《英语语言学实用教程》
教学提示
Unit 1 Some Preliminaries about Language
[Check your understanding]
State whether each of the following statements is True or False.
(1) There is universal agreement about the origin of language. F
(2) Pet dogs can speak human languages. F
(3) All human infants can speak some language. F
Note: All normal human infants can learn to speak some language.
(4) By creativity we mean the creative use of language as often practiced by poets. F
Note: By creativity we mean that we can always create and understand new sentences never used before.
(5) With different cultures there will be different languages. F
Note: Some cultures can share the same language.
(6) Not all uses of language are meant to convey new information. T
Note: Example: language used for phatic communion is not meant to convey new information.
■ In-Class Activities
1. ASK:
(1) What does ―language‖ mean in each of the context s?
a. a natural language; language in particular.
b. a human-specific tool for communication; language in general.
c. individual style of language use.
d. a metaphorical way of referring to bees’ system of communication.
(2) Is there any other context in which the use of the word means something else?
Y es. Example: language for the computer like C+
2. ASK:
(1) What if there were no language?
Omit.
(2) What if there were only one language the world over?
Omit.
(3) What can we learn from this Bible story?
Language is powerful as a tool of human communication.
3. ASK:
(1) Do you think the two statements are equally probable, and if not, why not?
(a) is more likely than (b), because the word as the basic unit of meaning that can occur
independently in language is finite in number, whereas the sentence as composed of words, though almost infinite in number, is made possible by our knowledge of vocabulary and grammar. We can always produce and understand sentences that we never come across before. In that sense, no sentence is really new.
(2) In what context do we make the second statement?
When we focus our attention on the meaning of a sentence or when we are concerned with the form of a sentence as found in a language class.
4. ASK:
(1) Are there onomatopoeic words in Chinese?
Y es. e.g. “哗啦”、“扑通”、“喀嚓”.
(2) Does the existence of onomatopoeic words overthrow the claim that language is arbitrary?
No. Onomatopoeic words account for a very limited percentage in the vocabulary of a language.
5. ASK:
(1) Can one really invent a language of one’s own?
No.
(2) If not, why?
A language comes into being and use by convention or agreement among its speakers.
6. ASK:
(1) Is there any basic flaw in this experiment?
The process is not strictly controlled. There may have been some coincidence. The sample size is too small for the experiment to be valid.
(2) Do you think we really can answer the question about the beginning of language?
No, at least in the present condition where/when we cannot perform experiments on the human brain, the key organ of speech.
7. ASK:
(1) Can you identify the most likely order (from least to most advanced) of these samples?
C→B→A
(2) What features in each child’s utterances can you use as evidence to support your ordering?
Child A: good syntax except for improper question form.
Child B: visible development of syntax; overgeneralization
Child C: Not much syntax; two-word utterances; telegraphic sentences (sentences that contain only content words but lack function words)
8. ASK:
(1) It is often assumed that children imitate adults in the course of language acquisition. Can
imitation account for the above production on the part of the child?
Not wholly. There is counter evidence against the assumption, like the overgeneralization ―go-ed‖ for ―went‖.
(2) What distinguishes the child’s production from that of the adult?
Overgeneralization of ―-ed‖ for the past tense as shown by ―holded‖.
9. ASK:
(1) How do adults reinforce the process of children’s acquisition as exemplified here?
They use explic it correction.
(2) Do children know what they are doing wrongly?
Not exactly.
(3) Do the adults succeed in their reinforcement?
Not always, at least.
(4) How should we treat the ―mistakes‖ that children make while acquiring their mother tongue?
We may ignore them sometimes, although some amount of reinforcement may turn out to be helpful.
10. ASK:
(1) Do children learn through structured or simplified input, as suggested?
Not always. There is evidence for both sides.
(2) Can you offer some examples illustrating, representing the way adults talk to infants?
Omit.
Note: Motherese is characterized by shorter sentences, higher pitch, exaggerated intonation, higher proportion of content words to function words, simple syntax, more interrogatives and imperatives, more repetitions. Y et it is not syntactically simpler. Rather, it may include syntactically complex sentences such as questions: Do you want your juice now?Embedded sentences: Mommy thinks you should sleep now. Imperatives: Pat the dog gently! Negatives with tag questions: We don?t want to hurt him, do we?Indeed, it is fortunate that motherese is not syntactically restricted. If it were, children might not have sufficient information to extract the rules of their language.
11. ASK
(1) What measures do you suggest for protecting dialects as well as languages?
Omit.
(2) Do you think that someday people all over the world will speak only one language, or someday
no dialect will exist?
Omit.
12. ASK:
Are there any universals that you think all languages share but are not mentioned here?
E.g. All languages have internal structures.
All languages have numericals.
■ Exercises
Task 3: Study Questions
1. What do you think is essential to the emergence of language?
The existence of social activities; the need to express diverse ideas, emotions, etc.; the need to
communicate ideas to distant places; etc.
2. Can our pets learn human languages? Why or why not?
No. They are genetically not endowed with the capacity.
3. What role does body language play in language communication?
Omit.
4. N aturally occurring ―experiments‖ with so-called ―wolf-children‖, ―bear-children‖,―Mowgli‖
or ―monkey-children‖ and other such feral youngsters have been widely reported for hundreds of years. None of these children could speak or understand speech and, indeed, most efforts to teach them language ended in failure. How would you account for the failure?
The language acquisition device has to be triggered before a certain age (that of puberty). Sufficient expose to a language environment at the right time is essential to language acquisition.
5. The following are some instances of using English for communication. What specific function
does each use of English serve in the following pictures?
Informative (in the form of commanding)
Directive (Advertising in the form of requesting)
Directive (Persuading in the form of threatening)
Directive (Recruiting)
6．Iconicity of language is an aspect of language where form echoes meaning. Onomatopoeia, also known as ―sound symbolism‖, is one type of iconicity. Some researchers have found other evidence of iconicity. For example, words beginning with the sound combination sl- in English often have an unpleasant sense, as in slithering, slimy, slugs. Here are some questions:
a. Is the ―unpleasant‖ sense actually true of all, or even most, words beginning with sl- in English? No. e.g. slight.
b. Are there any other sounds or sound combinations that you associate with particular meanings? Gliding: slide, slip, slippery;
Rolling: tumble, crumble, stumble
c. How about the vowel sounds in words that identify near-to-speaker concepts (this, near, here) versus far-from-speaker concepts (that, far, there)? What is the difference? Is it a general pattern distinguishing terms for things that are near versus far in English? What about the case in Chinese?
