Chapter 1: Introduction
1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)
2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.
(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )
https://www.doczj.com/doc/868708673.html,nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.
5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors.
i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.
6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of time in hiatory
7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time
3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）
These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)
https://www.doczj.com/doc/868708673.html,ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community.
It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.
9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )
https://www.doczj.com/doc/868708673.html,petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language
11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)
traditional grammar and modern linguistics
1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive
2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.
3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework. Functions of language.
1.the descriptive function.
2. the expressive function
3.the social function
Chapter 2: Phonology音系学
phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;
it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.
The three branches of phonetics
(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)
(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）
(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）
2. Speech organs: three important areas
⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔---- the throat;
⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;
⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.
The principle source such modifications is the tongue.
The tongue is the most flexible.
International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.
Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.
Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.
Aspirated and unaspirated
1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form
patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
4. Phone, phoneme, allophone
A phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment.
The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].
A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;
it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].
Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments
sequential rule,
⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in a
particular language.
⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another by
copying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.
⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a sound in a
certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.
6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）
⑴Stress
Word stress and sentence stress
⑵Tone声调
Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.
⑶Intonation语调
When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.
English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:
falling tone (matter of fact statement)
rising tone (doubts or question)
the fall-rise tone (implied message)
the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)
For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.
Chapter 3: Morphology
1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of words
and the rules by which words are formed
2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.
3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.
4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to another
one.
5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morpheme
Chapter 4: Syntax
Syntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that
govern the formation of sentences.
Word-level categories
1,Major lexical categories
2. minor lexical categories
To determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed
1.meaning
2.inflection
3.distribution.
Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word category complementizers words which introduce the sentence complement complement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizers
D-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties
S-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results form appropriate transformation .
Chapter 5: Semantics
Semantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.
1）The naming theory(命名论)
Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.
It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.
words are just names or labels for things.
2）The conceptualist view（意念论）
It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
3)Contextualism（语境论）
①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:
②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation
③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.
④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in me aning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the pre sident or presidency in different situation.
4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）
Bloomfield
①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.
②The story of Jack and Jill:
Jill Jack
S_________r--------s_________R
3. Sense and reference
①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
4. Major sense relations
Synonymy（同义关系）
Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.
Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词
complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rare
Homonymy（同音/同形异义）
Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,
（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.
e.g. rain/reign.
（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.
e.g. tear v. / tear n.
（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义):When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.
e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.
Hyponymy（下义关系）
Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
eg.superordinate: flower
hyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily
Antonymy（反义关系）
the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning
1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediate forms
between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short …
2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member of
the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …
3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of the
relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below …
2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:
1.grammatical meaning
2. semantic meaning, e.g.
selectional restrictions.
Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules
eg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others
Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (B ritish G.
Leech).
Chapter 6: Pragmatics
1). P ragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to
effect successful communication.
Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.
What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatic s is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning
If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics;
if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.
⑴Austin’s new model of speech acts
Utterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.
3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)
The maxim of quantity （数量准则）
Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。）
Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. （不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。）
he maxim of quality （质量准则）
Do not say what you believe to be false.（不要说自己认为不真实的话。）
Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.（不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。）
The maxim of relation（关联准则）
Be relevant.（说话要贴切。）
The maxim of manner （方式准则）
Avoid obscurity of expression. （避免晦涩的词语。）
Avoid ambiguity. （避免歧义。）
Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity) （说话要简短，避免累赘。）
Be orderly. （说话要有条理。）
Chapter 8
Sociolinguistics 社会语言学The sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the use of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.
speech variety 言语变体refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.
Linguistic repertoire语言库the totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.
Halliday’s register theory.
according to Halliday (British), “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.”
