R&D
Part I: Basic Writing
This part will cover
●Elements of Writing
●Narrative
●Description
●Definition
●Comparison and contrast
●Exposition
Chapter 1 Elements of writing
●Paragraph structure identification
Gold
Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronauts? suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection outside the spaceship. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty, but also for its use.
Hurricanes
Hurricanes, which are also called cyclones, exert tremendous power. These violent storms are often a hundred miles in diameter, and their winds can reach velocities of seventy-five miles per hour or more. Furthermore, the strong winds and heavy rainfall that accompany them can completely destroy a small town in a couple of hours. The energy that is released by a hurricane in one day exceeds the total energy consumed by mankind throughout the world in one year.
Famous School “Failures”
Albert Einstein, one of the world?s geniuses, failed his university entrance examinations on his first attempt. William Faulkner, one of America?s noted writers, never finished college because he could not pass his English courses. Sir Winston
Churchill, who is considered one of the masters of the English language, had to have special tutoring in English during elementary school. These few examples show that failure in school does not always predict failure in life.
Synonyms
Synonyms, words that have the same basic meaning, do not always have the same emotional meaning. For example, the words “stingy” and “frugal” both mean “careful with money”. However, to call a person stingy is an insult, while the word frugal has a much more positive connotation. Similarly, a person wants to be slender but not skinny, and aggressive, but not pushy. Therefore, you should be careful in choosing words because many so-called synonyms are not really synonyms at all.
Learning to outline
Learning to outline will improve your writing for three reasons. First of all, it will help you organize your ideas. Specifically, an outline will ensure that you won?t include a ny irrelevant ideas, that you won?t leave out any important points, and that your supporting sentences will be in logical order. Second, learning to write an outline will help you write more quickly. It may take some practice at first, but once you become used to outlining your ideas before you start to write. Preparing an outline is 75% of the work. The actual writing becomes easier because you don?t have to worry about what you are going to say; you already have a well-organized plan to follow. Finally, your grammar will improve because you will be able to concentrate on it, not on your thoughts or organization. Improved organization, speed, and grammar make learning to outline well worth the effort.
For these three reasons—improved organization, speed, and grammar—learning to outline is well worth the effort.
T he above paragraphs show a linear development of ideas, that is, from topic sentence to development sentences and finally to the concluding sentence, or the reversed order, that is, from concluding sentences to development ones, which are typical of English writing, although there are always variations.
Now read the following paragraph critically and prepare a discussion on it.
Culture, Logic and Rhetoric
Logic, which is the basis of rhetoric, comes from culture; it is not universal. Rhetoric, therefore, is not universal either, but varies from culture to culture. The rhetorical system of one language is neither better nor worse than the rhetorical system of another language, but is different.
English logic and English rhetoric, which are based on Anglo-European cultural patterns, are linear —that is, a good English paragraph begins with a general statement of its content and then carefully develops that statement with a series of specific illustrations. A good English paragraph may also use just the reverse
sequence; it may state a whole series of examples and then summarizes those examples in a single statement at the end of the paragraph. In either case, however, the flow of ideas occur in a straight line from the opening sentence to the last sentence. Furthermore, a well-structured English paragraph is never digressive. There is nothing that does not belong to the paragraph, and nothing that does not support the topic sentence.
A type of construction found in Arabic and Persian writing is very different. Whereas English writers use a linear sequence, Arabic and Persian writers tend to construct a paragraph in a parallel sequence using many coordinators, such as and but. In English, maturity of style is often judged by the degree of subordination rather than by the degree of coordination. Therefore, the Arabic and Persian styles of writing, with their emphasis on coordination, seem awkward and immature to an English reader.
Some Asian writers, on the other hand, use an indirect approach. In this kind of writing, the topic is viewed from a variety of angles. The topic is never analyzed directly; it is referred to only indirectly. Again, such a development in an English paragraph is awkward and unnecessarily vague to an English reader.
Spanish rhetoric differs from English rhetoric in still another way. While the rules of English rhetoric require that every sentence in a paragraph relates directly to the central idea, a Spanish-speaking writer loves to fill a paragraph with interesting digressions. Although a Spanish paragraph may begin and end on the same topic, the writer often digresses into areas that are not directly related to the topic. Spanish rhetoric, therefore, does not follow the English rules of paragraph unity.
In summary, a student who has mastered the grammar of English may still write poor papers unless the rhetoric of English is also mastered. Also, the student may have difficulty reading an essay written by the rules of English rhetoric unless (s)he understands the “logical” differences from those of his/her own native tongue.
Transitional signals
Read and compare the following two paragraphs
Paragraph 1:
A difference among the world?s seas and oceans is that the salinit y varies in different climate zones. The Baltic Sea in Northern Europe is only one-fourth as saline as the Red Sea in the Middle east. There are reasons for this. In warm climates, water evaporates rapidly. The concentration of salt is greater. The surrounding land is dry and does not contribute much fresh water to dilute the salty sea water. In cold climate zones, water evaporates slowly. The runoff created by melting snow adds a considerable amount of fresh water to dilute the saline sea water.
Paragraph 2:
Another difference among the world?s seas and oceans is that the salinity varies in different climate zones. For example, the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe is only one fourth as saline as the Red Sea in the Middle East. There are two reasons for this. First of all, in warm climate zones, water evaporates rapidly; therefore, the concentration of
salt is greater. Second, the surrounding land is dry and, consequently, does not contribute much fresh water to dilute the salty sea water. In cold climate zones, on the other hand, water evaporates slowly. Furthermore, the runoff created by melting snow adds a considerable amount of fresh water to dilute the saline sea water.