Front vowels for near-speaker concepts; central or back vowels for far-from-speaker concepts. There seems to be a similar kind of pattern in Chinese. C.f. 近jin /远yuan；这zhe /那na
7. In many of the world’s languages there are so-called nursery names for parents. In English, for example, corresponding to the word mother is the nursery name mama, and for father one finds dada and papa. There is remarkable similarity across different languages in the form of these nursery names for parents. For example, in Chinese and Navajo ma corresponds to English mama. Why do you think that this is the case?
Bilabials are learned and produced first because they are the easiest.
a. What are some of the changes which appear to have taken place in the child’s ability to use English during that period?
Like the basically proper use of interrogatives and the correct use of inflection.
b. What do these changes suggest about the order of language acquisition?
Complete sentences are acquired later than elliptical ones. Inflection is acquired at a late stage.
Unit 2 The Sounds of English
[Check your understanding]
State whether each of the following statements is True or False.
1. [i:] and [i] are allophones of the same phoneme. F
2. Not all English phonemes have allophones. T
Note: /?/ and /j/ occur in one single position and therefore do not have allophones.
3. The same set of vowels is used in all languages. F
4. All syllables must contain at least one vowel. F
Note: Some syllables may contain no vowels. They may, instead, employ some syllabic consonant, as in people and muscle.
5. The marking of word stress is arbitrary for the most part in English. F
6. English is a tone language. F
Note: Chinese is a tone language.
■ In-Class Activities
1. ASK:
(1) What is the phonetic environment of [t] in [pit]?
[i_#]
(2) Are the following pairs of words minimal pairs?
(a) desk vs. task No.
(b) leave vs. Leak Y es. ( li:v vs. li:k )
2. ASK:
(1) Characterize how the allophones of the phoneme /k/ are complementarily distributed.
[k h ] in initial position; [k]after /s/; [k?] in final position.
(2) Is there any other way of charactering the complementary distribution of clear [l] and dark [?]?
[l] before vowels; [?] elsewhere.
3. ASK:
(1) What distinctive feature makes /f/ and /v/ different?
[voiced]
(2) Can you specify the distinctive features for the following phonemes?
(a) /?/ [fricative] + [voiceless] + [palatal]
(b) /k/ [velar]+[voiceless]+[plosive]
(c) /n/ [nasal]+[voiced] +[alveolar]
4. ASK:
(1) Are [r] and [l] in complementary distribution? In what environment does each occur?
Y es. [r] occurs before vowels; [l] occurs after vowels.
(2) Do they occur in any minimal pairs?
No.
(3) Suppose [r] and [l] are allophones of one phoneme. State the rule that can derive the allophonic
forms.
[r] is lateralized when it occurs after vowels.
5. ASK:
(1) Can you give more examples of assimilation?
compatriot, sing
(2) Can you find any exceptions?
input, unbeatable, Canberra
(3) What phonetic segments condition this change?
The consonant immediately after the vowel.
[Note] 2) [tai] should be [tay].
6. ASK:
(1) Can you give more examples of free variation?
advertisement [?d?v?:ti s m?nt] [?d?v?:ti z m?nt]
association [? s?u s i?ei??n] [? s?u?i?ei??n]
(2) Why do you think such a phenomenon exists in a language like English?
Individual variation is responsible for this phenomenon.
7. ASK:
(1) Which sound is deleted in ―sign‖, ―design‖, and ―resign‖?
[g]
(2) Can you offer other examples of deletion?
paradi g m (atic), condem n(ation)
(3) Can you give some words that involve total deletion?
plum b, plum b er; clim b, clim b ing
(4) Are there any other types of deletion in English?
de b t, k now
8. ASK:
(1) Can you think of a phonetic description of the regular pattern in these expressions?
They all start with a front, high vowel and follow up with a mid or low vowel.
(2) Can you think of any possible explanation for the observed pattern?
[i] involves the least degree of mouth opening while the mid or low vowels necessitate bigger
opening. There is an increase of mouth opening in pronouncing the whole word, which is symbolic in meaning.
9. ASK:
(1) What are likely positive effects of using alliteration? Use one of the poetic examples to
illustrate.
Coherence, connectedness, smoothness, consistency. Take ―I slip, I slide, I gloom, I glance‖for example. The double alliteration involved helps to create a picture of smooth and coherent dance.
(2) Is there a similar use of alliteration in Chinese?
Y es, though less often. 花好月圆is a good example.
10. ASK:
(1) What is the stylistic effect of rhyming?
echoing, agreement, correspondence, etc.
(2) Can you find more proverbs that involve internal rhyming?
First thrive and then wive.
Fancy passes beauty.
■ Exercises
T ask 3: Study Questions
1.
a. Does the string of sounds mean anything to you?
If we want to talk really good, we’ll have to invent vowels.
b. What does the picture suggest to you about the role of consonants and vowels in English? Consonants are the backbones of syllables and words.
2. Some phonetic transcriptions below are English words, some are not existing words but are possible words or nonsense words, and others are definitely ―foreign‖or impossible because they violate English sequential constraints. Specify each of the a-e cases as illustrated.
Word Possible Foreign Reason
Example:
[pa:k]
[tif]
[lkib]
a. [?a:f] √[?] must occur after a vowel.
b. [ski:] ski
c.[knait] √
d.[meij] √[ ] must occur initially before a
vowel.
e.[blaft] √
3. In English, the /i/ vowel becomes almost as long as /i:/ under certain conditions (written as /i:/ for convenience). Consider the examples listed below:
a. List the phonemes that condition the change.
voiced consonants
b. State the rule that seems involved.
[i] is lengthened before a voiced] consonant.
Note: Start with the fact that the /i/ is basic and that short /i/ becomes long /i:/. The change from short /i/ to long /i:/ is phonologically determined; that is, the lengthening takes place in the presence of certain phonemes. A good strategy is to first list the phonemes to the right of long /i:/, then list those to the left. As an answer to (a), then, one would propose that /i/ become /i:/ whenever the phonemes to the right (/d, m, l, b, z, j, ?/) occur immediately after that vowel. This hypothesis looks promising because, in fact, the short variant /i/ never occurs before these segments. The next question is, what is it about the phonemes on the right that unify them as a class? One may find that these phonemes are all voiced ([+voice]), and, in fact, the short /i/ never lengthens before voiceless segments. Thus the answer to (b) is that the vowel /i/ is lengthened before (the natural class of) voiced consonants.
4. The use of plural–s in English has three different, but very regular, phonological alternatives.
a. Can you work out the set of sounds which regularly precedes each of these alternatives?
/s/ to words like ship, bat, book and cough;
voiceless plosives [voiceless]
/z/ to words like cab, lad, cave, rag and thing;
after voiced consonants [voiced]
/?z/ to words like bus, bush, judge, church and maze.
after /s/, /?/, /d?/, /z/
b. What features does each of these sets have in common?
[palatal] or [alveolar]+[fricative]
c. Is there any pattern regarding the different pronunciations of the past tense marker?
