Chapter 3：Lexicon
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.
3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.
4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.
5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.
6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.
7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.
8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.
9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.
10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.
II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:
11. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.
12. The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.
13. B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d__________ affixes.
15. D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.
16. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.
17. C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.
18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called
m___________ rules.
19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d_______________ can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.
20. A s______ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivational affix can be added.
III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
21. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.
A. bound morpheme
B. bound form
C. inflectional morpheme
D. free morpheme
22. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.
A. is the sum total of the meaning of its components
B. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemes
C. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.
D. None of the above.
23. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.
A. the first element
B. the second element
C. either the first or the second element
D. both the first and the second elements.
24. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
A. Free morphemes
B. Bound morphemes
C. Bound words
D. Words
25. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
A. Syntax
B.Grammar
C. Morphology
D. Morpheme
26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.
A. lexical
B. morphemic
C. grammatical
D. semantic
27. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.
A. have to be used independently
B. can not be combined with other morphemes
C. can either be free or bound
D. have to be combined with other morphemes.
28. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.
A. Prefixes
B. Suffixes
C. Roots
D. Affixes
29. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.
A. Words
B. Morphemes
C. Phonemes
D. Sentences
30. “-s” in the word “books” is _______.
A. a derivative affix
B. a stem
C. an inflectional affix
D. a root
IV. Define the following terms:
31. morphology 32. inflectional morphology
33. derivational morphology 34. morpheme
35. free morpheme 36. bound morpheme
37. root 38. affix
39. prefix 40. suffix
41. derivation 42. Compounding
V. Answer the following questions:
43. What are the main features of the English compounds
44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.
第8章英语语言的应用（I） I. Fill in the blanks. 1. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the _____ of, or the _____the utterance. （人大2004研） 【答案】consequence, change brought about by 【解析】言外行为指说话的效果。 2. When a teacher says “The exam this year is going to be really difficult”, the sentence would have an _____force. （清华2001研，清华2000研） 【答案】illocutionary 【解析】言外行为，表达说话人的意图。 3. _____ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. 【答案】Performatives 【解析】施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。 II. Multiple Choices. 1. The speech act theory was developed by _____.（对外经贸2006研) A. John Searle B. John Austin
C. Levinson D. G. Leech 【答案】B 【解析】言语行为理论是哲学家约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出的。它从哲学意义上对语言交际的本质进行解释，其目的在于回答”用语言干什么”这个问题。 2. Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest. (Focus on the type of illocutionary act) （南京大学2007研） A. threaten B. advise C. beseech D. urge 【答案】A 【解析】A为命令性言语行为，而其他三项为指示性言语行为。 3. _____ is using a sentence to perform a function. （西安外国语学院2006研） A. A perlocutionary act B. An illocutionary act C. A locutionary act D. Speech act 【答案】D 【解析】约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出言语行为理论, 此理论对语言交际的
语言学教程笔记 第一章语言学导论 语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。 1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核 心特征。例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。 任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。（2）句法层面上的任意性。 （3） 任意性和规约性。 2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成， 每层都有自身的组合规则。话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是 相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产 性。 3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性 和递归性。利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。 4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的 物体、时间或观点。因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而 后者位置距我们非常之远。语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。移位性赋予人 们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化 的语境中。他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。 5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。 6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的 角色是可以随意更换的。 元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
语言学教程chapter1-3 1.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc. 本质特征：决定了我们语言性质的特征。如任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性等等。 2.function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,https://www.doczj.com/doc/1915111416.html,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function. 功能：运用语言进行交流、思考等等。语言的功能包括信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能。3.etic: a term in contrast with emi c which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper. 非位的：相对于“位学的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。 4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via a ppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone. 位学的：相对于“非位的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。言语行为和事件中的位学系统必须是有效而有意义的，是通过言语社会中的本族语者而不仅仅是调查者的聪明和直觉获得的。5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind. 共时：以一个固定的时间（通常，但非必须，是现在）为它的观察角度的描写。大多数的语法书属于此类型。 6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 历时：在语言的历史过程中研究语言。 7.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,https://www.doczj.com/doc/1915111416.html,ying down rules for language use. 规定式：规定事情应该是怎样的。如制定语言运用规则。 8.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 描写式：描述事情是怎样的。 9.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 任意性：人类语言的本质特征之一。它指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系。 10.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 二重性：人类语言的本质特征之一。拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。 11.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space),at the moment of communication.
