简明新编英语语言学教程教案

《英语语言学》课程大纲课程名称：英语语言学课程编号：总学时：36适应对象：英语本科专科一、教学目的与任务《英语语言学》是英语专业高年级学生开设的学科方向课。

旨在使学生了解人类语言研究的成果，提高对语言的本质、功能的认识，了解语言与人类之间的关系，培养学生的语言意识，发展理性思维。

该课程要求学生掌握语言学学科的基本概念；了解语言与心理、社会、文化、文学等跨学科研究的关系及其发展现状和趋势。

该课程的学习有助于拓宽学生的思维与视野，培养并激发学生对语言研究的兴趣，为其在相关领域的进一步学习及研究打好基础。

二、教学基本要求语言学是以语言为研究对象的一门科学。

教学中应处理好以下方面的关系。

1、在理解的基础上进行记忆，特别是一些重要术语的翻译与定义以及几大语法学派的理论主张，有影响力的语言学家的姓名、著作以及贡献等。

注意阅读课文时要认真仔细。

2、通读和理解课文的基础上进行总结，对各部分所讲的主要内容做到心中有数，重点明确。

3、在学习过程中，注意联系、对比，将所学语言学理论与英语外语学习实际相结合。

4、注意提高运用理论解决实际问题的能力。

5、培养学生学术论文写作的能力，建构写作的理论基础及理论依据。

三、教学内容及要求：第一章语言学导论1.1 为什么学习语言？1.2 什么是语言？1.3 语言的本质特征1.3.1 任意性arbitrariness1.3.2 二重性duality1.3.3 创造性productivity or creativity1.3.4 移位性displacement1.4 语言的起源1.5 语言的功能1.5.1 信息功能informative1.5.2 人际功能1.5.3 施为功能1.5.4 感情功能emotive1.5.5 交感性谈话1.5.6 娱乐性功能1.5.7 元语言功能1.6 什么是语言学？1.7 语言学的主要分支1.7.1 语音学phonetics1.7.2 音系学phonlogy1.7.3 形态学mprphology1.7.4 句法学syntax1.7.5 语义学semantics1.7.6 语用学pragmatics1.8 宏观语言学1.8.1 心理语言学1.8.2 社会语言学1.8.3 人类语言学1.8.4 计算语言学1.9 语言学中的一些重要区别1.9.1 “描写式”和“规定式”descriptive and prescriptive1.9.2 “共时”和“历时”synchronic and diachronic1.9.3 “语言”和“言语”langue and parol1.9.4 语言能力和语言应用competence and performance1.9.5 “非位的”与“位学的”第二章语音2.1 言语产生和言语感知2.2 言语器官2.3 音段、分化和标音法2.3.1 音段和分化2.3.2 标音法2.4 辅音2.4.1 辅音和元音2.4.2 辅音2.4.3 发音方法2.4.4 发音部位2.4.5 英语中的辅音2.5 元音2.5.1 元音描写的原则2.5.2 基本元音理论2.5.3 元音音渡2.5.4 标准发音中的元音2.6 协同发音和语音描写2.6.1 协同发音2.6.2 宽式标音和严式标音2.7 音位分析2.8 音位和音位变体2.8.1 最小对立体2.8.2 音位理论2.8.3 音位变体2.9 音位过程2.9.1 同化2.9.2 音系过程和音系规则2.9.3 规则顺序2.10 区别性特征2.11 音节2.11.1 音节结构2.11.2 响音阶2.11.3 音节划分和最大节首原则2.12 重音第三章形态学3.1 什么是词？3.1.1 “词”的三种含义3.1.2 词的识别3.1.3 词的分类3.2 词的形成3.2.1 语素和形态学3.2.2 语素的类型3.2.3 曲折变化和词的形成3.2.4 音系学和形态学的对立3.3 词汇变化3.3.1 特有的词汇变化3.3.2 音位变化3.3.3 形态-句法变化3.3.4 语义变化3.3.5 拼写的变化第四章句法4.1 传统学派4.1.1 数、性、格4.1.2 时和体4.1.3 一致关系和支配关系4.2 结构主义学派4.2.1 组合关系与聚合关系4.2.2 直接成分分析法4.2.3 向心结构和离心结构4.3 生成学派4.3.1 深层结构和表层结构4.3.2 标准理论及其后的发展4.3.3 管辖、约束等4.4 功能学派4.4.1 功能句子观4.4.2 系统功能语法第五章语义学5.1 “意义”的意义5.2 指称论5.3 涵义关系5.3.1 同义关系5.3.2 反义关系5.3.3 上下义关系5.4 成分分析5.5 句子意义5.5.1 一个整体理论5.5.2 逻辑语义学第六章语用学6.1 言语行为理论(Speech act theory)6.1.1 施为句（performatives）和表述句(constatives) 6.1.2 行事行为(illocutionary act)理论6.2 会话含义(conversational implicature)理论6.2.1 合作原则6.2.2 准则的违背6.2.3 含义的特征6.3 后格莱斯时期的发展6.3.1 关联理论(relevance theory)6.3.2 数量原则(Q-Principle)和关系原则(R-Principle)6.3.3 数量原则(Q-principle)、信息原则(I-principle)和方式原则(M-principle)四、学时分配与教学方式：总学时：36学时Chapter One: Introduction（6学时）Chapter Two: Phonology （6学时）Chapter Three: Morphology（6学时）Chapter Four: Syntax （6学时）Chapter Five: Semantics （6学时）Chapter Six: Pragmatics（6学时）五、考核方式考查六、本课程与其他课程的关系：英语语言学是专业学生高年级的知识课。