[t] after voiceless consonants except [t]; [d] after voiced consonants except [d]; [id] after [t] or [d].
d. Do you think that one of these phonological forms for –ed is more basic, with the others being
derived from it in a regular way? Which, and how?
[d] is more basic. [t] after devoicing. [id] after epenthesis (i.e. addition of a sound).
5. Below are three columns of words with different patterns of stress:
a. How is stress distributed in each column?
penultimate for A; last syllable for B; on the last syllable.
b. In Column B, what kinds of vowels appear in the last syllable? How does the syllabic structure of Column C differ from A and B?
In Column B, long vowels or diphthongs appear in the last syllable.
The last syllable of the words in C ends in consonant clusters.
[Note] For ―usurp‖, ―r‖ may be pronounced as in /ju(:)?z?(r)p/.
6. The following is a list of words that are spelt in a similar way:
fuddy-duddy hocus-pocus namby-pamby
fuzzy-wuzzy hurly-burly razzle-dazzle
hanky-panky lovey-dovey roly-poly
helter-skelter mumbo-jumbo super-duper
a. What similarity can you spot among the words listed?
All pairs are the same except the initial consonants.
b. What effects may such words have in common when they are put into use?
Redundancy, repetitiveness, etc.
7. Write the phonetic transcription for each of the following words.
Omit.
8. Read the following words or phrases and point out the phonological processes that yield assimilation.
(a) pat /p?t/ pan /p?n/ sat /s?t/ Sam /s?m/
Nasalization rule: [-nasal] →[+nasal] /_____ [+nasal]
(b) since /sins/ sink /si?k/ hint /hint/ dink /di?k/
V elarization rule: [-velarl] →[+velar] /_____ [+velar]
(c) five pits /faifpits/ love to /l∧ft? /
Devoicing rule: [+voiced →[-voiceless] /_____ [-voiceless]
9.
a. Comment on the use of rhyme, alliteration, and assonance(that is, use of syllables with a common vowel, as in ―come‖ - ―love‖) in this poem. How are they used to stress the sense of superficiality and lack of meaning the poet is trying to convey here? (Note especially the role of rhyming pairs of monosyllables and their effect on meter.)
assonance: [ri:t?] [skri:n] [spi:t?]
[?ud] [huk] [buk]
The ryhmed words, all monosyllabic and stressed, are semantically unrelated and separated.
Alliteration is only sporadically used. Assonance suggests apparent connection but actual disconnectedness.
b. Comment more carefully on meter in the first two stanzas. How does it contribute to the meaning? How and where does it work against our expectations?
Lack of regularity and thus unpredictability.
10. Collect some data to show that English advertisements, newspaper headlines, English songs,
and presidential addressee sometimes make use of alliteration and rhyming.
Omit.
11. What interesting things do speech errors tell us about language and its use? Collect a few cases
of slips of tongue from daily conversations.
Speech errors are often explainable, often semantically motivated.
Unit 3 The Units of English
[Check your understanding]
State whether each of the following statements is True or False.
1. All words in English have a hierarchical structure. F
Note: Mon-morphemic words do not.
2. Clipping is one of the three most important devices of word-formation in English. F
Note: The three most important devices are affixation, compounding (or composition) and conversion (or functional shift).
3. Idioms in English are modifiable in some grammatical ways. T
4. The presence of constructions is unique to English. F
5. Every English sentence has a subject. F
Note: Imperative sentences do not have any subject.
■ In-Class Activities
1．ASK:
(1) What is the infix used in the above language data?
―-um-―
(2) What is the verb form in Bontoc for ―to be poor‖, given that pusi means ―poor‖?
―pumusi‖
2. ASK:
(1) What is the Samoan for: (a) ―they travel‖ (b) ―he sings‖ respectively?
(a) savavali (b) pese
(2) Formulate a morphological rule regarding how to form the plural verb form from the singular
verb form in Samoan.
Duplicate the penultimate syllable.
3. ASK:
(1) Which other affixes are there in English that function as markers of negation?
dis-, non-, a-, in-, il-, im-, ir-
(2) What pattern underlies the use of un- in the data above?
Positive terms can have negative morphemes added to them, as in ―happy-unhappy‖, but semantically negative ones rarely do, because un- is deprecatory as well as negative.
(3) Why are ―ungood‖ and ―unbig‖ not found in English, although George Orwell coined
―ungood‖in his novel Nineteen Eighty-Four? Do you think they are accidental gaps in the lexicon of English?
There already exist words that correspond to ―ungood‖ and ―unbig‖. It is not accidental. This is what is technically called lexical blocking.
(4) Read the following extract from Lewis Carroll’s Through the Looking-Glass. How do you think Humpty Dumpty would explain the word ―un-birthday‖ to Alice?
―Un-birthday‖ means some day that is not one’s birthday.
(5) The fact that un- can be both a verb prefix and an adjective prefix may explain the occurrence
of the ambiguous word ―unlockable‖. Can you imagine two situati ons corresponding to the two senses of the word?? Can you give mo re examples like ―unlockable‖?
Imagine you are inside a room and you want some privacy. Y ou would be unhappy to find the door is unlockable–―not able to be locked.‖ Now imagine you are inside a locked room trying
to get out. Y ou would be very relieved to find that the door is unlockable–―able to be unlocked.‖ These two meanings correspond to two different structures, as follows:
Adjective Adjective
un- Adjective V erb -able
V erb -able un- V erb
lock lock
In the first structure the verb ―lock‖ combines with the suffix –able to form the adjective lockable (―able to be locked‖). Then the prefix un-, meaning ―not,‖ combines with the derived adjective to form a new adjective unlockable (―not able to be locked‖). In the second case, the prefix un- combines with the verb lock to form a derived verb, unlock. Then the derived verb combines with the suffix –able to form unlockable, ―able to be unlocked.‖
Other examples are unbuttonalbe, unzippable, and unlatchable.
4. ASK:
(1) How are the verbs in Column A different from those in Column B?
V erbs in Column A are transitive while those in Column B are generally intransitive.
(2) Can we use ―able to be X-ed‖ to paraphrase ―perishable‖?
No. ―Perish‖ is intransitive.
(3) A further complication with -able is that in words li ke ―unthinkable‖, the suffix means more
than ―able to be X-ed‖. Why? Can you think of more words of this type?
unbreakable,presentable, readable, questionable, payable, washable.
(4) Now, let’s l ook at another complication. None of the following words are permitted. What does
this suggest about the use of the suffix ―-able‖?
―-able‖ are not attached to nouns, adjectives, or prepositions.
5. ASK:
(1) Note the contrast between list A and List B. Can you think of any reason that can explain why
the set of words on List B are impossible words in English?