常用的连接词
表关系连接词并列连词从
句连词其他关联词
表递进furthermore and
another (＋名词）
moreover
an additional (＋名词）
in addition
表转折on the other hand but
although in spite of (＋名词）
however yet
though despite(＋名词）
in contrast
even though
whereas
while
表选择otherwise or if
unless
引出事例for example
an example of (＋名词）
for instance
such as(＋名词）
e.g.
重述i.e.
表结尾in conclusion
in summary
to conclude
to summarize
Ex. Recognizing Transition Signals
Step 1 Circle all of the transition signals in the following paragraphs. There are at least ten in each.
Step 2 Punctuate the transition signals if necessary
Paragraph 1
Genetic research has produced both exciting and frightening possibilities. Scientists are now able to create new forms of life in the laboratory due to the development of gene splicing. On one hand the ability to create life in the laboratory could greatly benefit mankind. For example because insulin is very expensive to obtain from natural sources scientists have developed a method to manufacture it inexpensively in the laboratory. Another beneficial application of gene splicing is in agriculture. Scientists foresee the day when new plants will be developed using nitrogen from the air instead of from fertilizer therefore food production could be increased. In additio n entirely new plants could be developed to feed the world?s hungry people.
Not everyone is excited about gene splicing however. Some people feel that it could have terrible consequences. A laboratory accident for example might cause an epidemic of an unknown disease that could wipe out humanity. As a result of this controversy the government has made rules to control genetic experiments. Still many people feel that these rules are not strict enough even though the scientific community may feel that they are too strict.
Paragraph 2
The “women?s lib” movement toward greater equality for women has produced some permanent changes in the vocabulary of English. The first change is that new words have been added. The words “feminist” “sexist” and “male chauvinist” for example became common during the past ten years or so. Another new word is the title Ms which is often used in place of both Miss and Mrs. A second change is that sexist titles of many job occupations have been naturalized. A chairman is now a “chairperson”, a businessman is a “businessperson” and a salesman is a “salesperson”. Moreover a mailman is now a “mail carrier” and an airline stewardess is now a “flight attendant.” Finally attempts to give equal treatment to masculine and feminine pronouns in English have led to the search for a new pronoun form to replace he (as he/she or s/he) when referring to the neutral nouns such as the student. In my opinion some of the new words such as Ms are quite useful: you can use Ms to address a woman when yo u don?t know if she is married. On the other hand the lack of a clear neutral pronoun can lead to awkward sentence construction.
Paraphrasing: Paraphrasing is used when you need to transfer what you read into your own words.
Original When the Maracana soccer stadium (in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) was opened to the public in 1950, and Brazil lost the World Cup to the
Uriguayan team, the Brazilians were so dishearted that one had the
impression that the country itself had died. And people died of sadness.
Mere threats of defeat in a championship match can cause heart attacks
and the despair of the public is so great that many beat their heads
against the cement posts. Such is the Brazilian?s passion for soccer. Paraphrase In 1950, Brazil lost the world Cup in soccer to Uruguay in Rio de Janeiro. The entire country was overcome by sadness: some people
even died from it. Brazilians react very strongly to potential defeat in
championship soccer games. Some people have heart attacks, and
others beat their heads against cement posts. Brazilians are very
emotional about soccer.
An approach to Style ( Strunk & White, 1999)
“Style … is an expression of self”.
1.Place yourself in the background.
Write in a way that draws the reader?s attention to the sense and substanc e of the writing, rather than to the mood and temper of the writer. … A careful and honest writer does not need to worry about style. As you become proficient in the use of language, your style will emerge, because you yourself will emerge, and when this happens you will find it increasingly easy to break through the barriers that separate you from other minds, other hearts – which is, of course, the purpose of writing, as well as its principal reward. Fortunately, the act of composition, or creation, disciplines the mind; writing is one way to go about thinking, and the practice and habit of writing not only drain the mind but supply it, too.
2.Write in a way that comes naturally.
Write in a way that comes easily and naturally to you, using words and phrases that come readily to hand. But do not assume that because you have acted naturally your product is without flaw.
The use of language begins with imitation. … The imitative life continues long after the writer is secure in the language, for it is almost impossible to avoid imitating what one admires. Never imitate consciously, but do not worry about being an imitator; take pains instead to admire what is good.
Then when you write in a way that comes naturally, you will echo the halloos that bear repeating.
3.Work from a suitable design.
Columbus didn?t just sail, he sailed west, and the New World took shape from this simple and, we now think, sensible design.
4.Write with nouns and verbs.
It is nouns and verbs, not their assistants (adjectives and adverbs), that give good writing its toughness and color.
5.Revise and rewrite
6.Do not overwrite.
It is always a good idea to reread your writing and ruthlessly delete the excess.
7.Do not overstate.
8.Avoid the use of qualifiers.
Rather, very, little, pretty – these are the leeches that infest the pond of prose,
sucking the blood of words.
9.Do not affect a breezy manner.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/4c13300662.html,e orthodox spelling.
11.Do not explain too much.
12.Do not construct awkward adverbs.
13.Make sure the reader knows who is speaking.
14.Avoid fancy words.
Four scores and seven years ago= eighty-seven
15.Do not use dialect unless your ear is good.
16.Be clear.
17.Do not inject opinion.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/4c13300662.html,e figure of speech sparingly.
19.Do not take shortcuts at the cost of clarity.
20.Avoid foreign languages.
21.Prefer the standard to the offbeat
Style of writing: Vocabulary and Grammar
1.Vocabulary
1) Verbs:
English often has two or more choices to express an action or occurrence. The choice is often between a phrasal or prepositional verb (verb + preposition) and a single verb, usually with Latin origin. For written style, the preferred choice is a single verb wherever possible, which is one of the dramatic stylistic shifts from informal to formal style, e.g.
Less formal: Building a nuclear power plant will not get rid of the energy problem completely.