Register语域the type of language which is selected as apprppriate to the type of situation is a Register
field of discourse, 话语范围It can be either technical or non-technical. tenor of discourse,话语意旨It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question
mode of discourse话语方式It refers to the means of communication Five stages of formality
Intimate Casual Consultative Formal Frozen
Bilingualism双语现象
In some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism.
diglossia According to Ferguson (1959), refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism.
chapter 9
culture文化in a broad sense, reflects a total way of life of a people in a community. in a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs.
the relation of language to culture is that of part to whole.
discourse communities 话语社会the common ways in which members of the social group use similar language to meet their needs.
linguistic relativity 语言相对性to put it simply, different language offer people different ways of expressing the world around, and so they think and speak differently
an linguistic sign may simultaneously have a
denotativ meanings.e,
connotative meanings.,
iconic meanings.
three forms of culture contact are identified:
acculturation,
assimilation,
amalgamation
through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B,thus bringing about cultural diffusion
chapter 10
language acquisition语言习得refers to a child's acquisition of his mother tongue.
three different theories concerning ho language is learned:
the behaviorist,
the innatist,
the interationist.
Chomsky proposed that human being are born with an innate ability known known as language acquisition device or o https://www.doczj.com/doc/868708673.html,ter Chomsky referred this innate endowment as Universal Grammar.
the interactionisist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.
critical period Hypothesis 关键期假说Eric Lenneberg argued that the LAD, like other biological function, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time —a specific and limited time period for language acquisition. chapter 11
second language acquisition 第二语言习得refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language
interlanguage 中介语was established as learners 's independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language.
among the three important characteristcs:systematicity, permeability, fossilization
input hypothesis输入假说: Krashen
Krashen put forward that learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving "comprehensible input "
chapter 12
neurlinguistics 神经语言学is the study of two related areas: language disorder and the relationship between the brain and language.
it includes research into how the brain is structured and what function each part of the brain performs, how and in which parts of the brain language is stores, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language