V erbs on List B are intransitive.
(2) How are the re- words on List C and List D different from those on List A?
Words on List C are made up of re- +adjectives. In the words on List D, ―re-‖ means ―back‖instead of ―again‖.
(3) Some re- prefixed words may mean more than the simple addition of the meaning of re- and
the meaning of its base. For example, ―rewrite‖ means ―write something again, especially in a different or improved form‖.Can you give more examples like ―rewrite‖?
rebuild, rethink, retry, retell, reorganize, reconsider, reform, etc.
6. ASK:
(1) Can you give some examples that you consider to be chunks?
Omit.
(2) Read the following spoken data of a Chinese student. Can you point out the chunks used in it? Can you classify them into some types?
It is the most unforgettable birthday um … that I … and I can not forget it for forever. Um … it it was when I was a freshman. It is the first year um … I left my family and spend my birthday alone. Um … I remember clearly um … that day I strode gloomily at campus along for a long time um. And um … um … I I felt very … I I felt …I felt very gloomy because no one, um no one except my parents um remember my birthday and, and, wan and wanted to um … and wanted to stay with me for my birthday. Um … um … I did, I did not went back I did not go back to the dormitory um … until um … until seven o?clock in the evening. Um … the light, the lig ht in the dormitory was off. Obviously, um there was no … there was nobody staying in the dormitory. Um …but now um … it may … it … it … seemed um … it seemed that it doesn?t matter. Um … And I open the door um … and I found except darkness there was nothing. Suddenly a song “Happy birthday to you” sound. I felt, I felt very astonished. Then, the light was turned on. Some familiar faces um … um full of full of sweet smiles towards me. Um they were my dorm they were my dorm mates … Yes, they still remembered um …my birthday, my birthday. And in fact they have … they indeed prepared for it two years ago. They bought er … a very beautiful cake for me, and that night um … we sang, we danced and … and had that delicious cake. I felt very happy, and and later I … I made a call to my parents that told them that I has spent a very unforgettable birthday with my roommates.
verbal: went/go back; turn(ed) on; prepare for; make a call to
adjectival: full of
prepositional: at campus (it should be ―on campus‖, though); for a long time; in the evening; in fact
clausal: it seemed that ….; it doesn’t matter
7. The notion of subject may be classified into three types: grammatical subject(the major nominal part corresponding to the predicate), logical subject (the doer or executor of the action concerned), and psychological subject(the first major component of the sentence, like a nominal phrase, an adverbial phrase, or a prepositional phrase). For instance,
a. John(grammatical subject, psychological subject, logical subject) robbed the City Bank last night.
b. The City Bank (grammatical subject, psychological subject) was robbed by John (logical subject) last night.
c. Last night (psychological subject) John (grammatical subject, logical subject) robbed the City Bank.
Analyze the following newspaper headlines from the Washington Post (July 21-24, 2006) in terms of the effect of subject type selection.
(a) In Iraq, Military Forgot Lessons of Vietnam (psychological)
(b) Evacuation Rules Separate N.Va. Friends (grammatical)
(c) Woods Is Closely Followed At British (logical, grammatical)
8. ASK:
(1) Can you write the public signs in complete forms?
Y ou may push the button and wait for the signal of walk.
Y ou must use caution when the ground is wet.
(2) What rules are there when we write elliptical English newspaper headlines?
a. Omit auxiliary or linking verb BE;
b. Omit determiners;
c. Omit indefinite nouns of person.
d. Omit There B
e.
T ask 3: Study Questions
1. Point out the word-formation process that applies to each of the following words: Affixation: worsen endearment
Conversion: dust (v.) plane (v.)
Compounding: laptop airsick daughter-in-law
Back-formation: edit televise peddle swindle (swindler)
Shortening: tec (detective) prof (professor) bike (bicycle)
Blending: brunch urinalysis (urine + analysis) fantabulous (fantasy + fabulous)
Initialism: WTO (World Trade Organization)
Acronym: laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) FIFA(Federation Internationale de Football Association)
Coinage (in the forms of invention and eponym—words derived from proper names): Xerox nylon jumbo (name of an elephant brought to the United States by P. T. Barnum)
2. How are the open-class words and the closed-class words different from each other?
Open-class words:
(1)large in number;
(2)easy to expand;
(3)mainly nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
Closed-class words:
(1) small in number;
(2) stable;
(3) basically pronouns, prepositions, function words, etc.
3. What are the inflectional morphemes in the following phrases?
(a) the government?s policies ’s; -s
(b) the latest news -est
(c) Isn?t it snow ing! -ing
(d) two frightened cows-ed; -s
4. Suppose a speaker of English invents the following italic ized English words as a joke: ―they’re always causing a commotion. I tell them not to commote, but they insist on being big commoters.” What process of word creation does this example illustrate, and why? What do the new words mean?
It is a process of back-formation. ―Commote‖means the act of causing disorder and
―commoter‖ means someone who causes disorder.
5. Count the function words in the following passage excerpted from Stephen Crane’s The Red Badge of Courage (p.1).
The cold passed reluctantly from the earth, and the retiring fogs revealed an army stretched out on the hills, resting. As the landscape changed from brown to green, the army awakened, and began to tremble with eagerness at the noise of rumors. It cast its eyes upon the roads, which were growing from long troughs of liquid mud to proper thoroughfares. A river, amber- tinted in the shadow of its banks, purled at the army's feet; and at night, when the stream had become of a sorrowful blackness, one could see across it the red, eyelike gleam of hostile campfires set in the low brows of distant hills.
Note: Function words are those that have little semantic content of their own and chiefly indicate grammatical relationships. Common function words include prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. They are also call ed ―form word s‖ or ―functor s‖.
6. Which of the following contain verb phrase idioms? For each idiom, provide a paraphrase with
one word instead of the idiom.
(1) a. John went in for stamp collecting. [like]
b. Jane went in for a check-up.
(2)a. John came down with the guns.
b. Jane came down with the flu. [contracted]
(3) a. John came up with the guns.
b. Jane came up with a brilliant idea. [got]
(4) a. That music does n?t exactly turn me on. [excited]
b. Jane didn?t turn on the tap.
(5) a. John passed over the house.
b. The president passed over the peace proposal. [disregarded]
(6) a. John ran after dinner.
b. John ran after Jane. [pursued]
7. In English, some intransitive verbs can be converted into a special type of transitive verbs called causative verbs. Here are some examples. Can you give more examples?
halt, alter, end
8. The distinction between auxiliary verbs and main verbs is a basic one in English. Auxiliary
verbs are fronted to form questions whereas main verbs cannot be fronted in this fashion.
The following sentences illustrate three additional differences between main verbs and auxiliary verbs. What are these differences?
placement of ―not‖; contraction possible; tag questions; etc.