Formal: Building a nuclear power plant will not eliminate the energy problem completely.
2) Nouns and Other Parts of Speech:
English has a very rich vocabulary derived from many languages. Because of this, there may be more than one way to express an idea. You should strive to choose words that are less informal in nature and also precise. In spoken language, you will likely hear less formal speech, however, in writing you should use a more forma form if one exists.
2. Grammar
Here are some nonvocabulary-related recommendations for maintaining a formal academic writing style.
A.Avoid contractions
https://www.doczj.com/doc/4c13300662.html,e the more appropriate formal negative forms
e.g. not any →no, not much →little, not …many →few etc.
C.Limit the use of “run on” expressions, such as “and so forth” and “etc.”
e.g. These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, etc.
→These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, and other electronic devices.
D.Avoid addressing the reader as “you” (except, of course, if you are writing a
textbook)
e.g. You can see the results in Table 1.
→The results can be seen in Table 1.
E.Limit the use of direct questions,
e.g. What can be done to lower costs?
→We now need to consider what can be done to lower costs.
Or: We now need to consider how costs may be lowered.
F.Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs often are placed midposition rather than in the initial or final
position. In informal English, adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning
or end of sentences.
e.g. Then the solution can be discarded.
→The solution can then be discarded.
The blood is withdrawn slowly.
→The blood is slowly withdrawn.
Ex. Rewrite the following sentences to reduce the informality
1.Researchers have been looking into this problem for 15 years now.
2.Engineers can come up with better designs using CAD.
3.The reaction of the officials was sort of negative.
4.The future of the high-speed rail is up in the air.
5.America?s m ajor automakers are planning to get together on the research
needed for more fuel efficient cars.
6. A loss of jobs is one of the things that will happen if the process is automated.
7.The analysis didn?t yield any new results.
8.The government did not allocate much funding for the compulsory education.
9.If you fail the exam, you can?t enter the university.
10.OK, what are the causes of SARS? Many possibilities exist.
11.You can clearly see the difference between these two processes.
12.These special tax laws have been enacted in six states: Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, etc.
13.The subjects didn?t have much difficulty with the task.
Techniques in paragraph development
World Refugees
Duc Tong knew that the voyage would be risky, but he also knew that he had no choice. If he and his family stayed in their country, there was little hope for their future. So one night he, his wife, and ten other members of his family boarded a small, rickety boat, taking with them only what they could carry, and set sail along with thirty-six other Vietnamese. Their voyage was a nightmare. Before they reached safety, they were attacked by two different groups of pirates, and during a terrible storm,
their supplies were washed overboard. Eleven of the older people died, and the survivors were delirious from lack of food and water.(Illustrative Incident)
The rising tide of refugees around the world is rapidly becoming a flood. According to figures published by the United Nations, there are more than 6.2 million refugees and an additional 2.6 million people who are classified as “displaced persons”. That makes a total of nearly 9 million.(Statistics)
No corner of the Earth is without a refugee problem, although the African continent has so far produced the greatest number. Ethiopias, with its 1.6 million refugees, has produced three times as many refugees as Vietnam and Cambodia combined. The Middle East has its Palestinian and more recently, Afghan refugees. In the Western Hemisphere, Haiti, Cuba and the Central American countries of El Salvador and Guatemala are producing refugees by the thousands.(Examples) The refugees present problems not only for themselves, but also for the countries that take them in. As Victor Palmieri, the U.S. coordinator for refugee affairs, has put it, “The worldwide refugee explosion is a massive tragedy in human terms and a growing crisis in financial terms for the countries bearing the burden.” (Quotations)
用来表示数字信息的词：
V ocabulary Example of Structure
rate
ratio (of X to Y)
percent
percentage
geometric rate
arithmetic rate
to double, triple, quadruple, etc
to increase/decrease four-fold, by one-half to rise/fall by 20,00; by 6 percent (6%) The rate of inflation has skyrocketed.
The ratio of smokers to non-smokers was 3:2. Twelve percent (or 12 percent) of the population is 55 or elder.
Only a small percentage of personal income should go toward housing.
The world population is increasing at a geometric rate. The number of auto accidents has doubled.
The number of computer companies has increased sevenfold.
By 1990, oceanic levels will rise by 2 percent.
Ex. Using Figures and Statistics
The Hazards of Driving Small Cars
Small cars may be hazardous to your health, according to a recent study conducted by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. The number of Americans dying in automobile accidents is ___________(increasing, decreasing, gaining, reducing) again after ____________(rising, falling, declining, inclining) sharply in 1974, when the national 55 miles per hour speed limit was imposed. Safety
authorities warn that as drivers increasingly shift from fuel-saving smaller, lighter cars, the rise in the death toll will accelerate _________ (geometrically, arithmetically).
In 1979, the last year for which full statistics are available, small cars were involved in 55 _________ (rate, ratio, percentage, percent) of all fatal crashes even though they constituted only 38 ________ (rate, ratio, percentage, percent) of the cars on the road, according to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Projecting from current trends, the agency and other safety officials ________ (estimate, guess, predict) that automobile traffic deaths will increase ________ (to, from, of, by) 30 percent by 1989, or ___________(to, from, of, by) about 27,000 a year ___________(to, from, of, by) about 35,000 a year, almost exclusively because of the inherent vulnerability of smaller cars.
Perhaps more significantly, the death rate per hundred million miles driven has begun to increase over the last three years, reversing a fifty-year downward trend. According to the safety council, the rate ________(increased, decreased, raised, rose) from a record low of 3.33 deaths __________ (per, pro, of, from) hundred million miles in 1978 ___________ (to, from, of, by) 3.40 in 1979 and 3.53 in 1980.