it is the cerebral cortex 大脑皮层that accounts for the human distinctness in the animal world and it is within the human cortex that the secrets of language represention and prossing are to be found. animals, reptiles and amphibians, for example, have no cortex at all
most right-handed individuals are said to be left lateralized for language. the case with left-handed people are even more complex,few left-handers have language localization in the right hemisphere. rather they tend to show
significant language representation in both hemisphere. thus left-handers are generally less lateralized for language.
Broca's area
Psycholinguistics 心里语言学is the study of language processing. it is concerned with the process of language comprehension and production.
第8章英语语言的应用（I） I. Fill in the blanks. 1. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the _____ of, or the _____the utterance. （人大2004研） 【答案】consequence, change brought about by 【解析】言外行为指说话的效果。 2. When a teacher says “The exam this year is going to be really difficult”, the sentence would have an _____force. （清华2001研，清华2000研） 【答案】illocutionary 【解析】言外行为，表达说话人的意图。 3. _____ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. 【答案】Performatives 【解析】施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。 II. Multiple Choices. 1. The speech act theory was developed by _____.（对外经贸2006研) A. John Searle B. John Austin
C. Levinson D. G. Leech 【答案】B 【解析】言语行为理论是哲学家约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出的。它从哲学意义上对语言交际的本质进行解释，其目的在于回答”用语言干什么”这个问题。 2. Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest. (Focus on the type of illocutionary act) （南京大学2007研） A. threaten B. advise C. beseech D. urge 【答案】A 【解析】A为命令性言语行为，而其他三项为指示性言语行为。 3. _____ is using a sentence to perform a function. （西安外国语学院2006研） A. A perlocutionary act B. An illocutionary act C. A locutionary act D. Speech act 【答案】D 【解析】约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出言语行为理论, 此理论对语言交际的
现代语言学 一绪论 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants. 3 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
第一课：word 2003介绍与工作介面 一、word 2003介绍 word 2003是由微软公司出品的Microsoft office系列办公软件之一，他主要用于办公文件排版方面，拥有强大的图片混排和表格制作的功能，也用于其它印刷品的排版，比如宣传单、杂志等，因为其操作简单、介面友好、功能强大，所以在自动化办公方面应用非常广泛，是现代办公室不可缺少的软件之一。 二、word 2003工作介面 1）标题栏：位于Word 2003工作窗口的最上面，用于显示当前正在编辑文档的文件名等相关信息。 2）菜单栏：包括“文件、编辑、视图、帮助”等菜单。 3）常用工具栏：是一般应用程序调用命令的一种快捷方式。 4）标尺：包括水平标尺和垂直标尺，可快速设置文档的页边距和缩进量，或表格的栏宽和制表位。 5）工作区：编辑文档。 6）状态栏：用来显示文档当前的状态。 三、Word 2003基本操作 1、启动Word 2003 （1）单击“开始/程序/microsoft office/ Word 2003”， （2）双击桌面Word 2003图标即可。 2、退出Word 2003 （1）鼠标点击标题栏上的关闭按钮， （2）双击标题栏上Word 2003图标， （3）Alt+F4。 第二课：Word 2003文本的操作 一、文档的基础操作 1、文档的建立、保存与打开 （1）新建文档
启动Word 2003后，会自动建立一个默认空白文档，单击“文件/新建”命令或Ctrl+N或 单击工具栏的“新建”按钮。 （2）保存文档 方法一、“文件/保存”命令或Ctrl+S 方法二、常用工具栏的“保存”按钮 （3）打开文档 方法一、“文件/打开”命令或Ctrl+O 方法二、在打开对话框的“查找范围”栏内，选择要打开的文档， 2、输入文字和符号 （1）输入文字 建立新文档后，将光标定位到文本插入点，直接可以在文档中输入英文，如果要输入中文，必须切换到中文输入法状态。输入法的切换：单击任务栏中的输入法图标或Ctrl+Shift即可。 （2）在文档中插入符号和特殊字符 如键盘上没有的符号可在“插入/符号或特殊符号”中选择——> 在“字体”框内选择一种字体，不同的字体有不同的符号——> 选择需要在文档中插入的一个符号——> 单击“插入”按钮即可。 二、文本的清除： ◎Backspace（退格键）删除光标以左的内容 ◎Delete (删除键) 删除光标以右的内容 （注：分清“插入／改写”模式，改写模式下可直接改写文本。） 二、文本的选定 ◎鼠标：在“选定栏”：单击选行，双击选段，三击选全文（注：Alt＋鼠标拖动选中矩形块。）三、全选和清除： ◎全选：①[编辑]→[全选]，②Ctrl＋A ◎清除：①[编辑]→[清除]，②Delete（或选中后“剪切”） 四、撤消和恢复： ◎[编辑]→[撤消] Ctrl+Z (注：可进行多步撤消) 五、剪切与复制 ◎Ctrl+C 复制◎Ctrl＋X 剪切◎Ctrl＋V 粘贴 六、查找和替换： ◎[编辑]→[查找] Ctrl+F 编辑→查找→输入查找内容→点击“查找下一处”。 ◎[编辑]→[替换] Ctrl+H 编辑→替换→输入查找内容和替换内容→点击“替换”或全部替换。 七、光标定位： ◎[编辑]→[定位] Ctrl+G ，编辑→定位→输入页号、行号等→点击“下一处” 八、 Word 2003文档的页眉和页脚 ◎[视图]→[页眉和页脚] (注：页眉和页脚常用于标注一些较固定的信息：如公司名称、地址、电话、页码、日期等)
