第一节语言的本质
一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）
任意性Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式
双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds and meaning）多产性productive: 语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）
移位性Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等
文化传播性Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握
二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）
1. 传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main function
2. 人际功能Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity
3. 行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses
4. 表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions
5. 寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！”等等
6. 元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”
三、语言学的分支
1. 核心语言学Core linguistic
l 语音学Phonetics ：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。Its main focus is on the articulation，transmission and reception of human sounds，especially isolated sounds
l 音位学Phonology：从功能的角度出发对出现在某种特定语言中的语音及其组合、分布规律进行研究的语言学分支。The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns from function perspective.
l 形态学Morphology：研究单词的内部构造the internal structure of words
l 句法学Syntax：研究组词造句的规则the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.
l 语义学Semantics：对语言产生的意义的方法的系统研究，以研究词义和句义为主it’s the systemic studies on the meaning-producing mechanism in languages, including words and sentences meaning
l 语用学Pragmatics：从语言同使用者之间的关系出发，研究在实际交际in real-time communication contexts中影响人们语言使用的各种因素mainly in terms of the relationship between language and language-users。
2. 边缘语言学Peripheral:
·心理语言学psycho-linguistics ·社会语言学socio-linguistics ·人类语言学anthropo-linguistics ·计算机语言学computer-linguistics
四、语言学中几对基本概念
1. 规定性研究Prescriptive与描述性研究Descriptive
l Prescriptive：着重于语言中“标准Standards”认为语言中存在着一种地位最高的语言形态，如标准语法/语音等，为规定人们如何说话、写作
l Descriptive：着重于语言中“事实Facts”，目的是描述人们一般是怎样说话、写作的2. 共时研究Synchronic和历时研究Diachronic
l Synchronic：以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象，如现代汉语研究、莎士比亚时代语言研究等
l Diachronic：研究语言各个阶段的发展变化，研究语言的历史发展规律
3．语言Langue和言语Parole（由Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔提出）
l Langue：指语言系统的整体the whole linguistic system，所有语言使用个体头脑中存储的词语-形象word-image的总和，这个整体相对比较稳定
l Parole：指代某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语actual use of language，是随时间和地点变化的一个动态的、偶然性很大的实体。
4．语言能力competence与语言运用performance（由Noam Chomsky乔姆斯基提出）
l Competence：指理想语言使用者关于语言规则的知识储备
l Performance：指真实的语言使用者在实际场景中的语言使用
注与索绪尔的区别——索绪尔着重于从社会的角度social perspective来研究语言，乔姆斯基则从语言使用者的知识构成the knowledge base of the language users来看待语言，如乔从心理学的角度来分析语言
第二节语音学Phonetics
一、语音学的分支
1．发音语言学Articulatory phonetics：研究语音产生的方式，这是普通语言学主要研究的分支 2. 声学语言学Acoustic phonetics 3. 听觉语言学Auditory phonetics
二、语音学中两个重要概念
1．言语语音Speech sounds：
●是语音学研究的对象，亦可叫做音段Segment或者音素Phone；●分为两种：辅音consonants 和元音vowels
2．发音器官Speech organs：
●声带the Vocal Cords：位于咽喉the Larynx中，咽喉突出的部分较喉结The Adam’s Apple ●三个回声腔：咽腔the Pharynx、口腔the oral cavity和鼻腔the nasal cavity
三、关于辅音Consonants
1．概念：发音过程中产生了气流阻塞的那些音There is an obstruction of the air at some point of the vocal tract.