Based on its analysis of highway deaths, the highway safety council says occupants of a subcompact car are 3.4 _________ (times, double, triple) more likely to die than those in a compact if two such cars collide; 6.3 ________(ratio, times, lose) more likely to die in a crash with a midsize car; and 8.2 __________(times, quadruple, rate) more likely to die in a collision with a large car.
新闻采访与写作讲稿 一、新闻概述 （一）新闻的定义 新闻是新近发生的事实的报道。我国新闻界认为，这个定义言简意赅，概括了新闻的本质特征，对掌握新闻写作规律起着指导作用。 （二）新闻的分类新闻有狭义和广义两种。狭义新闻专指消息。 广义的新闻一般指传媒常用的各种新闻报道体裁 （三）新闻的要素 1.时间。时间的准确程度，根据所要报道的事件对时间的要求来确定。 2.地点。地点也有详写、略写之分。 3.人物。在新闻报道中，人物的出现有四种情况： 第一种是以个体的形式出现， 第二种是以群体的形式出现， 第三种是有些当事人由于个人隐私、系未成年人或其他原因，须使用化名或笼统称呼， 第四种是有些新闻人物以社团、单位等集合体的形式出现 4.事件。事件是新闻的核心要素，其他要素均围绕新闻事件来组织和安排。 5.原因。报道事件须交代清楚原因。 6.结果。事件的结果，有的当时就能体现出来，有的需要经过一定时间才能显露出来，有的需要经过调查、计算和评估。 二、新闻写作 新闻写作，是指作者把采访中搜集到的材料、信息，通过文字写作制成一定体裁的新闻作品的过程。 （一）新闻写作观念的变革 1.西方新闻写作观念的变革 在西方，1833年9月3日，由本杰明·戴任总编的美国纽约《太阳报》创刊。这标志着西方新闻写作主流观念开始诞生。随后，煽情主义、客观报道和深度报道等三种重要写作观念相继形成。 （1）煽情主义写作观念 （2）客观报道新闻写作观念 （3）深度报道新闻写作观念 2.我国新闻写作观念的变革 1）政论报刊时代 （2）商业报刊时代 （3）新中国成立后的前30年 （4）改革开放至今 （二）新闻写作的特点 1.客观真实 2.广泛传播 3.新闻价值 一、用事实说话原则
2019高考英语概要写作技巧讲解
2019高考英语概要写作技巧讲解 一、考点分析 （一）考查内容： 1、 考查读懂文章内容的能力 2、 考查识别作者写作目的的能力 3、 考查归纳总结的能力 4、 考查组织文章的能力 （二）评分要点 ? 1）字数50左右 ? 2）理解准确，涵盖全部要点 ? 3）准确使用相应的语法结构和词汇 ? 4）完全使用自己的语言 ? 5）有效使用语句间的连接成分，结构紧凑 二、专题详解 定义： It is a brief, thorough and objective restatement of the main idea and key points of a longer composition. 读者在正确理解文章的基础上, 在不改变原文中心思想、 体裁和结构的前提下，用简明、精练的语句高度浓缩文章的主要内容和观点。 （三）写作方法 （总-分，总-分-总，分-总，并列） 1) 找准体裁，提炼要点 按体裁 2) 语言：同义词
①同义转换：近义词、同义词和词组的替换，尽量用单词替换短语 （例 improve=promote, of great importance = greatly important） ②句式转换：简化句子结构（例如，定语从句改成分词作后置定语；状语从句改成非谓语作状语；） ③句子重构：调整词类（名词、动词、形容词转换）、时态、语态（主动变被动）等 3)衔接（替换；省略；增加）：表逻辑关系的连接词 替换：并列关系and, moreover, furthermore, in addition, 转折关系 but, instead, however, on the other hand 省略：并列观点有时可省略连接词;记叙文可省略衔接词。 增加：按逻辑关系，补充连接词firstly…, secondly…, finally…; and…, moreover…, furthermore…; but, instead, however, 例（一）
一.雅思大作文的15大考察内容 考察频率最高专题： ? 1. 教育：儿童，中学，大学教育体制和方法 ? 2. 科技发展对生活的影响 ? 3.文化的组成因素和保护 ? 4.生活方式的转变和社会观念 ? 5. 全球化及其影响 ? 6. 环境问题和环境保护 ?7. 政府投资 考察次重点专题： ? 1. 艺术的价值 ? 2.媒体的作用 ? 3.广告的影响 ? 4.动物的保护和动物实验 ? 5.城乡差距和城市化 ? 6.犯罪 ?7.弱势群体：妇女的权利，妇女参军 ?8.体育 雅思写作错误检查表（10条） 1.使用了正确的语法结构：时态语态，主谓一致，从句，用词准确(名词，动词，形容 词的形式)，介词，冠词 2.句式有变化 3.使用了一定量的词汇 4. 拼写没有错误 5. 观点明确，语意精准不模糊 6. 每段主题句都表明了该段中心思想，所有拓展句支持句都紧扣主题 7. 大量的过渡性词语(逻辑连接词)，使句子间和段落间都具有逻辑性和条理性 8. 提供了足够的细节，例子或论据 9. 每一段话都得到充分展开 10. 每一段话都紧扣文章主题 如何应用： a.1347当做检查项目，其他当做考前提醒 b.时间紧，就改第一段和每段的前两句话 三.大作文首段基本写作策略---三步走 1.转述背景，扩展题目(setting/ background information )：把题目所提供的背景再用自 己的话拓展转述同义替换一下 题目：It is generally believed that some people are born with certain talents, for instance for sports or music, and others are not. However, it is sometimes claimed that any child can be taught to be a good sports person or musician. Discuss both views and give your own opinion. 考官写的开头段： The relative importance of natural talent and training is a frequent topic of discussion when people try to explain different levels of ability in, for example, sports, art or music. 2. 说明意图(statement of purposes)：
英文写作模板 包含：图表类作文模板、原因分析类作文模板、议论性文字作文模板。据王晓艳老师课堂讲义整理 结构：P1：描述图表；P2：分析图表；P3：结论 P1：描述图表 As is shown in the 图表类型above, dramatic changes have taken place in the 变量的名称-名词短语. The most obvious change was the 上升/下降变量,which had increased nearly by % ,while 下降/上升变量decreased roughly by % . The percentage if the remained stable between and . P2：分析图表； There are numerous reasons accounting for the phenomenon and I would like to explore a few of most important ones here. Above all, development of technique and knowledge in native company stimulate the vitality of 变量-名词短语. What’s more,(culture influence) 原因2is an important reason of the decline/increase if the 变量-名词短语. Finally, 原因3. P3：结论 Based on what has been discussed above, we may reasonably conclude that the tendency described in graph will continue for quite a long time. Hopefully, government could offer more friendly policies to . 