9. Count the number of clauses in the following paragraphs and categorize them into different types.
The amount of stress a person can withstand depends very much on the individual.
Some people are not afraid of stress, and such characters are obviously prime material for managerial responsibilities. Others lose heart at the first signs of unusual difficulties. When exposed to stress, in whatever form, we react both chemically and physically. In fact we make choice between “flight and fight” and in more primitive days the choices made the difference between life and death. The crises we meet today are unlikely to be so extreme, but however little the stress, it involves the same response. It is when such a reaction lasts long, through continued exposure to stress, that health becomes endangered. Such serious conditions as high blood pressure and heart diseases have established links with stress. Since we cannot remove stress from our lives (it would be unwise to do so even if we could), we need to find ways to deal with it.
(1) a person can withstand
(2) The amount of stress depends very much on the individual
(3) Some people are not afraid of stress
(4) such characters are obviously prime material for managerial responsibilities
(5) Others lose heart at the first signs of unusual difficulties
(6) When exposed to stress
(7) (When exposed to stress,) in whatever form
(8) we react both chemically and physically
(9) In fact we make choice between “flight and fight”
(10) in more primitive days the choices made the difference between life and death
(11) we meet today
(12) The crises are unlikely to be so extreme
(13) however little the stress
(14) it involves the same response
(15) when such a reaction lasts long, through continued exposure to stress
(16) It is …. that….
(17) health becomes endangered
(18) Such serious conditions as high blood pressure and heart diseases have established links with
stress
(19) Since we cannot remove stress from our lives
(20) it would be unwise to do so
(21) even if we could
(22) we need to find ways to deal with it
(6), (7), (13), (19), and (21) are adverbial clauses (of time, reason, concession, supposition, etc.);
(1) and (11) are attributive clauses; (15) is a predicative clause. Others are either independent clauses like (3), (4), (5), (9), (10), and (18), or the main clauses in the complex sentences, like (2), (8), (12), (20), and (22).
10. The following is an excerpt from James Joyce’s Ulysses. What has been deleted in many of its
sentences? What effect does Joyce achieve by using this deletion?
No, not like that. A barren land, bare waste. Vulcanic lake, the dead sea: no fish, weedless, sunk deep in the earth. No wind would lift those waves, grey metal, poisonous foggy waters. Brimstone they called it raining down: the cities of the plain: Sodom.
Gomorrah. Edom. All dead names. A dead sea in a dead land, grey and old. Old now. It
bore the oldest, the first race. A bent hag crossed from Cassidy?s clutching a naggin bottle by the neck. The oldest people. Wandered far away over all the earth, captivity to captivity, multiplying, dying, being born everywhere. It lay there now. now it could bear no more.
Dead.
The deletion gives people the impression that the thoughts of the character are not smooth, coherent, complete, etc.
Unit 4 The Structures of English (I)
[Check your understanding]
1. Word order plays an important role in the organization of English sentences. T
2. All ambiguous sentences result from our failure to use proper organization. F
Note: We can consciously avoid ambiguity, though.
3. With transformations, we can organize a sentence the way we like. F
Note: Transformations are rule governed and constrained.
4. Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language. T
Note: But Chinese also employs theme-theme organization a lot, e.g. 他的话我没听见。
■ In-Class Activities
1．ASK:
(1) Can you think of other modes of recursion?
Relative-clause recursion.
(2) Give one example of VP recursion.
Omit.
2. ASK:
(1) Paraphrase the two parts of the sentence before and after ―because‖.
Under Jane’s influence, John became a good husband.
She serves as a good wife for John.
(2) Which sentence patterns do the two parts belong to?
VOC; VOO
(3) Can you find more verbs like ―make‖ in English?
leave, allow, etc.
3. ASK:
(1) Is the sign ambiguous? If so, use paraphrases to show the different readings.
a. Do not let such situation happen that no one attends the valuables.
b. Do not go away from the valuables that are not attended.
(2) Is the ambiguity involved the same kind as that in The mother of the boy and the girl arrived?
No. Ambiguity in the latter case arises from coordination as shown by the use of ―and‖.
(3) Newspaper headlines and advertisements often deliberately employ ambiguity to attract
customers or readers. How are the following ambiguous?
(a) A New Model For Getting Rich Online
―Online‖ may modify both ―model‖ and ―getting rich‖.
(b) Two Philippine ships collide--one dies.5
―One‖ may refer to both passengers and one of the ships.
(c) Eye drops off shelf.
a. An eye of somebody’s drops off shelf.
b. Eye drops (as a kind of medicine) are off shelf (i.e., out of sale).
(d) Wanted: A man to wash dishes and two young waitresses.
a. Wasted: a man to wash both dishes and two young waitresses.
b. Wanted: two young waitresses and a man whose job is to wash dishes.
(4) Is the following public sign ambiguous?
No. ―Dog Free Park‖ means ―a park where dogs are not allowed‖.
4. ASK:
(1) Are these sentence patterns found in English but not in Chinese?
Y es. English employs some formal subject like ―there‖ and ―it‖. Chinese may allow subjectless sentences.
(2) Can you think of any other sentence patterns in English that are not shared by Chinese?
Fancy meeting you here!
No wonder you were so angry.
5. ASK:
(1) What similarities do those sentences in the second category share?
The object is pronominal.
(2) What is the special condition that necessitates particle movement?
When the verb phrase takes a pronoun as its object, particle movement is a must. Thus, we must say ―look it up‖ instead of ―look up it‖.
VP VP VP
V Particle NP V NP Particle V NP Particle
Pron
6. ASK:
(1) Is there any difference in meaning between the sentences in the first pair?
(a) It is possible that only a small numbers of books were sold out.
(b) It is likely that a large number of books were sold out, although John did not sell many.
(2) How are the sentences in the second pair different from each other?
(b) is more emphatic than (a) now that it deviates from the normal way of sentence organization, resulting in what we call foregrounding.
7. ASK:
(1) Can you write out four different phrases in English illustrating each of the VP types?
a. read
b. read a novel
c. take the book off the desk
d. think that life is difficult
(2) Can you use the abbreviatory convention above to integrate the following sets of rules into a
single rule?
a. A →( B) C
b. W → (X) Y( Z)
8. ASK:
(1) How many sentence types are covered by the data?
(1) Mexico Vote Tally Gives Free-Trader A Narrow Victory [ SVOO]
(2) Israeli Tanks Meet Fierce Resistance [SVO ]
(3) Ruling Keeps DeLay on Ballot [ SVOC]
(4) Favoritism Trial Hurts Chicago Mayor [SVO ]
(5) Discovery Docks With Space Station [ SVO]
(6) Russia's Signal to Stations Is Clear: Cut U.S. Radio [ SVC]
(7) Mayor's Stadium Proposal Advances [SV ]
(8) Dumfries Regrets Raid on Homeless [SVO ]
(9) A Driven President Faces a World of Crises [SVO ]
(10) Consultant Breached FBI's Computers [ SVO]
(2) Which type occurs most frequently?
