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加里森管理会计讲义笔记英文版最新精品GNB_16e_CH11_LectureNotes

加里森管理会计讲义笔记英文版最新精品GNB_16e_CH11_LectureNotes
加里森管理会计讲义笔记英文版最新精品GNB_16e_CH11_LectureNotes

Chapter 11

Lecture Notes

Chapter theme: Managers in large organizations have to Array delegate some decisions to those who are at lower levels in

the organization. This chapter explains how responsibility

accounting systems, return on investment (ROI),

residual income, operating performance measures, and

the balanced scorecard are used to help control

decentralized organizations.

I.Decentralization in organizations

A. A decentralized organization does not confine

decision-making authority to a few top executives;

rather, decision-making authority is spread

throughout the organization. The advantages and

disadvantages of decentralization are as follows:

i.Advantages of decentralization

1.It enables top management to concentrate on

strategy, higher-level decision making, and

coordinating activities.

2.It acknowledges that lower-level managers

have more detailed information about local

conditions that enable them to make better

operational decisions.

3.It enables lower-level managers to quickly

respond to customers.

4.It provides lower-level managers with the

decision-making experience they will need

when promoted to higher level positions.

5. It often increases motivation , resulting in increased job satisfaction and retention, as well as improved performance.

ii. Disadvantages of decentralization

1. Lower-level managers may make decisions

without fully understanding the “big picture.”

2. There may be a lack of coordination among

autonomous managers.

a. The balanced scorecard can help reduce

this problem by communicating a

company’s strategy throughout the

organization.

3. Lower-level managers may have objectives

that differ from those of the entire

organization.

a. This problem can be reduced by designing

performance evaluation systems that

motivate managers to make decisions that

are in the best interests of the company.

4. It may be difficult to effectively spread

innovative ideas in a strongly decentralized

organization.

II. Responsibility accounting

A. Responsibility accounting systems link lower-level

managers’ decision -making authority with

accountability for the outcomes of those decisions.

The term responsibility center is used for any part of an organization whose manager has control over, and is accountable for cost, profit, or investments. The

three primary types of responsibility centers are cost centers, profit centers, and investment centers.

i.Cost center

1.The manager of a cost center has

control over

costs, but not over revenue or investment funds.

a.Service departments such as accounting,

general administration, legal, and personnel

are usually classified as cost centers, as are

manufacturing facilities.

b.Standard cost variances and flexible

budget variances, such as those discussed

in Chapters 10 and 11, are often used to

evaluate cost center performance.

ii.Profit center

1.The manager of a profit center has control over

both costs and revenue.

a.Profit center managers are often evaluated

by comparing actual profit to targeted or

budgeted profit.

iii.I nvestment center

1.The manager of an investment center has

control over cost, revenue, and investments

in operating assets.

b.Investment center managers are usually

evaluated using return on investment (ROI)

or residual income, as discussed later in this

chapter.

III. Evaluating investment center performance – return on investment

Learning Objective 1: Compute return on investment Array (ROI) and show how changes in sales, expenses, and

assets affect ROI.

A. Key concepts/definitions

i. Investment center performance is often evaluated

using a measure called return on investment

(ROI), which is defined as follows:

Net operating income

ROI

Average operating assets

ii. Net operating income is income before taxes and is sometimes referred to as EBIT (earnings before

interest and taxes). Operating assets include cash,

accounts receivable, inventory, plant and

equipment, and all other assets held for operating

purposes.

1. Net operating income is used in the numerator

because the denominator consists only of

operating assets.

2. The operating asset base used in the formula is

typically computed as the average of the assets

between the beginning and the end of the year.

iii. N et book value versus gross cost

1. Most companies use the

net book value (i.e.,

acquisition cost less accumulated depreciation)

of depreciable assets to calculate average

operating assets.

a. With this approach, ROI mechanically

increases over time as the accumulated

depreciation increases. Replacing a fully-

depreciated asset with a new asset will

decrease ROI.

2. An alternative to net book value is the gross

cost of the asset, which ignores accumulated

depreciation.

a. With this approach, ROI does not grow

automatically over time, rather it stays

constant. Replacing a fully-depreciated

asset does not adversely affect ROI.

B. Understanding ROI

i. Du Pont pioneered the use of ROI and recognized

the importance of looking at the components of

ROI, namely margin and turnover.

1. Margin is computed as shown and is improved

by increasing unit sales, increasing selling

prices, or reducing operating expenses. The

lower the operating expenses per dollar of sales,

the higher the margin earned.

2. Turnover is computed as shown. It incorporates a crucial area of a manager’s responsibility – the investment in operating assets. Excessive funds tied up in operating assets depress turnover and lower ROI.

Helpful Hint: Emphasize that both margin and turnover affect profitability. As an example, ask students to

compare the margins and turnovers of grocery stores to jewelry stores. In equilibrium, every industry should have roughly the same ROI. Groceries, because of their short shelf life, have high turnovers relative to fine jewelry. If the ROIs are to be comparable in grocery stores and in jewelry stores, the margins would have to be higher in jewelry stores.

ii. To illustrate how to increase ROI, assume that Regal Company reports the results shown:

1. Given this information, its current ROI is 15%.

2. Suppose that Regal’s manager invests in a $30,000 piece of equipment that increases sales by $35,000 while increasing operating expenses by $15,000. a. In this case, the ROI increases from 15% to 21.8%.

C. Criticisms of ROI

i. Just telling managers to increase ROI may not be

enough. Managers may not know how to

increase ROI in a manner that is consistent with the company’s strategy.

1. This is why ROI is best used as part of a

balanced scorecard.

ii. A manager who takes over a business segment typically inherits many committed costs over which the manager has no control. This may make it difficult to assess this manager relative to other managers.

iii. A manager who is evaluated based on ROI may reject investment opportunities that are

profitable for the whole company but that would have a negative impact on the manager’s

performance evaluation.