一、作者作品： 1、唐宋八大家：韩愈、柳宗元、欧阳修、苏洵、苏轼、苏辙、王安石、曾巩 2、并称“韩柳”的是韩愈和柳宗元，他们是唐朝古文运动的倡导者。 3、一门父子三词客：苏洵（老苏）、苏轼（大苏）、苏辙（小苏）。 4、豪放派词人：苏轼、辛弃疾，并称“苏辛”；婉约派词人：李清照（女词人） 5、李杜：李白、杜甫。小李杜：李商隐、杜牧。 6、屈原：我国最早的伟大诗人，他创造了“楚辞”这一新诗体，开创了我国诗歌浪漫主义风格。 7、孔子名丘，字仲尼，春秋时鲁国人，他是儒家学派的创始人，被称为“孔圣人”，孟子被称为“亚圣”，两人并称为“孔孟”。 8、苏轼称赞王维“诗中有画，画中有诗。” 9、杜甫是唐代伟大的现实主义诗人，其诗广泛深刻的反映社会现实，被称为“诗史”，杜甫也因此被尊为“诗圣”，有著名的“三吏”：《潼关吏》、《石壕吏》、《新安吏》；“三别”：《新婚别》、《垂老别》、《无家别》。 10、我国第一部纪传体通史是《史记》（又称《太史公书》），作者是汉朝的司马迁，鲁迅称《史记》为“史家之绝唱，无韵之《离骚》”，有：12本纪、30世家、70列传、10表、8书，共130篇。 11、“四史”：《史记》、《汉书》、《后汉书》、《三国志》。 12、元曲四大家：关汉卿、郑光祖、白朴、马致远。 13、《聊斋志异》是我国第一部优秀文言短篇小说集，作者是清代著名小说家蒲松龄。“聊斋”是他的书屋名，“志”是记叙，“异”是奇怪的事情。 14、书法四大家：颜真卿、柳公权、欧阳询、赵孟（fǔ） 15、战国时期百家争鸣主要流派及代表： 儒家：孔子孟子法家：韩非子
道家：庄子、列子墨家：墨子 16、南宋四大家：陆游、杨万里、范成大、尤袤 17、边塞诗人：高适、岑参、王昌龄 18、唐宗：唐太宗李世民宋祖：宋太祖赵匡胤秦皇：秦始皇嬴政汉武：汉武帝刘彻 19、我国第一位田园诗人是东晋的陶渊明（陶潜），他“不为五斗米折腰”。 20、世界文学作品中四大吝啬鬼：葛朗台、夏洛克、泼溜希金、阿巴贡。 21、中国吝啬鬼的典型：严监生。 二、中国文学之最： 最早的诗歌总集是《诗经》； 最早的爱国诗人是屈原； 最早的田园诗人是东晋的陶渊明； 最早的也是最杰出的边塞诗人是盛唐的高适和岑参； 古代最杰出的豪放派词人是北宋的苏轼； 古代最杰出的女词人是南宋的李清照； 古代最著名的爱国词人是南宋的辛弃疾； 古代最伟大的浪漫主义诗人是唐代的李白； 古代最伟大的现实主义诗人是唐代的杜甫； 古代写诗最多的爱国诗人是南宋的陆游； 古代最著名的长篇神话小说是明代吴承恩的《西游记》； 古代最著名的长篇历史小说是明初罗贯中的《三国演义》； 古代最早写农民起义的长篇小说是元末明初施耐庵的《水浒传》； 古代最伟大的现实主义长篇小说是清代曹雪芹的《红楼梦》； 古代最杰出的长篇讽刺小说是清代吴敬梓的《儒林外史》；
语言学教程笔记 第一章语言学导论 语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。 1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核 心特征。例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。 任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。（2）句法层面上的任意性。 （3） 任意性和规约性。 2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成， 每层都有自身的组合规则。话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是 相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产 性。 3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性 和递归性。利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。 4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的 物体、时间或观点。因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而 后者位置距我们非常之远。语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。移位性赋予人 们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化 的语境中。他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。 5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。 6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的 角色是可以随意更换的。 元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？