SVO
T ask 3: Study Questions
1. It is important that the rules of syntax specify all and only the grammatical sentences of the language. Why is it important to say ―only‖? That is, what would be wrong with a grammar that specified as grammatical sentences all of the truly grammatical ones plus a few that were not grammatical?
The grammatical rules will become invalid because we will not know which sentences are grammatical.
2. Analyze how the following sentences are incorrect according to English grammar.
a. Snowing outside.
―It is/was‖ cannot be deleted.
b. Jane loves John, she calls him every day.
This is a run-on sentence. The sentence contains two independent sentences.
c. There are two boys play football on the groun
d.
The sentence contains two finite verbs.
d. Jane is very kind to John, for example, she prepares dinner for him whenever she can.
This is a run-on sentence. ―For example‖ is not a conjunction and thus cannot link two clauses into a complex sentence.
e. Diligent is very important to succeed.
―Diligent‖ cannot function as the subject because it is an adjective. In English, the subject as well as the object must be nominal.
f. John find the two book very interestin
g.
There is a lack of grammatical concord in number between the subject and the predicate verb.
g. John is a great leader, however, he is sometimes too strict.
This is a run-on sentence. ―However‖ is not a conjunction and thus cannot link two clauses into a complex sentence.
h. Although Jane loves John, but she never says “I love you” to him.
In English, ―although‖ and ―but‖ do not co-occur.
i. The reason Jane loves John is because he is kind to her.
In English, we say ―the reason (….) is that ….
j. – Have you seen John lately, Jane?
-- Not seen.
When answering a question, one repeats the auxiliary verb, rather than the main verb.
k. Finish the job in two days is impossible.
In English, the subject as well as the object must be nominal. ―Finish the job‖is verbal rather than nominal.
l. Why Jane didn?t go to Beijing with John?
There must be the movement (or addition) of the auxiliary when forming an interrogative sentence in English. The correct form is Why didn?t Jane go to Beijing with John?
3. Paraphrase each of the following sentences in two different ways to show that you understand the ambiguity involved:
(1) Smoking grass can be nauseating.
a. To smoke grass can be nauseating.
b. Grass for smoking can be nauseating.
(2) John finally decided on the boat.
a. On the boat John finally made a decision.
b. John finally decided to use (buy, et
c.) the boat.
(3) Jane?s appointment was shocking.
a. Jane?s appointment of someone was shocking.
b. Jane?s being appointed by someone was shocking.
(4) Old men and women are hard to live with.
a. Both old men and old women are hard to live with.
b. Women and old men and are hard to live with.
(5) The governor is a dirty street fighter.
a. The governor is a fighter against dirty street.
b. The governor is a street fighter who is mean and corrupt.
(6) I cannot recommend him too highly.
a. I cannot recommend him too highly because he is not so good.
b. I can recommend him as highly as I can because he is so good.
4. Questions typically come from a first-person speaker and are addressed to a second-person hearer. Can you relate this use of questions to the fact that you is deleted from abbreviated questions? Can any subject be deleted from abbreviated questions as long as use and context make the deletion recoverable?
Like the book?
Fancy meeting John Here?
Want to have a cigarette?
When questions are used to make an offer, seek information, etc., the understood ―you‖ can be deleted.
5. Give the passive version of the following sentences.
(1) Phil watered the garden too much.
The garden was too much watered by Phil.
(2) Bill expected me to leave soon.
I was expected to leave soon by Bill.
(3) The doctor expected the technician to develop the X-rays fast.
a. The technician was expected by the doctor to develop the X-rays fast.
b. The doctor expected the X-rays to be developed fast by the technician.
c. The X-rays were expected by the doctor to be developed fast by the technician.
6. Study the following sentences and analyze them in terms of sentence patterns.
a. John seems happy. [SVC]
b. The girls sing quite often. [SV]
c. They elected Bush president again. [SVOC]
d. Chasing cats is fun for dogs. [SVC]
e. Jane sent John a bunch of roses. [SVOO]
f. John never keeps his room clean. [SVOC]
g. The film lasted two hours. [SV A]
h. John let Jane out. [SVOC]
Unit 5 The Structures of English (II)
[Check your understanding]
State whether each of the following statements is True or False.
1. Every English paragraph contains a topic sentence, supporting details and a summary sentence. F
2. One may tell a story when arguing for a thesis. T
3. In order for two neighboring sentences to be cohesive, one must use some explicit device to conjoin them. F
4. Since people take turns speaking, overlaps are unlikely in conversation. F
■ In-Class Activities
1. ASK:
a. What does ―it‖ refer to?
MONEY
b. What is omitted in the sentence?