Chapter 5 Semantics ?Semantics----the study of language meaning. ?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning. ?Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other w ords, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of context. ?Meaning is central to the study of communication. ?Classification of lexical meanings. Here are G. Leech’s seven types of meaning. ( British linguist) ? 1. Conceptual meaning (also called denotative or cognitive meaning) is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. It means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to. ? 2. Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent, peripheral ? 3. Social meaning (stylistic meaning) –what is conveyed about the social circumstances of the use of a linguistic expression ? 4. Affective meaning (affected meaning)– what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writer towards what is referred to ? 5. Reflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression ?Taboos ? 6. Collocative meaning – the associated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of words which tend to co-occur with it ?(2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can be together called associative meaning–meaning that hinges on referential meaning, less stable, more culture-specific ) 7. Thematic meaning—what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order ?What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning. Some views concerning the study of meaning ?Naming theory (Plato) ?The conceptualist view ?Contextualism (Bloomfield) ?Behaviorism Naming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things. The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things ?Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix… 3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
第三章 ） Answers to End-of-Chapter Questions 1. Use the information in the table on labor productivities in France and Germany to answer the following questions.使用该信息表上关于法国和德国的劳动生产率，以回答以下问题。 Output per Hour Worked单 位工作小时的产出 France Germany Cheese 2 kilograms 1 kilogram Cars 0.25 0.5 a. Which country has an absolute advantage in cheese? In cars?哪个国家有奶酪的绝 对优势？汽车呢？ b. What is the relative price of cheese in France if it does not trade? In Germany, if it does not trade?什么是奶酪在法国的相对价格，如果它不交易？在德国，如果不 进行交易？ c. What is opportunity cost of cheese in France? In Germany?法国奶酪的机会成本是 多少？德国呢？ d. Which country has a comparative advantage in cheese? In cars? Show how you know.在奶酪生产上，那个国家有比较优势？在汽车生产上呢？解释你的结论 e. What are the upper and lower bounds for the trade price of cheese?奶酪交易价格的 上下边界是什么？ f.Draw a hypothetical PPC for France and label its slope. Suppose that France follows its comparative advantage in deciding where to produce on its PPC. Label its production point.画一条假设的法国生产可能性曲线并标出其斜率。假设法国根 据其比较优势决定生产可能性曲线上生产点，标出其生产点。 If the trade price of cars is 5 kilos of cheese per car, draw a trade line showing how France can gain from trade.如果贸易价格是每辆汽车换5千克奶酪，画出交易线 说明法国能够得到的贸易利得。 Answers: a. France has the absolute advantage in cheese and Germany in cars. This follows because France’s productivity is higher in cheese and Germany’s is higher in cars. 法国有干酪和德国车的绝对优势。在此之前，因为法国的生产力是奶酪更高，德 国是汽车高 b. The autarkic relative price of cheese in France is one-eighth car per kilogram; in Germany it is one-half car.奶酪在法国的自给自足的相对价格是每公斤八分之一 的汽车;在德国它是二分之一的汽车 c. Opportunity costs are equal to relative prices.机会成本等于相对价格
法语语言学导论 An Introduction to French Linguistics 课程简介： 本课程是针对法语专业四年级学生开设的专业选修课。本课程主要介绍了法语语言学的来源及其发展；语音和音位；词汇的结构和组织；缀词成句；语言的意义；使用中的语言等内容。本课程可以使得高年级学生对语言学各学科进行初步的了解，对语言系统有了进一步认识，初步掌握语言的研究方法，为研究语言奠定基础。 Course description: This course is a major optional course offered for the senior students majoring in French. The course mainly introduces the origin and development of French linguistics; phonetics and phonology; the structure and formation of words; structuring sentences ; the meaning of language; language in use, etc. This course enables seniors to get a preliminary understanding of sub-disciplines of linguistics, have a further understanding of language system and master preliminary research methods of language so as to lay a foundation for their study of language. 教学大纲： Syllabus: 一．教学目的和要求 本课程的教学目标是系统地介绍语言学各学科的知识和理论，使学生了解现代语言科学的相关术语和研究方法，培养学生语言研究的兴趣，获得运用科学方法考察语言现象的能力和习惯，提高学生的语言理论水平和语言分析能力，为学生学习其他语言课程提供必要的理论知识，为今后从事语言教学和语言研究工作奠定必要的基础。 Teaching objectives and requirements This course aims at introducing the knowledge and theories of sub-disciplines of linguistics systematically, enabling students to understand relative terms and research methods of modern linguistics, arousing their interests in language research, making them obtain the ability and habit of using the scientific methods to observe the phenomenon of language, and improving their abilities of learning linguistic theories and analyzing language, thus to provide necessary theoretical knowledge for the students learning other language courses and lay a solid foundation for their further language teaching and language studies. 教学内容 本课程主要概述语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和类型学等学科的知识与理论，通过本课程的学习，学生能够正确理解、认识和分析语言的起源、特性、功能和内部各层次，了解语言在时空中的变异及其与思维、文化、社会、语境、文学等外部因素的关系，熟悉语言科学的概念和术语的意义，并用具体的证据加以说明。除此之外，《语言学导论》课程还介绍应用语言学、心理语言学、认知语言学及计算机语言学等学科的知识与理论。 Teaching contents This course mainly offers an overview of the knowledge and theories of some disciplines such as phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, typology and so on. Through this course, students can understand and analyze the origin, characteristics, functions and internal levels of language, understand the variation of language in the space and time and its relationship with some external factors