比如交通事故原因分析及解决方案 结构：P1：改写课题；P2：原因分析；P3：解决方案；P4：预测、总结 P1：改写课题 Recently, there is a heated debate on the issue of . A recent study conducted by 机构名称revealed that 现象. Hence, it is of paramount importance that we ascertain the cause of 事件and identify the effective remedies of this phenomenon. P2：原因分析 As I see it, the cause of 现象are manifold. Firstly, 原因1. Secondly, 原因2. Last but not the least, 原因3 . P3：解决方案 Given the severity of , we have no alternative but to take vigorous measure to address this thorny issue. To begin with, 解决方案1. Further, 解决方案2. Lastly, 解决方案3. P4：预测、总结 To summarize, the cause of 现象are multiple. I just point out some of them. But if government, scientist and individual work together to resolve the problem, the 现象will fall/increase immediately. 第1页，共2页
《新闻写作知识》讲义 一、新闻的概念及基本要求 把新闻作为一门科学进行研究，从1845年德国学者普尔兹所著《德国新闻事业》算起，迄今不过一百多年。若以美国新闻教育和研究事业的兴起为标志，也仅为一个世纪左右。我国的新闻学研究迟于欧美国家，于二十世纪二十年代开始进行。由于该学科作为一门专门的研究对象起步较晚，所以，我们在学习新闻的过程中，有时会发现一些著作的提法或者分类并不统一，但它们的基本要求和基本原理都是相通的。我国的新闻理论主要借鉴了西方国家的新闻学理论，但又有所不同。 （一）新闻的定义 新闻有很多定义，在不同的国家，不同的研究者对它有不同的定义。比如，在西方，对新闻的严肃定义有：“新闻就是变迁的记录”——英国《泰晤时报》，“新闻就是新鲜报道”——英国《牛津字典》等等，在国外对新闻的幽默定义也有许多，比如:“狗咬人不是新闻，人咬狗才是新闻”——美国《纽约太阳报》博加特等。 我国学者对新闻也有一些定义，比如：“新闻就是广大群众欲知、应知而未知的很重要事实”——范长江；“新闻的定义，就是新近发生的事实的报道”——陆定一。 我们一般指的新闻，可以理解为：新闻是对新近已经发生和正在发生、或者早已发生却是新近发现的有价值的事实的及时报道。 这一定义体现了三个要点：新闻必须是新近发生和新近发现的事实；新闻所报道的事实必须是有价值的；新闻必须是对事件的“报道”。
新闻都是以事实为依据，真实性是新闻的生命，也是第一要素。 凡是新闻文体，不论消息报道，还是通讯、特写，在写作上都应当做到新、快、短、活。 （二）新闻的分类 新闻按体裁分类，大致可以分为：消息、通讯、新闻特写、以及新闻边缘体裁。新闻边缘体裁主要包括：报告文学、调查报告、采访札记、工作研究、来信等。 新闻分广义的新闻与狭义的新闻，上段的分类是按广义的新闻进行分类的，它们是报纸、广播、电视等媒体中常见的报道体裁。狭义的新闻专指消息，又称电讯（通过电报、电传、电子计算机传输的消息）。它是报纸上最经常、最大量运用的一种新闻报道体裁，也是最直接、最简练、最迅速地向读者传播新闻信息的报道方式。 （三）新闻的六要素 新闻要素，是指新闻构成的主要因素。交待新闻要素，是把事实报道清楚的起码条件。一般来讲，在传统的新闻学讲义中，我们常提到的是五要素，所谓五个W（When，Where，Who，What，Why——何时，何地、何人、何事、何故）。在西方新闻学有一个观点，认为新闻学除了五个W外，还应增加一个H（How——怎么样，何果），也称新闻六要素。新闻六要素近年来在国内一些教材中得到认可。 （四）新闻语言 在写新闻时，有的作者常用写散文或者写评论的方式写新闻，其实，它们之间的语言要求是不一样的。文学语言是艺术的语言，评论语言是说理性语言，新闻语言则是表述事实的语言。
浙江新高考《考试说明》英语写作样题读后续写 第二节：读后续写（满分25分） 阅读下面短文，根据所给情节进行续写，使之构成一个完整的故事。 A funny thing happened to Arthur when he was on the way to work one day. As he walked along Park Avenue near the First National Bank, he heard the sound of someone trying to start a car. He tried again and again but couldn’t get the car moving. Arthur turned and looked inside at the face of a young man who looked worried. Arthur stopped and asked, “It looks like you’ve got a problem,” Arthur said. “I’m afraid so. I’m in a big hurry and I can’t start my car.” “Is there something I can do to help?” Arthur asked. The young man looked at the two suitcases in the back seat and then said, “Thanks. If you’re sure it wouldn’t be too much trouble, you could help me get these suitcases into a taxi.” “No trouble at all. I’d be glad to help.” The young man got out and took one of the suitcases from the back seat. After placing it on the ground,he turned to get the other one. Just as Arthur picked up the first suitcase and started walking, he heard the long loud noise of an alarm. It was from the bank.There had been a robbery (抢劫)! Park Avenue had been quiet a moment before. Now the air was filled with the sound of the alarm and the shouts of people running from all directions. Cars stopped and the passengers joined the crowd in front of the bank. People asked each other,“What happened?” But everyone had a different answer. Arthur, still carrying the suitcase, turned to look at the bank and walked right into the young woman in front of him. She looked at the suitcase and then at him. Arthur was surprised. “Why is she looking at me like that?” He thought. “The suitcase! She thinks I’m the bank thief!” Arthur looked around at the crowd of people. He became frightened, and without another thought, he started to run. 