Chapter 12 : Lan guage And Brain 1. n euroli nguistics: It is the study of relati on ship betwee n brain and Ian guage. It in eludes research into how the structure of the brain in flue nces Ian guage lear ning, how and in which parts of the brain Ian guage is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use Ian guage. 2. psycholinguistics: ____ t he study of Ian guage process in g. It is concerned with the processes of Ian guage acqisiti on, comprehe nsion and product ion. 3. brain lateralizati on: The localizatio n of cog nitive and perceptive fun cti ons in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cog nitive fun cti on. 5. right ear advantage: ___ The phe nomenon that the right ear shows an adva ntage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage. 6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cog niti on are called as split brain studies. 7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired Ianguage disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accide nt and so on. 8. non- flue nt aphasia: Damageto parts of the brain in front of the cen tral sulcus is called non-flue nt aphasia. 9. flue nt aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex beh ind the cen tral sulcus results in a type of aphasia called flue nt aphasia. 10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the an gular gyrus of the parietal lobe ofte n causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia. 11. phono logical dyslexia: ___ it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems to have lost the ability to use spelli ng-to-so und rules. 12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems un able to recog nize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spell in g-to-so und rules. 13. spo on erism: a slip of ton gue in which the positi on of soun ds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let' s have chish and fips instend of Let' s have fish and chips. 14. prim ing: the process that before the participa nts make a decisi on whether the stri ng of letters is a word or not, they are prese nted with an activated word. 15. freque ncy effect: Subjects take less time to make judgeme nt on freque ntly used words tha n to judge less com monly used words . This phe nomenon is called freque ncy effect.
《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明: 《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。 《语言学概论》研究始于20世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会 学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。 对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完 全必要和有益的。 本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第６学期和第７学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其 余章节为选修。 二、教学目的及要求: 本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这 一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则， 从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。 本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授 主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。 本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范 例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓
励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。 三、教学重点与难点: 本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。 本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。 四、与其它课程的关系: 本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。 五、学时与学分: 学时：７２学时 学分：４学分 六、教学内容： 第一章绪论 本章主要教学内容: 1．语言学习的意义。 2．语言的定义。 3．语言的定义特征。 4．语言的起源。 5．语言的功能。 6．语言学的定义。