涉及语言的一般特征研究、语言的内部研究以及外部使用环境研究。

该课程与英美文学、教学法、语音学、语法学、词汇学、测试学、语用学、论文写作等课程具有紧密的联系。

语言学课程可以为其他相关课程提供理论依据，教学内容可以做到相互渗透、相互交流。

七、教材戴炜栋，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社，2002年。

The Goals for this CourseTo get a scientific view on language;To understand some basic theories on linguistics;To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;To prepare for the future research work.The Requirements for this courseClass attendanceClassroom discussionTo look up and memorize academic termsFulfillment of the presentationChapter 1. Introduction1. What is language?Language can mean1). what a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions)2). the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeare‟s language, Luxun‟s language)3). a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language)4). the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g. Chinese language, first language)5). the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language)6). a tool for human communication. (social function)7). a set of rules. (rule-governed)Sapir’s definition (1921)“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”Hall’s definition (1968)Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate an d interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”Chomsky’s definition (1957)“From now on I will consider language to be a set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”Language can be generally defined asa system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1). Language is a systemSystematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.2). Language is arbitraryArbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen”by any other name is the thing we use to write with.3). Language is symbolic in natureSymbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare4). Language is primarily vocalV ocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form.5). Language is human-specificHuman-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统,当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.2. The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett)ArbitrarinessProductivity/CreativityDualityDisplacementCultural transmissionArbitrariness----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings.Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha,dingdang… )Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…Productivity/creativity----Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible.The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “talk” about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires.Duality (double articulation) 双重陈述Lower level----sounds (meaningless)Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (we make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.Displacement----Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places.A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last yearThere is something special about the bee dance though. Bees communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignif icant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries.Cultural transmission----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.3. Functions of languagePhatic: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact.Directive: get the hearer to do something.Informative: give information about facts.Interrogative: get information from others.Expressive: express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.Evocative: create certain feelings in the hearer (amuse, startle, soothe, worry or please) Performative: language is used to do things, to perform actions.4. What is linguistics?----Linguistics is the scientific study of language.----A person who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.5 The scope or major branches of linguisticsTheoretical linguistics1). Phonetics----speech sound (description, classification, transcription): articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics.2). Phonology----sound patterns of languages3). Morphology----the form of words4). Syntax----the rules governing the combination of words into sentence.5). Semantics----the meaning of language.6). Pragmatics----when the meaning of language is conducted in the context of language use.Use of linguistics1). Applied linguistics----linguistics and language teaching2). Sociolinguistics---- social factors (e.g. class, education) affect language use3). Psycholinguistics----linguistic behavior and psychological process4). Stylistics----linguistic and literature5) Some other applications like Anthropological linguistics, Neurolinguistics, Computational linguistics (e.g. machine translation)6. Some important distinctions in linguistics1) Descriptive vs prescriptiveDescriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic)Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)2) Synchronic vs diachronicSynchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study---- description of a language through time (historical development of language overa period of time)3) Speech vs writingSpeech ---- primary medium of languageWriting ---- later developed4) Langue vs parole (F. de Saussure)Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.5) Competence and performance (Chomsky)Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.6) T raditional grammar vs modern linguisticsTraditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based frameworkChapter 2 Phonology1. Language is primarily vocal.The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication.2. Phonetics----A branch of linguistics which studies the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.2.1 Three branches of phonetics2.1.1 Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”2.1.2Auditory phonetics----from the he arers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”2.1.3Acoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted fromone to another.Articulatory phoneticsSpeech organs: three important areas: pharyngeal cavity—the throat(咽腔); oral cavity—the mouth(口腔); nasal cavity —the nose(鼻腔)The speech organs:Lips,Teeth, Teeth ridge (alveolar), Hard palate, Soft palate (velum), Uvula, Tip of tongue, Blade of tongue, Back of tongue, V ocal cords, Pharyngeal cavity, Nasal cavity Orthographic representation of speech sounds---- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.