Chapter 3 1．Home has 1200 units of labor available. It can produce two goods, apples and bananas. The unit labor requirement in apple production is 3, while in banana production it is 2. a ． b ．What is the opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas? 5.1=Lb La a a c ．In the absence of trade, what would the price of apples in terms of bananas be? In the absence of trade, since labor is the only factor of production and supply decisions are determined by the attempts of individuals to maximize their earnings in a competitive economy, only when Lb La b a /a a /P P =will both goods be produced. So 1.5 /P P b a = 2．Home is as described in problem 1. There is now also another country, Foreign, with a labor force of 800. Foreign’s unit labor requirement in apple production is 5, while in banana production it is 1. a ． b ．
2020年英语专业考研参考攻略——参考书目 2020年考研的同学们应该已经把参考书目大致浏览了一遍。有的同学已经购买了大量的参考复习资料，大部分学校已经不给参考书目，只列出了考试科目或者大纲。这么多参考书目，如何选择最适合的一本，哪本书对我们的考试最有帮助，下面小编一一为你解答。 我们先看看“英语专业考研”的概念。它是针对报考英语专业研究生的考生而进行的考试，具体考核科目为：政治（100分）、二外（100分）、基础英语（150分）以及综合英语（150分）。部分学校的两门专业课名称会有出入，但基本上都考察学生对英语各个方面的掌握，包括最基本的语法、写作、阅读以及涉及到专业知识的英语语言国家文化、英美文学、外国语言学与应用语言学和翻译（包括理论）等。 我们首先盘点有哪些复习用书： 一、基础英语复习用书 1.张汉熙的《高级英语》1、2册（最热门的英专考研用书，基本上每个学校都会将其列入。大部分学校都把张汉熙先生的书作为大三大四的授课教材） 2.邹申《写作教程》（1-4册）上海外语教育出版社，2011年。 3.李观仪《新编英语教程》第5~8册 4.蒋显璟《英美散文选读》1、2册（第二版）（对外经贸大学英语学院考研特色书籍，值得推荐） 二、英语语言学的复习用书 1.胡壮麟《语言学教程》（最热门、最经典的英专语言学考研用书，高校英语系授课经典用书）最好配上一套《胡壮麟语言学教程笔记和考研真题详解》，中国石化出版社 2.刘润清、文旭《新编语言学教程》 3.桂诗春《应用语言学》 4.戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（也有一本《语言学教程学习指南》，高校英语系授课经典用书，备考经典书目） 5.蓝纯《语言导论》 6.杨信彰《语言学概论》
胡壮麟语言学重难点 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 常考考点：1. 语言: 语言的定义；语言的基本特征；语言的功能；语言的起源 2. 语言学：语言学的定义；现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别；语言学研究的四个原则及简要说明；语言学中的几组重要区别；每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。 1. 语言的定义特征 1.1. 任意性 1.2. 二重性 1.3. 创造性 1.4. 移位性 1.5. 文化传递性 1.6. 互换性 2. 语言的功能 1.1. 信息功能 1.2. 人际功能 1.3. 施为功能 1.4. 感情功能 1.5. 寒暄功能 1.6. 娱乐功能 1.7. 元语言功能
3. 微观语言学 3.1. 语音学 3.2. 音系学 3.3. 形态学 3.4. 句法学 3.5. 语义学 3.6. 语用学 4. 宏观语言学 4.1. 心理语言学 4.2. 社会语言学 4.3. 应用语言学 4.4. 计算语言学 4.5. 神经语言学 5. 重要概念及其区分 5.1. 描写式&规定式 5.2. 共时&历时 5.3. 语言&言语 5.4. 语言能力&语言应用 5.5. 唯素的&唯位的 5.6. 传统语法&现代语法 5.7. 语言潜势&实际语言行为 Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义；发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类；基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法 2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系与区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布于互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音；音高和语调。 1. 语音学及其三大领域 1.1. 语音学定义 1.2. 语音学三大领域 ①发音语音学 ②声学语音学 ③听觉语音学 2. 辅音 2.1. 辅音定义 发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞，由此产生的音叫做辅音。 2.2. 发音方式 发音方式是指发音器官之间的关系，以及气流经过声道的某些部位的方式 2.3. 发音部位 发音部位是指声道的哪些部位发生气流摩擦、狭窄化或阻碍。 3. 元音
Chapter 1 Language语言 1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2. Productivity (能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language. 3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. 4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention. 5. discreteness(离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. 6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users. 7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure. 8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance. 9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 1. ★What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language. First, language is a system. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense. The third feature of language is symbolic nature. 2. ★What are the design features of language? Language has seven design features as following: 1) Productivity. 2) Discreteness. 3) Displacement 4) Arbitrariness. 5) Cultural transmission 6) Duality of structure. 7) Interchangeability. 3. Why do we say language is a system? Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other. 4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language? I. H alliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language: 1) Instrumental function. 工具功能 2) Regulatory function. 调节功能 3) Representational function. 表现功能 4) Interactional function. 互动功能 5) Personal function. 自指性功能 6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h] 7) Imaginative function. 想象功能 II. A dult language has three functional components as following: 1) Interpersonal components. 人际 2) Ideational components.概念 3) Textual components.语篇