注意： 1. 所续写短文的词数应为150左右； 2. 应使用5个以上短文中标有下划线的关键词语； 3. 续写部分分为两段，每段的开头语已为你写好； 4. 续写完成后，请用下划线标出你所使用的关键词语。 Paragraph 1: As he was running, Arthur heard the young man shouting behind, “Stop,stop!” _______________________________________________________________________ Paragraph 2: The taxi stopped in front of the Police Station and Arthur... _______________________________________________________________________ 范文（原创范文，仅供参考） One possible version： As he was running, Arthur heard the young man shouting behind, “Stop, stop!” And also at the moment, Arthur suddenly realized that the young man might be the bank robber. So Arthur didn’t stop, but continued to run until he saw a taxi.He stopped it, jumped in with the suitcase and said to the driver, “Go to the police station, please. The man shouting behind is the bank thief!’’ The taxi raced away like the wind. The taxi stopped in front of the Police Station and Arthur told the police what had happened. Obviously, the police had already learned about the robbery.They opened the suitcase and there was a large sum of money inside, as
CET4 2013年12月四级（1） Directions: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a short essay based on the picture below. You should start your essay with a brief account of the impact of the Internet on the way people communicate and then explain whether electronic communication can replace face-to-face contact. You should write at least 120 words but no more than 180 words. “Dear Andy-How are you? Your mother and I are fine. We both miss you and hope you are doing well. We look forward to seeing you again the next time your computer
crashes and you come down-stairs for something to eat, Love, Mom and Dad.”实：保证沟通信息清晰，完整，避免误解，更加正式 The （more formal） face-to-face contact can ensure/guarantee the message （being delivered）clearer and more intact, thus avoiding misunderstanding （effectively=in such an effective way/ to a great extent. ） So…that… The message/information delivered through internet is very likely to be neglected. It is more likely for us to neglect the message on the internet or dismiss it as rumors. 虚：1.避免虚假信息 2.拉近距离身体语言眼神促进情感交流范文1（星火） Electronic Communication Cannot Replace Face-to-Face Contact
新闻写作培训 一、什么是新闻(新闻的定义) 1. 新闻的定义。 a. 新闻必须是新近发生的; b. 新闻所报道的事实必须是真实的，且有价值的; c. 新闻必实)须是对事件(事的“报道”。 2. 新闻六要素=5W 1H。 既然新闻是对新近发生的事实的报道，即对“5W”事件What、时间When、人物Who、地点Where、原因Why和“1H”How怎么样,如何/结果)的报道。5W 1H也称新闻六要素。新闻六要素近年来在国内一些教材中得到认可，原来我们上学时的教科书里只有新闻五要素，即5W。 a(新闻报道不是重复历史(旧闻) 过去的已知已发生的事实不是新闻，新闻是新近(近期)发生的未知事实，昨天的新闻就是今天的历史。如:比如3月份发生在车间的新闻，你4月份才去写，或者别人都知道了，你再写，就没有新闻报道的价值了。所以说，新闻必须要及时。 b(新闻稿件不是文学作品 文学作品都是大家常见的，比如散文、诗歌、小说、剧本。文学作品讲究修饰、形容，甚至虚构、夸大;但新闻重真实、明晰(尽量少用形容词、心理描写、合理想像，多用动词)。新闻通讯是饭、文学作品是酒。
C(新闻不是公文 公文引经典，重重复，有倾向;新闻引“今典”，重差异，求平衡。新闻有新闻的结构、公文有公文的格式。 3. 新闻语言的应用和表述。 新闻语言的特色可以概括为:客观、确切、简练、朴实和通俗。 a.客观。 比如说，我们讲某某员工工作认真，某某领导身先士卒，则不如用一些事情把它反映出来，让读者去品味，而不一味去下结论。 b.确切。 比如，“近300人”比“几百人”，“300多米”比“几百厘米”要精确。 c.简练。 比如，“在……的大好形势下，在……鼓舞下，在……的基础上”等等繁冗的句子都应尽量避免。本来就是一个简讯不要写成消息，本来是一个消息不要写成通讯。 d.朴实通俗。 比如我们经常看到稿件中有设备、工艺的特殊专用词，即使你写错了，我们编辑也看不出来，所以要求通讯员要进行必要的解释和注释。 另外，在新闻语言表述中，还应该把握“两多两少”，即:“多用中性词，少用修饰语;多用陈述词，少用褒贬词”。 同时，新闻写作必须用第三者身份进行客观描述，而不是以第一人称或第二人称去下结论或发表感叹。我们经常看到许多通讯员经常用“我院、我校、我专业”等进行表述，这说明我们没有把自己当成通讯员，应该改为“福建中医药大学药学
专题十七概要写作 探考情悟真题 【考情探究】 考点考查内容考查方式考情分析 2019-062018-112018-062017-112017-06 概要写作1.对原文主旨及要点的理解和 呈现情况; 2.概括要点时语法结构和词汇 应用的准确性; 3.文章上下文的连贯性; 4.各要点表达的独立性。 提供一篇350词以内的 短文,要求考生基于该 短文写出一篇60词左右 的内容概要 如何有效 表扬孩子 建议参观要 去读的大学 分析解读根据高考综合改革试验区英语科目考试说明,写作的第二节是读后续写或概要写作。两种形式在不同考次不定期交替使用。新高考实行的六次考试中,前四次是读后续写,最近的两次是概要写作。从概要写作的特点和考试的次数分布情况看,今后考到概要写作的可能性还是很大的。 概要写作是综合性的写作考查。要求考生首先对原文章有准确的理解,对原文的结构和要点有准确的把握,然后再用准确、丰富的语言以及高级的语法结构写出包含所有要点的短文。 所以,考生要想做好这道题,就必须注意以下几点: (1)准确理解文章。 (2)把握文章的各个要点。 (3)使用准确的语法结构、丰富的词汇和合适的关联词。 (4)使用自己的语言表述,不要照抄原文中的句子。 【真题探秘】