⏹Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear [ l ], [ pit ]⏹Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ]Some major articulatory variables ---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary:⏹Voicing---- voiced & voiceless⏹Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasal⏹Aspiration ----- aspirated & unaspiratedClassification of English speech sounds---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories: V owels and Consonants (Note: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the airstream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.)Classification of consonants---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions:The manner of articulation and The place of articulationClassification of vowels---- English vowels can be divided into two large categories: Monophthongs or pure/single vowels 单元音and Diphthongs or gliding vowels双元音Exercises: underline the words that begin with a sound as required.1.A bilabial consonant: mad sad bad cad pad had lad2.A velar consonant: nod god cod pod rodbiodental consonant: rat fat sat mat chat vat pat4.An alveolar consonant: nick lick sick tick kick quick5.A palato-alveolar consonant: sip ship tip chip lip zip6.A dental consonant: lie buy thigh thy tie rye7.A glide: one war yolk rushUnderline the words that end with a sound as required:⏹A fricativepay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave message⏹A nasaltrain bang leaf limb⏹A stopdrill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack throughtip⏹An affricate: rack such ridge boozeUnderline the words that contain the sound as required:⏹A central vowel:mad lot but boot word⏹A front vowel:reed pad load fate bit bed cook⏹A rounded vowel:who he bus her hit true boss bar walk⏹A back vowel:paid reap fool top good fatherPhonology⏹Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.Phonetics & phonology⏹Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.⏹Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.⏹Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Complementary distribution：allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].Minimal pair：when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.Some rules of phonology1）Sequential rules：the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, e.g.in E nglish, “k b i l” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.a) the first phoneme must be /s/,b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/,c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.* [ ] never occurs in initial position in English and standard Chinese,but it does occur in some dialects, e.g. in Cantonese: “牛肉，我，俄语……”2）Assimilation rule同化：assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in is pronounced differently when in different phonetic contexts:Indiscreet：alveolar [in]Inconceivable：velar [i ]Input：bilabial [im ]（Assimilation in Mandari：好啊hao wa；海啊hai ya；看啊kan na；唱啊chang a ；跳啊tiao wa……）3）Deletion rule：it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, e.g. design, paradigm, there is no [g] sound; but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic.4）Suprasegmental features----the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments ( larger than phoneme): stress，tone，intonation.a. Syllable (what is syllable?)Ancient Greek: a unit of speech sound consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant.Dictionary: word or part of a word which contains a vowel sound or consonant acting as a vowel.The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET, the PEAK, the CODA, e.g. [m n].The peak is the essential part. It is usually formed by a vowel. But [l], [n] and [m] might also function as peaks as in “ apple, hidden, communism”.b. Stress: (Word stress & Sentence stress)Word stress: The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word:verb: im port; in crease; re bel; re cord …noun: import; increase; rebel; record …Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements:compound: blackbird; greenhouse; hotdog…noun phrase: black bird; green house; hot dog…The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns:modifier: dining-room; readingroom; sleepingbag…doer: sleeping baby; swimming fish; flying plane…Sentence stress: the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns指示代词are stressed. Other categories like artic les, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.He is driving my car.My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.c. T oneTones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.ma 妈(level)ma 麻(the second rise)ma 马(the third rise)ma 骂(the fourth fall)d. IntonationWhen pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)For instance,“That‟s not the book he wants.”Grammatical functions of intonations----Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, esp. in English.a) It may indicate different sentence types by pitch direction.b) It may impose different structures on the sentence by dividing it into different intonation units, e.g. “John didn‟t come because of Marry”Within one intonation unit, it means: John came, but it had nothing to do with Marry.With two intonation units, it means: Marry was the