课后作业：完成题库1、4、7、8、9、10、12、25题 01利润的概述 02所得税费用 利润是指企业在一定会计期间的经营成果。利润包括收入减去费用后的净额、直接计入当期利润的利得和损失等。 2.利润的构成 ①营业利润＝营业收入－营业成本－税金及附加－销售费用－管理费用－财务费用＋投资收益（减损失）＋公允价值变动收益（减损失）－资产减值损失+其他收益 ②利润总额＝营业利润＋营业外收入-营业外支出 ③净利润＝利润总额-所得税费用 习题解惑 【例题?单选题】下列各项中，影响当期营业利润的是（）。 A.处置固定资产净损益 B.自然灾害导致原材料净损失 C.支付委托代销商品的手续费 D.溢价发行股票支付的发行费用 【答案】C 【解析】选项A计入营业外收支，选项B计入营业外支出，选项D冲减资本公积。 【例题?多选题】下列各项中，既影响营业利润又影响利润总额的业务有（）。 A.计提坏账准备计入资产减值损失科目中 B.转销确实无法支付的应付账款 C.出售单独计价包装物取得的收入 D.转让股票所得收益计入投资收益 【答案】ACD 【解析】选项B，计入营业外收入，不影响营业利润。 营业外收支的账务处理 （一）营业外收入账务处理 1.处置非流动资产利得
处置固定资产通过“固定资产清理”科目核算，其账户余额转入营业外收入或营业外支出； 2.确认盘盈利得、捐赠利得 盘盈利得应通过“待处理财产损溢”科目核算 【例题?计算题】某企业将固定资产报废清理的净收益8000元转作营业外收入 写出会计分录。 【答案】 借：固定资产清理8000 贷：营业外收入-非流动资产处置利得8000 习题解惑 【例题?计算题】某企业在现金清查中盘盈200元，按管理权限报经批准后转入营业外收入。写出下列情况时的会计录： ①发现盘盈时： ②经批准转入营业外收入时： 【答案】 ①发现盘盈时： 借：库存现金200 贷：待处理财产损溢200 ②经批准转入营业外收入时： 借：待处理财产损溢200 贷：营业外收入200 【例题?多选题】下列各项中应计入营业外收入的有（）。 A.出售持有至到期投资的净收益 B.无法查明原因的现金溢余 C.出售无形资产的净收益 D.出售投资性房地产的净收益 【答案】BC 【解析】选项A，计入投资收益；选项D，计入其他业务收入。 【例题?单选题】下列各项中，不应计入营业外收入的是（）。 A.债务重组利得 B.处置固定资产净收益 C.收发差错造成存货盘盈 D.确实无法支付的应付账款 【答案】C 【解析】存货盘盈冲减管理费用。 所得税费用 （一）所得税费用的构成 所得税费用是指企业确认的应从当期利润总额中扣除的所得税费用。包括当期所得税和递延所得税两部分。
Which of the following forms a minimal pair? A.fear, pear B.tip, pit C.food, foot D.beat, bit 答案:D The word "realization" consists of _____ syllables as against _____ morphemes. A.five/five B.five/four C.four/three D.four/four 答案:C Which of the following best describes the relations between “Alice is a vegetarian” and “Alice prefers eating steak”? A.The former is synonymous with the latter. B.The former is inconsistent with the latter. C.The former entails the latter. D.The former presupposes the latter. 答案:B Which of the following underlined parts is a free morpheme? A.understandable B.eastward C.otherwise D.without 答案:D Which of the following is a directive? A.Your money or your life! B.You are fired! C.The earth is round. D.Thank you very much. 答案:A How many arguments are there in “I’m not feeling very well”? A.no B.one C.three D.five 答案:B The word “boatel” is a(n) ____. A.acronym B.blend C.clipped word D.coined word 答案:B ‘Parent’ and ‘child’ are ___. A.gradable antonyms B.ungradable opposites C.relational opposites https://www.doczj.com/doc/8810804062.html,plementary synonyms 答案:C Which of the following is the head of the phrase ‘often read science fictions’? A.often B.read C.science D.fictions 答案:B ‘That is a box’ is a ___-place predication. A.no B.one C.two D.three 答案:B The word “DINK” is a(n) ____. A.acronym B.blend C.clipped word D.coined word 答案:A Around the time of their second birthday, children begin to produce ____ utterances. A.one-word B.two-word C.three-word D.four-word 答案:B Which of the following underlined parts is NOT an inflectional morpheme? A.teeth B.speaking C.taken D.chaos 答案:D The design features of human language include the following features EXCEPT____. A.duality of structure B.genetic feature C.arbitrariness D.displacement 答案:B ‘Like’ and ‘dislike’ are ___. A.gradable antonyms B.ungradable opposites C.relational opposites https://www.doczj.com/doc/8810804062.html,plementary synonyms 答案:A Which of the following is an expressive? A.The earth is a globe. B.Your money or your life! C.I’m very grateful for your help. D.I fire you. 答案:C ‘Slim’ and‘skinny’ are ___. A.dialectal synonyms B.collocational synonyms C.stylistic synonyms D.synonyms that differ in their emotive meaning 答案:D Which of the following best explains the relationship between “I like Beijing opera” and “I dislike Beijing opera”? A.inconsistency B.anomaly C.contradiction D.entailment 答案:A The chief exponent of the behaviorist view of language acquisition is ____. A.Bloomfield
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案 Chapter 1 Introduction 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language. 答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答：The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication; (2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words; (4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
1 文件系统阶段的数据管理有些什么缺陷试举例说明。 文件系统有三个缺陷： （1）数据冗余性（redundancy)。由于文件之间缺乏联系，造成每个应用程序都有对应的文件，有可能同样的数据在多个文件中重复存储。 （2）数据不一致性（inconsistency)。这往往是由数据冗余造成的，在进行更新操作时，稍不谨慎，就可能使同样的数据在不同的文件中不一样。 （3）数据联系弱(poor data relationship)。这是由文件之间相互独立，缺乏联系造成的。 2 计算机系统安全性 （1）为计算机系统建立和采取的各种安全保护措施，以保护计算机系统中的硬件、软件及数据； （2）防止其因偶然或恶意的原因使系统遭到破坏，数据遭到更改或泄露等。 3. 自主存取控制缺点 （1）可能存在数据的“无意泄露” （2）原因：这种机制仅仅通过对数据的存取权限来进行安全控制，而数据本身并无安全性标记 （3）解决：对系统控制下的所有主客体实施强制存取控制策略 4. 数据字典的内容和作用是什么 数据项、数据结构 数据流数据存储和加工过程。 5. 一条完整性规则可以用一个五元组（D，O，A，C，P）来形式化地表示。 对于“学号不能为空”的这条完整性约束用五元组描述 D：代表约束作用的数据对象为SNO属性； O（operation）：当用户插入或修改数据时需要检查该完整性规则； A（assertion）：SNO不能为空； C（condition）：A可作用于所有记录的SNO属性； P（procdure）：拒绝执行用户请求。 6.数据库管理系统（DBMS）
：①即数据库管理系统（Database Management System)，是位于用户与操作系统之间的 一层数据管理软件，②为用户或应用程序提供访问DB的方法，包括DB的建立、查询、更 新及各种数据控制。 DBMS总是基于某种数据模型，可以分为层次型、网状型、关系型、面 向对象型DBMS。 7.关系模型：①用二维表格结构表示实体集，②外键表示实体间联系的数据模型称为关系模 型。 8.联接查询：①查询时先对表进行笛卡尔积操作，②然后再做等值联接、选择、投影等操作。 联接查询的效率比嵌套查询低。 9. 数据库设计：①数据库设计是指对于一个给定的应用环境，②提供一个确定最优数据模 型与处理模式的逻辑设计，以及一个确定数据库存储结构与存取方法的物理设计，建立起 既能反映现实世界信息和信息联系，满足用户数据要求和加工要求，又能被某个数据库管 理系统所接受，同时能实现系统目标，并有效存取数据的数据库。 10．事务的特征有哪些 事务概念 原子性一致性隔离性持续性 11．已知3个域： D1=商品集合=电脑，打印机 D3=生产厂=联想，惠普 求D1，D2，D3的卡尔积为： 12.数据库的恢复技术有哪些 数据转储和和登录日志文件是数据库恢复的
英语语言学试题（1） I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%×10=20%) 1、As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for "correct" linguistic behavior, it is said to be ___. A、prescriptive B、sociolinguistic C、descriptive D、psycholinguistic 2、Of all the speech organs, the ___ is/are the most flexible. A、mouth B、lips C、tongue D、vocal cords 3、The morpheme "vision" in the common word "television" is a(n) ___. A、bound morpheme B、bound form C、inflectional morpheme D、free morpheme 4、A ___ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause. A、coordinator B、particle C、preposition D、subordinator 5、"Can I borrow your bike?" _____ "You have a bike." A、is synonymous with B、is inconsistent with C、entails D、presupposes 6、The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ___. A、semantics B、pragmatics C、sociolinguistics D、psycholinguistics 7、Grammatical changes may be explained, in part, as analogic changes, which are ___ or generalization. A、elaboration B、simplification C、external borrowing D、internal borrowing 8、___ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication. A、Lingua franca B、Creole C、Pidgin D、Standard language 9、Psychologists, neurologists and linguists have concluded that, in addition to the motor area which is responsible for physical articulation of utterances, three areas of the left brain are vital to language, namely, ___ . A、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and the angular gyrus B、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and cerebral cortex C、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and neurons D、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and Exner's area 10、According to Krashen, ___ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. A、learning B、competence C、performance D、acquisition II. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in One word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given. (1%×10=10%) 11、Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user's k_______ of the rules of his language. 12、The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b______ . 13、M_______ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 14、A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 15、Synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances are called c______ synonyms. 16、The illocutionary point of r_____ is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said. 17、Words are created outright to fit some purpose. Such a method of enlarging the vocabulary is known as word c______.