别告诉我你很会用Word！ 别告诉我你很会用Word！ 据说，80%以上的人看了这个，都相见恨晚，你会么？不管你信不信，反正我是信了。 1. 问：WORD 里边怎样设置每页不同的页眉？如何使不同的章节显示的页眉不同？ 答：分节，每节可以设置不同的页眉。文件――页面设置――版式――页眉和页脚――首页不同。 2. 问：请问word 中怎样让每一章用不同的页眉？怎么我现在只能用一个页眉，一改就全部改了？
答：在插入分隔符里，选插入分节符，可以选连续的那个，然后下一页改页眉前，按一下“同前”钮，再做的改动就不影响前面的了。简言之，分节符使得它们独立了。这个工具栏上的“同前”按钮就显示在工具栏上，不过是图标的形式，把光标移到上面就显示出”同前“两个字来。 3. 问：如何合并两个WORD 文档，不同的页眉需要先写两个文件，然后合并，如何做？ 答：页眉设置中，选择奇偶页不同/与前不同等选项。 4. 问：WORD 编辑页眉设置，如何实现奇偶页不同? 比如：单页浙江大学学位论文，这一个容易设；双页：（每章标题），这一个有什么技巧啊？ 答：插入节分隔符，与前节设置相同去掉，再设置奇偶页不同。 5. 问：怎样使WORD 文档只有第一页没有页眉，页脚？ 答：页面设置－页眉和页脚，选首页不同，然后选中首页页眉中的小箭头，格式－边框和底纹，选择无，这个只要在“视图”――“页眉页脚”，其中的页面设置里，不要整个文档，就可以看到一个“同前”的标志，不选，前后的设置情况就不同了。 6. 问：如何从第三页起设置页眉？
答：在第二页末插入分节符，在第三页的页眉格式中去掉同前节，如果第一、二页还有页眉，把它设置成正文就可以了 ●在新建文档中，菜单―视图―页脚―插入页码―页码格式―起始页码为0，确定；●菜单―文件―页面设置―版式―首页不同，确定；●将光标放到第一页末，菜单―文件―页面设置―版式―首页不同―应用于插入点之后，确定。第2 步与第三步差别在于第2 步应用于整篇文档，第3 步应用于插入点之后。这样，做两次首页不同以后，页码从第三页开始从1 编号，完成。 7. 问：WORD 页眉自动出现一根直线，请问怎么处理？ 答：格式从“页眉”改为“清除格式”，就在“格式”快捷工具栏最左边；选中页眉文字和箭头，格式－边框和底纹－设置选无。 8. 问：页眉一般是---------，上面写上题目或者其它，想做的是把这根线变为双线，WORD 中修改页眉的那根线怎么改成双线的? 答：按以下步骤操作去做： ●选中页眉的文字，包括最后面的箭头●格式－边框和底纹●选线性为双线的●在预览里，点击左下小方块，预览的图形会出现双线●确定▲上面和下面自己可以设置，点击在预览周围的四个小方块，页眉线就可以在不同的位置。 9. 问：Word 中的脚注如何删除？把正文相应的符号删除，内容可以删除，但最后那个格式还在，应该怎么办？
Chapter 5 Semantics ?Semantics----the study of language meaning. ?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning. ?Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other w ords, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of context. ?Meaning is central to the study of communication. ?Classification of lexical meanings. Here are G. Leech’s seven types of meaning. ( British linguist) ? 1. Conceptual meaning (also called denotative or cognitive meaning) is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. It means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to. ? 2. Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent, peripheral ? 3. Social meaning (stylistic meaning) –what is conveyed about the social circumstances of the use of a linguistic expression ? 4. Affective meaning (affected meaning)– what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writer towards what is referred to ? 5. Reflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression ?Taboos ? 6. Collocative meaning – the associated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of words which tend to co-occur with it ?(2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can be together called associative meaning–meaning that hinges on referential meaning, less stable, more culture-specific ) 7. Thematic meaning—what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order ?What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning. Some views concerning the study of meaning ?Naming theory (Plato) ?The conceptualist view ?Contextualism (Bloomfield) ?Behaviorism Naming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things. The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things ?Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix… 3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…