2．分类：三类划分——发音部位Places of articulation 、发音方式Manners of articulation和清浊特征
按照发音部位places：
●唇间音bilabial：/p/ /b/ /m/ /w/ ●唇齿音labio-dental：/f/ /v/ ●齿间音dental：/ 6/ /咬舌Z/
●牙龈音alveolar：/t/ /d/ /s/ /z/ /n/ /l/ /r/ ●龈腭音alveo-palatal/post-alveolar：●硬腭音Palatal：/师/ /3/ /ts/ /d3/ /j/
●喉音glottal：/h/
按照发音方式manners
●完全阻塞辅音complete obstruction/爆破音plosives/stops: /p/, /b/ /t/, /d/ /k/, /g/ ●鼻音nasals：/m/ /n/ /n长/
●擦音fricatives：/f/ /v/ /s/ /z/ /师/ /3/ /6/ /咬舌z/ /h/ ●破擦音affricates：/ts/ /d3/ ●流音liquids : /r/ /l/
●滑音/半元音glides/simivowels：/w/ /j/ ●接近辅音
《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明: 《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。 《语言学概论》研究始于20 世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。 对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。 本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第6学期和第7 学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。 二、教学目的及要求: 本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。 本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。 本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓 励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。
三、教学重点与难点: 本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。 本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。 四、与其它课程的关系: 本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。 五、学时与学分: 学时：72学时 学分：4学分 六、教学内容： 第一章绪论 本章主要教学内容: 1．语言学习的意义 2．语言的定义。 3．语言的定义特征 4．语言的起源。 5．语言的功能。 6．语言学的定义。 7．语言学的核心内容。 8．宏观语言学的定义及分支。
英语语言学练习题 Ⅰ. Matching Match each of the following terms in Column A with one of the appropriate definitions in Column B. Column A 1.displacement https://www.doczj.com/doc/4013321463.html,ngue 3.suprasegmental feature 4.deep structure 5.predication analysis 6.idiolect 7.pidgin 8.mistakes 9.interlanguage 10.motivation 11.arbitrariness https://www.doczj.com/doc/4013321463.html,petence 13.broad transcription 14.morphology 15.category 16.errors https://www.doczj.com/doc/4013321463.html,ponential analysis 18.context 19.blending 20.culture 21.learning strategies 22.selectional restrictions 23.phrase structure rules 24.culture diffusion Column B A.Learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language. 9 B.Learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive, having a strong impact on his efforts n learning a second language. 21 C.The rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories. 23 D.Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B. 24 E. A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. 6 F. A special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. 7 G.The kind of analysis which involves the breaking down of predications into their constituents- ---- arguments and predicates. 5 H.They refer to constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 22 I.The structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties. 4 J.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. 3 K.The study of the internal structure of words, and the rules that govern the rule of word formation. 14 L.The abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 2 https://www.doczj.com/doc/4013321463.html,nguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. It is one of the distinctive features of human language. 1 N.Learner’s conscious, goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency. 10 O.The total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. 20 P.The common knowledge shared by both the speaker and hearer. 18
新概念第一册1-2课文详解及英语语法 课文详注Further notes on the text 1．Excuse me 对不起。 这是常用于表示道歉的客套话，相当于汉语中的“劳驾”、“对不起”。当我们要引起别人的注意、要打搅别人或打断别人的话时，通常都可使用这一表达方式。在课文中，男士为了吸引女士的注意而使用了这句客套话。它也可用在下列场合：向陌生人问路，借用他人的电话，从别人身边挤过，在宴席或会议中途要离开一会儿等等。 2．Yes？什么事？ 课文中的Yes？应用升调朗读，意为：“什么事？”Yes？以升调表示某种不肯定或询问之意，也含有请对方说下去的意思。 3．Pardon？对不起，请再说一遍。 当我们没听清或没理解对方的话并希望对方能重复一遍时，就可以使用这一表达方式。较为正式的说法是： I beg your pardon. I beg your pardon? Pardon me. 它们在汉语中的意思相当于“对不起，请再说一遍”或者“对不起，请再说一遍好吗？” 4．Thank you very much．非常感谢！ 这是一句表示感谢的用语，意为“非常感谢（你）”。请看下列类似的表达式，并注意其语气上的差异： Thank you. 谢谢（你）。Thanks! 谢谢！ 5．数字1～10的英文写法 1—one 2—two 3—three 4—four 5—five 6—six 7—seven 8—eight 9—nine 10—ten 语法Grammar in use 一般疑问句 一般疑问句根据其结构又分为若干种。通过主谓倒装可将带有be的陈述句变为一般疑问句。即将be的适当形式移到主语之前，如：陈述句：This is your watch. 这是你的手表。 疑问句：Is this your watch? 这是你的手表吗？ （可参见Lessons 15～16语法部分有关be的一般现在时形式的说明。） 词汇学习Word study 1．coat n. 上衣，外套：Is this your coat? 这是你的外套吗？ coat and skirt<英>（上衣、裙子匹配的）西式女套装 2．dress n. （1）连衣裙；套裙：Is this your dress? 这是你的连衣裙吗？ （2）服装；衣服：casual dress 便服；evening dress 晚礼服 新概念第一册3-4课文详解及英语语法 课文详注Further notes on the text 1．My coat and my umbrella please. 请把我的大衣和伞拿给我。 这是一个省略形式的祈使句，完整的句子应为： Give me my coat and my umbrella, please. 口语中，在语境明确的情况下通常可省略动词和间接宾语，如： (Show me your) Ticket, please. 请出示你的票。 (Show me your)Passport, please. 请出示您的护照。 2．Here's your umbrella and your coat. 这是您的伞和大衣。 Here's 是Here is的缩略形式。全句原为：Here is your umbrella and your coat．缩略形式和非缩略形式在英语的书面用语和口语中均有，但非缩略形式常用于比较正式的场合。Here's…是一种习惯用法，句中采用了倒装句式，即系动词提到了主语之前。又如Here is my ticket 这句话用正常的语序时为My ticket is here。 3．Sorry = I'm sorry。 这是口语中的缩略形式，通常在社交场合中用于表示对他人的歉意或某种程度的遗憾。 Sorry 和Excuse me 虽在汉语中都可作“对不起”讲，但sorry 常用于对自己所犯过失表示道歉，而Excuse me 则多为表示轻微歉意的客套语。 4．Sir，先生。 这是英语中对不相识的男子、年长者或上级的尊称。例如：在服务行业中，服务员对男顾客的称呼通常为sir： What can I do for you, sir? 先生，您要买什么？ Thank you, sir. 谢谢您，先生。 sir 通常用于正式信函开头的称呼中： Dear sir 亲爱的先生 Dear sirs 亲爱的先生们／诸位先生们 Sir可用于有爵士称号者的名字或姓名之前（但不用于姓氏之前）： Sir Winston Churchill 温斯顿·丘吉尔爵士 Sir William Brown 威廉·布朗爵士 5．数字11～15的英文写法 11—eleven 12—twelve 13—thirteen 14—fourteen 15—fifteen 语法Grammar in use 否定句 否定陈述句与肯定陈述句相反，它表示“否定”，并且含有一个如not 之类的否定词。一个内含be的否定形式的陈述句，应在其后加not，以构成否定句： 肯定句： This is my umbrella. 这是我的伞。 否定句： This is not my umbrella. 这不是我的伞。 请再看课文中的这两句话： 针对一般疑问句的否定的简略答语是No，it's not／it isn't。此处省略和非省略形式的关系为：is not =isn't；it is = it's。全句应为： No, it is not my umbrella. 不，它不是我的伞。 词汇学习Word study 1．suit n.（一套）衣服： Is this your suit? 这是你的衣服吗？ a man's suit 一套男装；a woman's suit 一套女装 2．please：interjection （表示有礼貌地请求对方）请；烦劳： My coat and my umbrella please. 请把我的大衣和伞拿给我。 Please come in. 请进。
一、绪论 语言学的定义 语言学的研究范畴 几对基本概念 语言的定义 语言的甄别特征 What is linguistics 什么是语言学 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。 The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴 Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学 \Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学 Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性 Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for "correct" behavior. Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data. Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high" written language Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性 The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. Speech and writing 口头语与书面语 Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons: （1） speech precedes writing in terms of evolution （2） a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing （3） speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language Language and parole 语言与言语 Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use Competence and performance 能力与运用 Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users' knowledge of the rules of his language Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication What is language 什么是语言 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication Characteristics of language: 语言的特性 Language is a rule-governed system Language is basically vocal Language is arbitrary （the fact different languages have different words for the same
英语语言学 一、名词解释 第一课 l.Synchronic 共时性：Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “poinL in timeA A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind? 2>Langue 语言：The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community? 3>Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. ^Arbitrariness 任意性：One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 1.Phoneme 音位：Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning? The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 2
Lesson1: Excuse me! Excuse me! 对不起 Yes? 是的 Is this your handbag? 这是您的手提包吗？ Pardon? 对不起，请再说一遍？ Is this your handbag? 这是您的手提包吗？ Yes, it is. 是的，是我的。 Thank you very much. 非常感谢 Lesson 3: Sorry sir. My coat and my umbrella please. 请把我的大衣和伞拿给我。 Here is my ticket. 这是我寄存东西的牌子 Thank you sir. 谢谢，先生 Number five. 是5号 Here is your umbrella and your coat. 这是您的伞和大衣 This is not my umbrella. 这不是我的伞 Sorry sir. 对不起，先生 Is this your umbrella? 这把伞是您的吗？ No, it isn't. 不，不是 Is this it? 这把是吗？Yes, it is. 是，是这把 Thank you very much. 非常感谢 Lesson 5: Nice to meet you. Good morning. 早上好 Good morning, Mr. Blake. 早上好，布莱克先生 This is Miss Sophie Dupont. 这位是索菲娅.杜邦小姐。Sophie is a new student. 索菲娅是个新学生。 She is a French. 她是法国人。 Sophie, this is Hans. 索菲娅，这位是汉斯。 He is German. 他是德国人。 Nice to meet you. 很高兴见到你。 And this is Naoko. 这位是直子。 She’s Japanese. 她是日本人。 Nice to meet you. 很高兴见到你。 And this is Chang-woo. 这位是昌宇。 He’s Korean. 他是韩国人。 Nice to meet you. 很高兴见到你。 And this is Luming. 这位是鲁明。 He’s Chinese.