真题再现 阅读下面短文,根据其内容写一篇60词左右的内容概要。 It’s a really good idea to visit colleges before you apply because their websites can all start to look and sound the same. Nothing will give you the sense of what it will actually be like to live on a college campus(校园)like visiting and seeing for yourself the dorms, classrooms and athletic equipment and, of course, the students. It seems a little crazy once senior year hits to find the time to visit college campuses, and it can also be pricey if the schools you are applying to happen to be more than a car ride away. But keep in mind that you are making a decision about the next four years of your life, and do all the research you can to make sure you are making the right one. 概要写作的文章一般都是说明文或议论文。文章结构比较清楚,段落之间的逻辑关系也很紧密。文章第一段开门见山,提出观点:在你申请大学之前,要去亲自看看目标大学。第二段特别指出一定要去看看附近的大学。 第三段的内容是:如果你在申请之前没有去过,在申请之后,或得到offer之前,一定要去看看,免得将来后悔。 第四段的主要内容是:如果无法亲自去参观的话,可以登录网站了解相关的信息。 There’s no excuse not to visit the schools in your local area. In fact, a lot of college applications even ask if you have visited campus, and obviously, if you live across the country that won’t be as much of a possibility, but if you live nearby, go check it out! If campus visits aren’t going to happen before you apply, at the very least you should find some time between applying and getting your acceptance letters to visit the schools you’d like to attend. It can save you a lot of heartache if you rule out now the things that you don’t like about certain campuses, things that you wouldn’t know unless you actually visit. Now, if time and money are making it impossible, then check out the
北京奥运英语四级材料 The Games of the 29th Olympiad in 2008 are awarded to the city of Beijing."With the motto "New Beijing, Great Olympics", Beijing promises to host a "Green Olympics", a "Hi-tech Olympics" and the "People's Olympics". Chinese people always appreciate the purposes and principles of Olympic ideal, support the efforts of Olympic Games to promote world peace. The Chinese Government and people are doing our the utmost/best to prepare for the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, and shooting at the pageant with advocating Olympic ideal, sparkpluging world peace and enhancing the relationships among the world. Olympic spirit are gonna spread again in orient cultural ancient China. The government and people of China have always admired the purposes and principles of the Olympic spirit and supported the efforts made by the Olympics in promoting world peace. The Chinese government and people are doing our utmost in preparation for the 2008 Olympics in Beijing. It is our hope to make it a grand gathering that will carry forward the Olympic spirit, promote world peace and enhance the friendship among people of the world, so that the Olympic spirit will flourish once again, this time in China, an oriental country with an ancient civilization. “第29届奥运会在2008年授予市北京。 ”座右铭“新北京，新奥运” ，北京的承诺，举办一个“绿色奥运” ， “高科技奥运会”和“人民的奥运“ 。 中国人民始终欣赏的宗旨和原则，奥林匹克理想，支持的努力，奥运会上为促进世界和平。中国政府和人民正在尽我们的最大/最佳准备为2008年北京奥运会，射击选美与倡导奥林匹克理想，世界的和平与提高之间的关系的世界。奥林匹克精神是在哪里蔓延，再次在东方的中国古代文化。 有关中国政府和人民一向钦佩的宗旨和原则，也是奥林匹克精神的支持和所作的努力，奥运会在促进世界和平。中国政府和人民正在尽最大努力在为筹备2008年奥运会在北京举行。这是我们的希望，使其一次盛会，将弘扬奥林匹克精神，促进世界的和平与提高人民之间的友谊的世界，使奥林匹克精神将再次蓬勃发展，这一次在中国，一个东方的国家一个古老的文明。 有关四川汶川的英语作文 AROUND 2:28 pm on Monday, Zhu Qi had his first brush with terror. He’d been awakened from an afternoon nap. His bunk was shaking. The door to his dormitory room was jammed shut. When Zhu, a postgrad at Chengdu University of Technology, managed to join his classmates outside, the earth had stopped moving. But the damage had been done. At area universities, students had fled dorms and classrooms with the clothes on their back. But at least they were alive. Only 96 kilometers away in Wenchuan County, thousands of people, young and old, were buried in rubble. The 7.8-magnitude quake had devastated a region of small cities and towns set amid the steep and forested hills of northwestern Sichuan. The quake is China’s worst in three decades. The full reach of the damage has yet to be determined. By press time, around