1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole. 3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. 4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say). 5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C) 6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04) 7. diachronic study: It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C) 8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C）linguistic competence: universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. 11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C) 15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users. 16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.
第30卷第2期湖北广播电视大学学报V ol.30, No.2 2010年2月 Journal of HuBei TV University February. 2010, 128～129 浅谈高校英语语言学教学问题及对策分析 张 廷 （陇东学院 英语系，甘肃 庆阳 745000） [内容提要]语言学是英语专业的一门基础学科，但是由于其理论性较强，语言学的教学存在教师和学生双方面的问题，本文分析当前高校英语语言学教学的现状及存在的问题并结合笔者的教学实践提出了相应的教学方法与对策。 [关键词] 英语语言学；教学问题；对策 [中图分类号] G42 [文献标识码] A [文章编号] 1008-7427（2010）02-0128-02 1．引言 英语语言学是英语专业一门重要的课程，其主要目标是研究语言现象和语言现象之间的联系和规律，帮助学生了解语言的本质，结构和规律，从而运用语言学知识解释各种语言活动。随着社会经济的发展，社会对外语人才的要求标准不再是专业化，而是实用性，由于语言学过于理论化，语言学课程面临着教师望而却步，学生束手无策的考验。本文通过分析当前英语语言学教学的现状及存在的主要问题，结合笔者几年来的教学情况，总结和分析了英语专业语言学教学存在的主要问题，并提出了教学改进的方法与对策。 2．国内语言学教学现状及存在的问题 目前，英语语言学的教学存在许多有待解决的问题，如教学内容相对陈旧，教学忽视对学生创新精神的培养，对学生的评价只注重单一的考试形式，学生的语言学学习方式比较单一，缺乏自主探究和合作学习的时间和机会，对他们的情感和态度关注较少等等。 国内编著的英语语言学教材较少，并且有的教材内容相对陈旧，没有涉及到很多最新的研究成果；有的教材虽然内容较全，被各大学英语系广泛使用，例如，胡壮麟教授主编的《语言学教程》一书，此书虽然好，但在教学过程中，很多学生反映教材较难，生词和术语较多，许多概念很难理解；很多老师也感到不好教，感到用英语理解、讲解和表达有一定的难度、对老师知识的深度和广度要求比较高，因此语言学教学的经验和相关教学信息也较少。 以上现象导致了两方面的问题：一是教师不满意教学效果，尽管费了很大的力，他们对语言学理论的解释达不到《高等学校英语专业教学大纲》（以下简称《大纲》）的要求；二是学生对学习目的很茫然，大部分学生忙于记忆生单词、背诵术语和定义，时间和精力用了很多，但是最终没有明白语言学学习目的的所在。 下面作者从教师必备的知识体系入手，试着找出导致以上问题的原因： 2.1 教师所具备的理论知识较片面，不能有效指导教学实践根据Cochran-Smith和Lytle（1999）的观点，理论知识（knowledge for practice）是研究人员和学者研究的成果和理论，包括专业知识、教育理论知识、关于人类发展的只是、指导课堂组织的理论知识、教学法知识、评价理论知识、社会文化知识等；理论知识为教师的实践提供指导。 然而，教师往往只注重专业知识的积累和提高，对教育理论知识、心理学知识等却有所忽视，因此，教师在课程教学中只传递语言学知识，却没有注意学生的接受情况，没有与学生进行双向互动交流。换言之，整个授课过程以课程知识为中心，而没有以学生为中心，忽视了学生的主观能动性。 2.2 教师对实践知识的积累缺乏敏感性 Cochran-Smith和Lytle（1999）把实践知识（knowledge in practice）定义为教师个人反思自己的教学实践而得出的知识，如教师通过行动研究得出的体会等。由于对这方面的积累缺乏敏感性，教师在实践过程中没有及时反思教学得失，因此，其实践知识的积累也受到了影响。 2.3 教师缺乏团队合作精神，实践知识没有提升 在实践教学中，教师需要组成学习团体，对理论知识在应用过程中所产生的问题进行探讨，提升为新的知识体系，并以此来支持大纲的修订、课程的设置等。平时教学中教师之间缺乏交流与合作，因此缺少对个人经验的提升，影响了教师知识体系的更新，直接影响了教学效果。 2.4 教学没有注意联系实际，与《大纲》所规定的“培养学生分析语言现象的能力”相违背 从学科特点看，语言学是一门学术性、理论性较强的专业知识课，其内容的开放性决定了它是一门信息含量很大的课程。但由于授课时数的限制，教师在讲授时只能抽象简略地对一些基本理论进行概述，而没有训练学生分析语言现象的基本能力。 3．教学方法与对策 现有语言学教学方法主要采取满堂灌的方式，因此导致学生缺乏学习兴趣。而教师的角色任务是根据某一社会所规定的教育目的和学生身心发展的特点去培养人才（周国韬等，1998）。为了提高学生的语言学学习效率，取得良好的教学效果，教师必须扮演好自己的角色，积极探讨新的教学方法，调动学生的学习积极性，促进其智力因素的发展，帮助学生构建自己的语言学知识体系，培养学生的思维能力和创新能力。 针对以上问题，在教师方面，应当尽量做到： （1）转变教学理念，从以内容、知识为中心的教学转向以学习为中心的教学模式，从传授知识为中心转向以培养能力为中心的模式。 （2）经常对自己的教学内容进行反思：希望自己的学生 [收稿日期]2009-11-18