语言学总结
一、语言和语言学
1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language
任意性arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系
二重性duality 指语言由两层结构组成
创造性creativity 指语言可以被创造
移位性displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点
2、语言的功能（不是很重要）
信息功能informative
人际功能interpersonal
施为功能performative
感情功能emotive function
寒暄功能phatic communication
娱乐功能recreational function
元语言功能metalingual function
3、语言学主要分支
语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音
音位学phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列
形态学morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则
句法学syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则
语义学semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。如语素和句子的意义
语用学pragmatics 在语境中研究意义
4、宏观语言学macrolingustics
心理语言学psycholinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学anthropological linguistics 计算机语言学computational linguistics
5语言学中的重要区别
规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的
描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的
共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言
历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律
语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体
言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言
语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)
能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备
运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用
二、语音学
1、语音学分支
发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生
声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性
听觉语音学auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知
2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的
三、音位学
1、最小对立体minimal pairs
2、音位phoneme
3 音位变体allophones
4 互补分布complementary distribution
5 自由变体free variation
6 区别特征distinctive features
7 超音段特征suprasegmental feature
音节syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation
四形态学
1 词的构成
语素morpheme 自由语素free morpheme 粘着语素bound morpheme
Root 词根词缀affix 词干stem
屈折词汇和派生词汇inflectional affix and derivational affix
2特有的词汇变化lexical change proper
新创词语invention 混拼词blending 缩写词abbreviation
首字母缩写词acronym 逆构词汇back-formation例：editor—edit
类推构词analogiacal creation 例：work-worked,,slay-slayed
外来词borrowing
五句法学
1 范畴category 数number 性gender 格case 时tense 体aspect
一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment
2 结构主义学派the structure approach
组合关系syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起
聚合关系paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起
结构和成分construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体，而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分) 3直接成分分析法immediate constitutional analysis
指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，得到下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能再分
4向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions 向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为man
离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。例：on the shelf
5生成学派the generative approach
深层结构deep structure指机构关系中的潜在层面underlying level
表层结构surface structure指结构形成的最后结果阶段final stage
6功能学派the functional approach
主位与述位 theme and rheme
主位：谈话中已知的信息,说话者从它谈起known，
述位：与说话者内容有关的内容what the speaker states about
7交际力communicative and dynamism简称CD
指句子成分对交际发展所作的贡献的程度
六、语义学
1 利奇的意义七分法Leech and his 7 types of meaning
概念意义conceptual meaning 字面意义
内涵意义connotative meaning 实际交往过程中所指的事物
社会意义
情感意义 affective meaning
反射意义 reflective meaning 由一个词语联想起来的另外一种意义
搭配意义 collocative meaning
主位意义 thematic meaning 通过调整信息的顺序和强调内容所表达的意义
2指称论 referential theory
指将词的意义和他所指的食物联系起来的意义理论
3语义三角semantic triangle 奥格登和理查兹提出
Symbol或form指语言要素（如词和语素），the linguistic elements
能指thought指概念concept
所指reference指经验世界中的物体the object in the word of experience
涵义sense语言形式的意义
4主要涵义关系
○同义关系synonymy
地域同义词dialectal synonymy
风格同义词 stylistic synonyms
感情同义词 synonymys that differ in connotation意义相同，但内涵不同，有褒有贬
○反义关系antonymy
等级反义关系gradable antonymy 例cool-warm ;hot-cold
互补反义关系 complementary antonymy,肯定A就否定B，否定B 就肯定A，例dead-alive
反向反义关系converse antonymy .reversal of a relationship between 2 entities.例 husband-wife; teacher-student
○上下义关系hyponymy 意义包含关系。例：花－水仙、玫瑰、百合
补充：同音同形异义关系homonymy
一词多义 polysemy
七、语用学
1 言语行为理论speech act theory奥斯汀提出John Langshaw Austin
认为人在说话的同时也在进行一定的行为动作
○施为句和叙事句performative and constative
施为句：实施某种行为。
叙事句：描述说话人在说话时所作的动作。
○行事行为理论a theory of the illocutionary act
言内行为：locutionnary act表述字面意思
言外行为：illoutionary act 因为言语本身的习惯力量随之产生的其他一些行为
言后行为：perlocutionnary act 话语在听者身上产生的效果
2会话含义理论 the theory of conversational implicature
格赖斯提出Herbert Paul Grice
○合作原则:说话人和听话人为达一定的交际目的，都有一种默契，一种都遵循的原则
○四个准则four categories of maxims
数量、质量、关系、方式(manner)准则
3后格赖斯时期的发展
○关联理论：relevance theory:交际应被看做一种表明自身说话意图的行为every act of ostensive(直接表明的) communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance
○数量关系和关系原则the Q-and R-principles
由霍恩Laurence Horn 提出
八现代语言学理论和流派
1 索绪尔Saussure瑞士语言学家，“现代语言学之父”或者“使语言学科走向现代的大师”
2 布拉格学派Prague School
贡献:共时语言学研究，从“功能”角度看待语言，强调语言的系统性，把语言看做一种功能
突出贡献：语音学说，及其划分语音学和音位学
突出：Trubetzkoy特鲁别茨柯依：提出语音学属于言语，音位学属于语言，提出音位概念
4伦敦学派 the Lundon School:系统语言学和功能语言学
创始人：弗斯Firth.人物：弗斯受马林诺夫斯基影响。韩礼德为新弗斯派领袖三人都强调语言环境和语言系统的重要性
韩礼德和系统功能语法：由系统语法和功能语法构成。把实际使用的语言现象作为研究对象
5美国结构主义American Structuralism
共时语言学分支，由博厄斯提出F.Bos.