Chapter 1 Introductions to Linguistics I. Choose the best answer. (20%) 1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________ A. contact B. communication C. relation D. community 2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary? A. tree B. typewriter C. crash D. bang 3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.”is __________. A. interrogative B. directive C. informative D. performative 4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform? A. Interpersonal B. Emotive C. Performative D. Recreational 5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation? A. Transferability B. Duality C. Displacement D. Arbitrariness 6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language? — A nice day, isn’t it? —Right! I really enjoy the sunlight. A. Emotive B. Phatic C. Performative D. Interpersonal 7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances. A. Performance B. Competence C. Langue D. Parole 8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________. A. cultural transmission B. productivity C. displacement D. duality 9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language. A. Psycholinguistics B.Anthropological linguistics C. Sociolinguistics D. Applied linguistics 10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education. A. Linguistic theory B. Practical linguistics C. Applied linguistics D. Comparative linguistics II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language. 12. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary. 13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems. 14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages. 15. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第1-3章练习题参考答案 Chapter 1 Introduction P13 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language？ 答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答：The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication; (2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words; (4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages; (5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language; (6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use. 3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? 答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g rammar in several basic ways. Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence. Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. 4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why? 答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. 5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? 答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any langu age is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of spe ech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.
第一章数据库系统概述 选择题 1实体-联系模型中，属性是指（C） A.客观存在的事物 B.事物的具体描述 C.事物的某一特征 D.某一具体事件 2对于现实世界中事物的特征，在E-R模型中使用（A） A属性描述B关键字描述C二维表格描述D实体描述 3假设一个书店用这样一组属性描述图书（书号，书名，作者，出版社，出版日期），可以作为“键”的属性是（A） A书号B书名C作者D出版社 4一名作家与他所出版过的书籍之间的联系类型是（B） A一对一B一对多C多对多D都不是 5若无法确定哪个属性为某实体的键，则（A） A该实体没有键B必须增加一个属性作为该实体的键C取一个外关键字作为实体的键D该实体的所有属性构成键 填空题 1对于现实世界中事物的特征在E-R模型中使用属性进行描述 2确定属性的两条基本原则是不可分和无关联 3在描述实体集的所有属性中，可以唯一的标识每个实体的属性称为键 4实体集之间联系的三种类型分别是1：1 、1：n 、和m：n 5数据的完整性是指数据的正确性、有效性、相容性、和一致性 简答题 一、简述数据库的设计步骤 答:1需求分析：对需要使用数据库系统来进行管理的现实世界中对象的业务流程、业务规则和所涉及的数据进行调查、分析和研究，充分理解现实世界中的实际问题和需求。 分析的策略：自下而上——静态需求、自上而下——动态需求 2数据库概念设计：数据库概念设计是在需求分析的基础上，建立概念数据模型，用概念模型描述实际问题所涉及的数据及数据之间的联系。 3数据库逻辑设计：数据库逻辑设计是根据概念数据模型建立逻辑数据模型，逻辑数据模型是一种面向数据库系统的数据模型。 4数据库实现：依据关系模型，在数据库管理系统环境中建立数据库。 二、数据库的功能 答：1提供数据定义语言，允许使用者建立新的数据库并建立数据的逻辑结构 2提供数据查询语言 3提供数据操纵语言 4支持大量数据存储 5控制并发访问 三、数据库的特点 答：1数据结构化。2数据高度共享、低冗余度、易扩充3数据独立4数据由数据库管理系统统一管理和控制：（1）数据安全性（2）数据完整性（3）并发控制（4）数据库恢复 第二章关系模型和关系数据库 选择题 1把E-R模型转换为关系模型时，A实体（“一”方）和B实体（“多”方）之间一对多联系在关系模型中是通过（A）来实现的
I. Fill in the blanks. 1. The features that define our human languages can be call ed ______ features. (北二外2006研) 2. Linguistics is usually defined as the ______study of language. (北二外2003研) 3. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of______ communication. 4. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually ter med______ 5. Linguistics is the scientific study of______. 6. Modern linguistic is______ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe. 7. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ______ over writing. 8. The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of a language is called ______. (北二外2003研) 9. The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words is called______ . (北二外2004研) 10. ______mainly studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. (北二外2005研) 11. Semantics and ______investigate different aspects of linguistic meaning. (北二外2007研) 12. In linguistics, ______ refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation as sentence. (中山大学2008研) 13. ______can be defined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the other hand, attempts to show the relationship between language and society. 14. The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of sentence is called _______. (北二外2008研) 15. Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual ph enomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as and . The former refers to the abstract linguistic linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and the latter is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or through writing. (人大2006研) 16. The description of a language as it changes through time is a ______ study. 17. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s______. 18. One of the important distinctions in linguistics is ______ and parole. The former is the French word for “language”,which is the abstract knowledge necessary for s peaking，listening， writing and reading. The latter is concerned about the actual use of language by peop le in speech or writing. Parole is more variable and may change according to contextu al factors. 19. One of the important distinctions in linguistics is and performance. (人大2006研) 20. Chomsky initiated the distinction between ______ and performances. (北二外2007研) II. Multiple Choice 1.Which of the following is NOT a frequently discussed design feature? (大连外国语学院 2008研) A. Arbitrariness B. Convention C. Duality of the following words is entirely arbitrary? (西安交大2008研) A. tree B. crash C. typewriter D. bang