, are inert in automobile air conditioners and home refrigerators but come apart under ultraviolet bombardment in the mid-stratosphere with devastating effect on the earth’s stratospheric ozone layer. The globally averaged atmospheric concentration of stratospheric ozone itself is only 3 parts in 10 million, but it has played a crucial protective role in the development of all biological life through its absorption of potentially harmful shout-wavelength solar ultraviolet radiation. 1．大气化学 燃煤发电厂像一些自然过程一样，也会释放硫化合物到大气层中，在那里氧化作用产生硫酸颗粒能反射入射进来的可见太阳辐射。在对流层，化石燃料燃烧所产生的氮氧化物在阳光的影响下与许多有机物分子结合产生都市烟雾。挥发的碳氢化合物异戊二烯，也就是众所周知的合成橡胶的结构单元，可以在森林中天然产生含氯氟烃。我们所熟悉的CFCs，在汽车空调和家用冰箱里是惰性的，但在中平流层内在紫外线的照射下回发生分解从而对地球大气臭氧层造成破坏，全球大气层中臭氧的平均浓度只有3ppm，但它对所有生命体的生长发育都起了关键的保护作用，因为是它吸收了太阳光线中有害的短波紫外辐射。 During the past 20 years, public attention has been focused on ways that mankind has caused changes in the atmosphere: acid rain, stratospheric zone depletion, greenhouse warming, and the increased oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere. We have known for generations that human activity has affected the nearby surroundings, but only gradually have we noticed such effects as acid rain on a regional then on an intercontinental scale. With the problem of ozone depletion and concerns about global warming, we have now truly entered an era of global change, but the underlying scientific facts have not yet been fully established. 在过去的二十年中，公众的注意力集中在人类对大气层的改变：酸雨、平流层臭氧空洞、温室现象，以及大气的氧化能力增强，前几代人已经知道，人类的活动会对邻近的环境造成影响，但意识到像酸雨这样的效应将由局部扩展到洲际范围则是慢慢发现的。随着臭氧空洞问题的出现，考虑到对全球的威胁，我们已真正进入到全球话改变的时代，但是基本的
化学专业英语试卷 学号：姓名：成绩: 一：把下列单词或词组译成英文（本题共30 分，每小题 1 分） 1. Ni(ClO4)2 nickel perchlorate 3. FeCl2 iron(2)chloride 5. Al(NO3)3 aluminum nitrate 7. MnO2 manganese dioxide 9. N2O3 dinatrogen trioxide 11. NaClO sodium hypochloride 13. P2O5 diphosphorous pentaoxide 15. KMnO4 patassium permangate 17. 盐酸hydrochloric acid 19. KCN patassium cyanide 21. 5-甲基-4-丙基壬烷5-methyl-4-propylnonaane 23. 四氯化碳carbon tetrachloride 25. 中和neutralize 27. 比热容specific heat capacity 29. 酸酐anhytride 2. CuSO4 copper sulfate 4. CoCO3 cobalt carbate 6. Ca(C2H3O2)2 calcium acetate 8. H2SO4 10. 六氰合铁（Ⅱ）酸钾 12. Ag2SO3 sliver sulfite 14. 草酸铅lead cyanate 16. Zn(OH)2 zinc hydroxide 18. 磷酸根phosphate 20. 2,3-二甲基戊烷 2,3-dimethylpentane 22. 2,3,7-三甲基-5-乙基辛烷2,3,7-trimethyl-5-ethyloctane 24. 石蕊试纸litmus paper 26. 滴定titration 28. 非电解质electrolyte 30. 配位化合物complex compound 三. 把下列短文译成汉语（本题共40 分，每小题10 分） 1. Without chemistry our lives would be unrecognisable, for chemistry is at work all around us. Think what life would be like without chemistry - there would be no plastics, no electricity and no protective paints for our homes. There would be no synthetic fibres to clothe us and no fertilisers to help us produce enough food. We wouldn’t be able to travel because there would be no metal, rubber or fuel for cars, ships and aeroplane. Our lives would be changed considerably without telephones, radio, television or computers, all of which depend on chemistry for the manufacture of their parts. Life expectancy would be much lower, too, as there would be no drugs to fight disease. 