○撒皮尔-沃尔夫假说Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
语言相对论-语言决定论
○布隆菲尔德Bloomfield《语言论》－20世纪被大西洋两岸同时奉为科学的方法论典范和语言学领域的杰出代表。描述语言学的代表人物
6 转换生成语法transformational–generative grammar
乔姆斯基提出Chomsky.
认为语言是某种天赋，语言习得机制Language Acquisition device
现代语言学 一绪论 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants. 3 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
1、How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language. It is a scientific studies because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses, thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2、The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett) (1) Arbitrariness ----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings. ----- No natural and inevitable link between the sound and the meaning Exception: Onomatopoeic words and Some compound words. (2) Productivity/creativity We can speak an endless number of sentences with a limited vocabulary and one sentence can expand into endless theoretically possible sentences in the way of recurring Exception: and bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing. (3) Duality
Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学 1.What is pragmatics? 什么是语用学？ Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used. 语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。 由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。 2.Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学 Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. 语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。 3.Context 语境 Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。 4.Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。 5.Speech act theory 言语行为理论 Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. 言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。 According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.
Chapter 12 : Lan guage And Brain 1. n euroli nguistics: It is the study of relati on ship betwee n brain and Ian guage. It in eludes research into how the structure of the brain in flue nces Ian guage lear ning, how and in which parts of the brain Ian guage is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use Ian guage. 2. psycholinguistics: ____ t he study of Ian guage process in g. It is concerned with the processes of Ian guage acqisiti on, comprehe nsion and product ion. 3. brain lateralizati on: The localizatio n of cog nitive and perceptive fun cti ons in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cog nitive fun cti on. 5. right ear advantage: ___ The phe nomenon that the right ear shows an adva ntage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage. 6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cog niti on are called as split brain studies. 7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired Ianguage disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accide nt and so on. 8. non- flue nt aphasia: Damageto parts of the brain in front of the cen tral sulcus is called non-flue nt aphasia. 9. flue nt aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex beh ind the cen tral sulcus results in a type of aphasia called flue nt aphasia. 10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the an gular gyrus of the parietal lobe ofte n causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia. 11. phono logical dyslexia: ___ it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems to have lost the ability to use spelli ng-to-so und rules. 12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems un able to recog nize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spell in g-to-so und rules. 13. spo on erism: a slip of ton gue in which the positi on of soun ds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let' s have chish and fips instend of Let' s have fish and chips. 14. prim ing: the process that before the participa nts make a decisi on whether the stri ng of letters is a word or not, they are prese nted with an activated word. 15. freque ncy effect: Subjects take less time to make judgeme nt on freque ntly used words tha n to judge less com monly used words . This phe nomenon is called freque ncy effect.
一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it
第一章 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics. Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures https://www.doczj.com/doc/6811886757.html,nguage 1.1Why study language?为什么学习语言 A tool for communication交流的工具 An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知. 1.2What is language?什么是语言 1.2.1different senses of language 语言的不同意义 1. what a person says( concrete act of speech) a person’s consistent way of speaking or writing a particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial language an abstract system 2. A Webster’s New Dictionary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”: a. human speech 人类的言语 b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力 c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声 音及这些声音互相结合的系统 d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达 3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交 流的一种方式. Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言 是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文 化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类 区别于动物. 1.2.2definitions Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. What is communication? A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener). A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×) Why do we say language is arbitrary? Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and is
语言学总结 一、语言和语言学 1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language 任意性arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系 二重性duality 指语言由两层结构组成 创造性creativity 指语言可以被创造 移位性displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点 2、语言的功能（不是很重要） 信息功能informative 人际功能interpersonal 施为功能performative 感情功能emotive function 寒暄功能phatic communication 娱乐功能recreational function 元语言功能metalingual function 3、语言学主要分支 语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音 音位学phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列 形态学morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则 句法学syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则 语义学semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。如语素和句子的意义 语用学pragmatics 在语境中研究意义 4、宏观语言学macrolingustics 心理语言学psycholinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学anthropological linguistics 计算机语言学computational linguistics 5语言学中的重要区别 规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的 描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的 共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言 历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律 语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体 言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言 语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出) 能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备 运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用 二、语音学 1、语音学分支 发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生 声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性 听觉语音学auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知 2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的
1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole. 3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. 4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say). 5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C) 6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04) 7. diachronic study: It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C) 8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C）linguistic competence: universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. 11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C) 15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users. 16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.
英语语言学一、名词解释 第一课 共时性 : Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical“point\A kind”inoftimedescription. which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. 语言 : The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. 任意性 : One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 音位 : Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 音位变体 : The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. pair 最小对立体 : When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 第三课 形态学 : Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed . morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are ca lled morphemes 曲折词素 : Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. 第四课 语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. categories 句法范畴 : Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories. structure 深层结构 : Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ s subcategorizationrties,iscalledprope deep structure or D- structure. structure 表层结构 : Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure. 第五课 指称 : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 同音异义 : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, . different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 上下义关系 : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 第六课 语用学 : Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 话语 : a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication. meaning 话语意义 : Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. act 言外行为 : An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker it is the’acts performedintention; in saying something.