一、概括： 1.写作考试介绍： Time: 60mins 20mins TASK1 150words 40mins TASK2 250words 2.考试题型： TASK1 Process 和Introduction 题目罕见出现。 TASK2 I. Discuss Eg: 2005年7月9日 Some people think the government should pay for health care and education, but other people do not think it the government’s responsibility. Discuss both and give your opinion. II. Advantages and Disadvantages Eg: 2005年5月14日 Some school leavers go to travel or work for a period of time instead of going directly to university. What are the advantages and disadvantages for their studies? III. Agree or Disagree Eg: 2005年6月25日 People think that the news media has influenced people’s lives nowadays, and it is a negative development. To what extent do you agree or disagree? IV. Your Opinion Eg: 2005年3月5日 Some academic subjects are useful for children’s future career while others such as music and sports are not so useful. What is your opinion. Give your reasons. V. Problem, Reasons and Solutions Eg: 2005年1月22日 Statistics suggest that nowadays an increasing number of crimes are committed by the young people. Explain the reasons for this and give solutions. 二、小作文解析（T ASK 1）： 1．通用格式： ⑴OPENING—1SENTENCE--- A. Paraphrase 5W & B. Overall trend Ⅰ.Line phases Ⅱ.Pie classification Ⅲ.Bar the gap between A&B e.g. The graphs and charts tell us a clear overview of the characteristics and trends of…… It can be seen from the table that….. 详细见白书P6/下，“Referable IELTS Writing opening &writing” ●RULE 1： A.不可以抄题目 B.不可以写“According to ….”，只能写“In that figure….” C.不可以写“below/following” D.不可以写“that/this” E.第一段不出现数据
读后续写技巧指导 一、总体分析 读后续写要求考生在阅读一段350 词以内的语言材料的基础上，根据该材料内容、所给段落开头语和所标示关键词进行续写（150 词左右），将其发展成一篇与给定材料有逻辑衔接、情节和结构完整的短文。续写部分分为两段。原文给出10 个左右的标有下划线的关键词语，所续写短文应使用5 个以上（教育部考试中心，2015）。 1. 原文特点 《考试说明》虽未对读后续写材料的体裁做出明确说明，但根据所附的样题和自2016 年10 月首考至今的4 份真题来看，所提供的阅读材料一般是记叙文。记叙文是以记人、叙事、写景、状物为主，以写人物的经历和事物的发展变化为主要内容的一种文体形式。它的主要的表达方式是叙述和描写，也常辅以适当的抒情、议论和说明。记叙文的特点是通过生动形象的事件来反映生活并表达作者的思想情感，它的中心思想蕴含在具体材料中，通过对人、事、物的生动描写来表现。它的话题贴近生活，有一定趣味性，给学生的想象空间较大，上下文连贯性较强，结构清晰，语言难度较易把握。 2. 如何审题、谋篇、行文 续写之前，首先应当审读原文，对故事内容进行把握和理解。通过阅读，能判断文本的写作顺序（如时间先后顺序、地点变换顺序或情节发展顺序等），能找出故事的基本要素（如时间、地点、人物、事件等），能厘清文本的脉络和情节的发展，并据此对提供的文本内容进行归纳概括。 在审读原文的基础上，考虑如何对续写进行谋篇。谋篇是对文本深入分析思考的过程。分析文本中主人公的性格特点，思考人与人之间，人与社会间，人与自然间和人与自我之间的矛盾冲突，分析故事的起因和发展，思考和推断可能继续发展的方向，分析划线关键词和续写两段的段首句，思考具体的情节展现故事的高潮并合理结尾。 审题、谋篇的最终目的是要落实到续写上来。读后续写的行文是对文本进行续写
新闻写作的真实性原则 第一节新闻写作对真实性的要求 真实性：新闻报道必须反映客观事物的原貌。 一、新闻报道的具体事实必须真实准确 （一）确有其事 （二）构成新闻的基本要素必须准确无误 （三）新闻中引用的各种资料必须准确无误 （四）新闻所反映事实的环境、过程、细节、人物的语言、动作必须真实 二、新闻报道的整体概括与分析要符合客观实际 （一）现象真实与本质真实要辩证统一 （二）微观真实与宏观真实要有机结合 第二节新闻报道失实的原因 导致新闻失实的原因是复杂的。既有客观环境方面的原因，也有传播者主观方面的原因。 一、体制性失实 体制性失实是指因某种价值观对新闻报道发生强烈作用时而造成的新闻失实。 二、经济性失实 经济性失实是指由于金钱等经济利益对新闻报道发生强烈作用时所造成的新闻失实。 三、故意失实与非故意失实 这类失实是指媒体或者新闻报道者事先明知报道内容不符合客观事实，具有虚假成分，但却出于种种主客观因素的制约和影响，而有意为之所导致的新闻报道失实。 这类失实是指新闻报道者并无故意造成失实报道的动机，而是由于种种主客观条件的限制或影响，未能按照客观事实的本来面目如实做出报道所导致的新闻失实。 第三节新闻写作如何避免失实 一、在确定主题和选择报道角度时要坚持独立思考 二、在谋篇布局时要避免片面性 新闻写作的谋篇布局，即消息或通讯的结构设计、段落安排，实际上体现着写作者对所报道事实的认识与分析。此时此刻，要掌握与运用科学的方法，辩证地、全面地反映和报道事物，这是防止新闻失实的一个重要方面。 三、在写情节细节时严禁想当然 新闻写作与文学创作有着本质的区别。将推测、推论、合理想象的东西作为事实来写均属想当然，无可非议地在严禁之列。 四、培养质疑意识，注意核对引用资料 （一）稿件中所引用的材料，包括采访中获取的各种素材、背景资料、史料，要通过不同的途径查询与核对。 （二）对被采访者的自述，即记者通过采访所获得的第一手材料，也要保持质疑意识，也要核对。 （三）要注意核对数字。 五、描写要有分寸感 我国新闻界最常见的是滥用溢美之辞，描写时夸大、渲染、拔高。