没有化学反应我们的生活将会大变样,化学就在我们周围。没有化学生活会是什么样子——没有塑料,,家里没有电,也没有防护漆。不会给我们合成纤维,没有化肥帮助我们生产足够的食物。我们不能旅行,因为不会有金属、橡胶或燃料汽车、船只和飞机。我们的生活将会大大改变了没有电话、收音机、电视或电脑,所有这些依赖化学生产的部分。没有药物来抵抗疾病，预期寿命将低得多。 2．The first and second laws of thermodynamics and the meaning of entropy will be discussed. and expanded upon in this lesson. It will be shown that energy transformations on a macroscopic scale — that is, between large aggregates of atoms and/or molecules — can be understood in terms of a set of logical principles. Thus thermodynamics provides a model of the behavior of matter in bulk. The power of
精心整理一、元素和单质的命名 “元素”和“单质”的英文意思都是“element”，有时为了区别，在强调“单质”时可用“freeelement”。因此，单质的英文名称与元素的英文名称是一样的。下面给出的既是元素的名称，同时又是单质的名称。 或用后缀-ous表示低价，-ic表示高价。 如FeO:iron(II)oxide或ferrous oxideFe2O3:iron(III)oxide或ferric oxide Cu2O:copper(I)oxide或cuprous oxide CuO:copper(II)oxide或cupric oxide ２．化合物负电荷部分的读法： ２．１二元化合物： 常见的二元化合物有卤化物，氧化物，硫化物，氮化物，磷化物，碳化物，金属氢化物等，命名时需要使用后缀-ide， 如：fluoride，chloride，bromide，iodide，oxide，sulfide，nitride,phosphide,carbide，hydride;OH-的名称也是用后缀-ide：hydroxide， 非金属氢化物不用此后缀，而是将其看成其它二元化合物（见２。２）；非最低价的二元化合
物还要加前缀，如O22-:peroxideO2-:superoxide 举例：NaF:sodiumfluoride AlCl3:aluminiumchloride Mg2N3:magnesiumnitride Ag2S：silversulfide CaC2:calciumcarbide Fe(OH)2：iron(II)hydroxide 有些物质常用俗称，如NOnitricoxideN2Onitrousoxide ２．２非金属氢化物 除了水和氨气使用俗称water，ammonia以外，其它的非金属氢化物都用系统名称，命名规则根据化学式的写法不同而有所不同。对于卤族和氧族氢化物，Ｈ在化学式中写在前面，因此将其看成另一元素的二元化合物。 举例：HFhydrogenfluorideHClhydrogenchloride HBrhydrogenbromideHIhydrogeniodide CH4 H 高某酸 举例： H HPO3 正盐：根据化学式从左往右分别读出阳离子和阴离子的名称。 如FeSO4iron(II)sulfateKMnO4potassiumpermanganate 酸式盐：同正盐的读法，酸根中的Ｈ读做hydrogen，氢原子的个数用前缀表示。 如NaHCO3:sodiumhydrogencarbonate或sodiumbicarbonate NaH2PO4:sodiumdihydrogenphosphate 复盐：同正盐的读法，并且阳离子按英文名称的第一个字母顺序读。 如KNaCO3:potassiumsodiumcarbonate NaNH4HPO4:ammoniumsodiumhydrogenphosphate 水合盐：结晶水读做water或hydrate 如AlCl3.6H2O:aluminumchloride6-water或aluminumchloridehexahydrate AlK(SO4)212H2Oaluminiumpotassiumsulphate12-water
化学专业英语化学专业英语课期末考试试卷含 答案 文档编制序号：[KKIDT-LLE0828-LLETD298-POI08]
化学专业英语试卷 学号：姓名：成绩: 一：把下列单词或词组译成英文（本题共 30 分，每小题 1 分） 1. Ni(ClO4)2 nickel perchlorate 3. FeCl2 iron(2)chloride 5. Al(NO3)3 aluminum nitrate 7. MnO2 manganese dioxide 9. N2O3 dinatrogen trioxide 11. NaClO sodium hypochloride 13. P2O5 diphosphorous pentaoxide 15. KMnO4 patassium permangate 17. 盐酸hydrochloric acid 19. KCN patassium cyanide 21. 5-甲基-4-丙基壬烷5-methyl-4-propylnonaane 23. 四氯化碳carbon tetrachloride 25. 中和neutralize 27. 比热容specific heat capacity 29. 酸酐anhytride 2. CuSO4 copper sulfate 4. CoCO3 cobalt carbate 6. Ca(C2H3O2)2 calcium acetate 8. H2SO4 10. 