Chapter 1 Language语言 1.Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2.Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language. 3.arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. 4.symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention. 5.discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. 6.displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users. 7.duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure. 8.culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance. 9.interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 1.★What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language. First, language is a system. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense. The third feature of language is symbolic nature. 2.★What are the design features of language? Language has seven design features as following: 1) Productivity. 2) Discreteness. 3) Displacement 4) Arbitrariness. 5) Cultural transmission 6) Duality of structure. 7) Interchangeability. 3.Why do we say language is a system? Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other. 4.★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language? I.Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language: 1) Instrumental function. 工具功能 2) Regulatory function. 调节功能 3) Representational function. 表现功能 4) Interactional function. 互动功能 5) Personal function. 自指性功能 6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h] 7) Imaginative function. 想象功能 II.Adult language has three functional components as following: 1) Interpersonal components. 人际 2) Ideational components.概念 3) Textual components.语篇
语言学总结 一、语言和语言学 1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language 任意性arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系 二重性duality 指语言由两层结构组成 创造性creativity 指语言可以被创造 移位性displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点 2、语言的功能（不是很重要） 信息功能informative 人际功能interpersonal 施为功能performative 感情功能emotive function 寒暄功能phatic communication 娱乐功能recreational function 元语言功能metalingual function 3、语言学主要分支 语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音 音位学phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列 形态学morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则 句法学syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则 语义学semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。如语素和句子的意义 语用学pragmatics 在语境中研究意义 4、宏观语言学macrolingustics 心理语言学psycholinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学anthropological linguistics 计算机语言学computational linguistics 5语言学中的重要区别 规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的 描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的 共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言 历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律 语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体 言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言 语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出) 能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备 运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用 二、语音学 1、语音学分支 发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生 声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性 听觉语音学auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知 2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的
英语语言学期末考试试卷 第一部分选择题 I.Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%X10=20%) 1. Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, but they differ in that ____________. A. Saussure took a sociological view of language while Chomsky took a psychological point of view B. Saussure took a psychological view of language while Chomsky took a sociological point of view C. Saussure took a pragmatic view of language while Chomsky took a semantic point of view D. Saussure took a structural view of language while Chomsky took a pragmatic point of view 2. Language is a system of ____________ vocal symbols used for human communication. A. unnatural B. artificial C. superficial D. arbitrary 3. We are born with the ability to acquire language, _______________. A. and the details of any language system are genetically transmitted B. therefore, we needn’t learn the details of our mother tongue C. but the details of language have to be learnt. D. and the details are acquired by instinct 4. A(n)________ is a phonological unit of distinctive value. It is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. A. phone B. allophone C. phoneme D. sound 5. The morpheme –ed in the word “worked” is a(n) __________ morpheme. A. derivational B. inflectional C. free D. word-forming 6. WH-movement is __________ in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative. A. obligatory B. optional C. selectional D. arbitrary 7. Naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, was proposed by _________. A. Grice B. Plato C. Saussure D. Ogden and Richards 8. “John married a blond heiress.”__________ “John married a blond.” A. is synonymous with B. is inconsistent with C. entails D. presupposes 9. In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called _______, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A. utterance B. reference C. predication D. morpheme 10. In Austin’s speech act theory, ___________ is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A. a perlocutionary act B. a locutionary act
第一章 1.What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication 2.Design features of language ①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings) ②Duality（二层性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. ③Productivity/creativity(创造性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. ④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication. (p7) 3.Functions of language ①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational) ②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status) ③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare) ④. Emotive/Expressive(情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker. ⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather) ⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry) ⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself. 4. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 5. Important distinctions in linguistics Descriptive & prescriptive Synchronic & diachronic Langue & parole Competence & performance 6.Descriptive(描写/述性)—describe and analyze linguistic facts or the language people actually use (modern linguistic) Prescriptive(规定性)—lay down rules for“correct and standard”linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar:“never use a double negative”) 7.Synchronic study(共时)—description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study (历时)—description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time) 第四章 1．What is Syntax（句法）? Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form