Helpful Hint: When discussing the criticisms of ROI and other measures of profitability, ask students to play the role of a manager who anticipates a short tenure. This manager will want to increase ROI as quickly as possible. Ask students to list the activities that could be undertaken to increase ROI that, in reality, would hurt the company as a whole.

IV. Residual income

Learning Objective 2: Compute residual income and understand its strengths and weaknesses.

A. Defining residual income

i. Residual income is the net operating income that an investment center earns above the minimum required return on its assets .

B. Calculating residual income

i. The equation for computing residual income is as

shown. Notice: 1. This computation

differs from ROI. ROI measures net operating income earned relative

to the investment in average operating assets. Residual income measures net operating income earned less the minimum required return on average operating assets. ii. Zepher, Inc. - an example

1. Assume the information as given for a division of Zepher, Inc.

2. The residual income ($10,000) is computed by subtracting the minimum required return ($20,000) from the actual income ($30,000).

C.

Motivation and residual income i. The residual income approach encourages managers to make investments that are profitable for the entire company but that would be rejected by managers who are evaluated using the ROI formula. More specifically:

1. It motivates managers to pursue investments

where the ROI associated with those

investments exceeds the company’s minimum

required return but is less than the ROI being

earned by the managers.

Quick Check – ROI versus residual income

D.

Divisional comparison and residual income i.

The residual income approach has one major

disadvantage. It cannot be used to compare the performance of divisions of different sizes.

ii. Zepher, Inc. – continued

1. Recall that the Retail Division of Zepher had

average operating assets of $100,000, a

minimum required rate of return of 20%, net

operating income of $30,000, and residual

income of $10,000.

2. Assume that the Wholesale Division of Zepher

had average operating assets of $1,000,000, a

minimum required rate of return of 20%, net

operating income of $220,000, and residual

income of $20,000.

3. The residual income numbers suggest that the Wholesale Division outperformed the Retail Division because its residual income is $10,000 higher. However: a. The Retail Division earned an ROI of

30% compared to an ROI of 22% for

the Wholesale Division. The

Wholesale Division’s residual income

is larger than the Retail Division

simply because it is a bigger division .

V.

Operating performance measures

Learning Objective 3: Compute throughput time,

delivery cycle time, and manufacturing cycle efficiency (MCE).

A. Key definitions/concepts

i. Throughput (manufacturing cycle) time is the

elapsed time from when production is started until finished goods are shipped to customers.

1. This includes process time, inspection time, move time, and queue time . Process time is the only value-added activity of the four

mentioned.

ii. Delivery cycle time is the elapsed time from when

a customer order is received until the finished goods are shipped.

iii. Manufacturing cycle efficiency (MCE) is

computed by dividing value-added time by throughput time.

1. The goal is to increase this measure.

2. Any non-value-added time results in an MCE of less than 1.0.

Quick Check – internal business process measures VI. Balanced scorecard

Learning Objective 4: Understand how to construct and use a balanced scorecard.

A. Key concepts

i. A balanced scorecard consists of an integrated

set of performance measures that are derived from and support a company’s strategy. Importantly, the measures included in a company’s balanced scorecard are unique to its specific strategy . ii. The balanced scorecard enables top management

to translate its strategy into four groups of performance measures – financial, customer, internal business process, and learning and growth ? that employees can understand and influence.

1.The premise of these four groups of measures

is that learning is necessary to improve

internal business processes, which in turn

improves the level of customer satisfaction, which in turn improves financial results.

a.Note the emphasis on improvement, not

just attaining some specific objective.

iii.

The balanced scorecard relies on

non-financial measures in addition to financial measures for

two reasons:

1.Financial measures are lag indicators that

summarize the results of past actions. Non-

financial measures are leading indicators of

future financial performance.

2.Top managers are ordinarily responsible for

financial performance measures – not lower

level managers. Non-financial measures are

more likely to be understood and controlled

by lower level managers.

iv.While the entire organization has an overall balanced scorecard, each responsible individual

should have his or her own personal scorecard as well.

1.A personal scorecard should contain measures

that can be influenced by the individual being

evaluated and that support the measures in the

overall balanced scorecard.

v. A balanced scorecard, whether for an individual

or the company as a whole, should have measures that are linked together on a cause-and-effect basis .

1. Each link can be read as a hypothesis in the form “If we improve this performance measure, then this other performance measure should

also improve.”

2. In essence, the balanced scorecard lays out a theory of how a company can take concrete actions to attain desired outcomes. If the theory proves false or the company alters its strategy, the measures within the scorecard are subject to change .

vi. Incentive compensation for employees

probably should be linked to balanced scorecard performance measures .

1. However, this should only be done after the organization has been successfully managed with the scorecard for some time – perhaps a year or more . Managers must be confident that the measures are reliable, not easily

manipulated, and understandable by those being evaluated with them.

B. The balanced scorecard – an example i. Assume that Jaguar pursues a strategy as shown on this slide. Examples of measures that Jaguar might select with their corresponding cause-and-effect linkages include:

1. If “employee skills in installing options ” increases, then the “number of options available ” should increase and the “time to install an option ” should decrease.

2. If the “number of options available ” increases and the “time to install an option” decreases, then “customer surveys: satisfaction with options available” should increase.

3. If the “customer surveys: satisfaction with options available ” increases, then the “number of cars sold ” should increase.

4. If the “time to install an option ” decreases and the “customer surveys: satisfaction with options available ” increases, then the “contribution margin per car ” should increase.

5. If the “number of cars sold ” and the “contribution margin per car ” increase, then the “profit ” should incr ease.

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