六氰合铁（Ⅱ）酸钾 12. Ag2SO3 sliver sulfite 14. 草酸铅 lead cyanate 16. Zn(OH)2 zinc hydroxide 18. 磷酸根 phosphate 20. 2,3-二甲基戊烷2,3-dimethylpentane 22. 2,3,7-三甲基-5-乙基辛烷2,3,7-trimethyl-5-ethyloctane 24. 石蕊试纸litmus paper 26. 滴定titration 28. 非电解质electrolyte 30. 配位化合物complex compound 三. 把下列短文译成汉语（本题共 40 分，每小题 10 分） 1. Without chemistry our lives would be unrecognisable, for chemistry is at work all around us. Think what life would be like without chemistry - there would be no plastics, no electricity and no protective paints for our homes. There would be no synthetic fibres to clothe us and no fertilisers to help us produce enough food. We wouldn’t be able to travel because there would be no metal, rubber or fuel for cars, ships and aeroplane. Our lives would be changed considerably without telephones, radio, television or computers, all of which depend on chemistry for the manufacture of their parts. Life expectancy would be much lower, too, as there would be no drugs to fight disease. 没有化学反应我们的生活将会大变样,化学就在我们周围。没有化学生活会是什么样子——没有塑料,,家里没有电,也没有防护漆。不会给我们合成纤维,没有化肥帮助我们生产足够的食物。我们不能旅行,因为不会有金属、橡胶或燃料汽车、船只和飞机。我们的生活将会大大改变了没有电话、收音机、电视或电脑,所有这些依赖化学生产的部分。没有药物来抵抗疾病，预期寿命将低得多。 2． The first and second laws of thermodynamics and the meaning of entropy will be discussed. and expanded upon in this lesson. It will be shown that energy transformations on a macroscopic scale — that is, between large aggregates of atoms and/or molecules — can be understood in terms of a set of logical principles. Thus thermodynamics provides a model of the behavior of matter in bulk. The power of such a model is that it does not depend on atomic
04.GROUPS IIIB—VIIIB ELEMENTS Group I-B includes the elements scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, and actinium1, and the two rare-earth series of fourteen elements each2—the lanthanide and actinide series. The principal source of these elements is the high gravity river and beach sands built up by a water-sorting process during long periods of geologic time. Monazite sand, which contains a mixture of rare earth phosphates, and an yttrium silicate in a heavy sand are now commercial sources of a number of these scarce elements. B组包括元素钪，钇，镧，和actinium1，和2稀土系列十四each2镧系和锕系元素的系列。这些元素的主要来源是重力高与海滩砂建立起来的water-sorting过程在漫长的地质年代。独居石砂，其中包含一个混合稀土磷酸盐，和一个钇硅酸盐在沉沙现在商业来源的一些这些稀有元素。 Separation of the elements is a difficult chemical operation. The solubilities of their compounds are so nearly alike that a separation by fractional crystallization is laborious and time-consuming. In recent years, ion exchange resins in high columns have proved effective. When certain acids are allowed to flow down slowly through a column containing a resin to which ions of Group III B metals are adsorbed, ions are successively released from the resin3. The resulting solution is removed from the bottom of the column or tower in bands or sections. Successive