reason why John didn‟t come.Exercises: Think of the utterance in different intonations:“Those who bought quickly made a profit.”c) It can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing nucleus on it, e.g.Jack came yesterday by train.d) Its attitudinal functions.Falling tone ---- matter-of-fact statement, downright assertion, commands.Rising tone ----politeness, encouragement, pleading.Note: these can only be very general indications. The specific attitudinal meaning of an intonation pattern must be interpreted within a context.Chapter 3 MorphologyMorphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.1. Open class word and closed class word5）Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. beatnik(a member of the Beat Generation), hacker, email, internet, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chinese.6）Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns.2. Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaning---Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.1-morpheme boy, desire2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble3-morpheme boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism3. Affix1) Prefix ---- morphemes that occur only before others, e.g.un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.2) Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others, e.g.-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.4. Free morpheme & bound morpheme1)Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such asbed, tree, sing, dance, etc.2)Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme.They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.5. AllomorphSome morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as “dog, bark, cat”,etc. In other instances, there may be some variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morpheme may be represented by:map----maps [s] dog----dogs [z] watch----watches [iz] mouse----mice [ai] ox----oxen [n] tooth----teethsheep----sheepEach of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.6. Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme1)Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.2)Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.a) number: tables apples carsb) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talkedc) case: John/John’s7. Some other terms1) RootA root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed, e.g. “desire”in “desirable”, “care” in“carefully”, “nation” in “internationalism”, “believe” in “unbeliev(e)able”…2)StemA stem is part of a word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed, e.g. “undesiralbe” in u ndesirables3)BaseA base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. This means any stem and root can be termed as a base.The difference between root, stem & base1) A base can be added by both inflectional & derivational affixes while a stem canbe added only by inflectional affixes;2) A base is derivationally analyzable (e.g. undesire in undesirable) while a rootcannot be further analyzed, e.g. desire in undesirable;3)Root, stem and base can be the same form, e.g. desire in desired;4)Undesirable in undesirables is either a stem or a base;5)Desirable in undesirable is only a base.8. Morphological rules1)The rules that govern the formation of words, e.g. the “un- + ----” rule.unfair unthinkable unacceptable…2)Compounding is another way to form new words, e.g.landlady rainbow undertake…9. Compounds1)Noun compoundsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V) callgirl (V+N) windmill (N+N)2)V erb compoundsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)3)Adjective compoundsmaneating (N+Ving) heartfelt (N+V ed) dutyfree (N+adj.)4)Preposition compoundsinto (P+P) throughout (P+P)Some points about compounds1)When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be inthis category, e.g. postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black…2)When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or finalword will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-strong, pickpocket…3)Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence,e.g. red coat, green house…4)The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?----a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. Transformational Generative Grammar (TG)Norm. Chomsky, the most influential linguist in 20th century, some important works: (1957) Syntactic Structure;(1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax;(1981) Lectures on Government and Binding;(1986) Barriers(1993) A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory;(1995) The Minimalist Program;(1998) The Minimalist Inquiry……3. Criteria on good grammarObservational adequacyDescriptive adequacyExplanatory adequacyThe ultimate goal for any theory is to explain.TG differs from traditional grammar in that it not only aims at language description, but also its explanation.Chomsky is much more interested in the similarities (language universals) between languages rather than their differences.Linguists should attempt to find a grammatical framework which will be suitable for all languages;Linguists should concentrate on the elements and constructions that are available to all languages rather than on elements that actually occur in all languages.There are likely to be universal constraints on the ways linguistic elements are combinedChomsky proposed that the grammars of all human languages share a common framework (Universal Grammar).4. CategoriesCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech)4.1 W ord-level categoriesMajor lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Conj.4.2The criteria on which categories are determinedMeaningInflectionDistributionNote: The most reliable criterion of determining a word’s category i s its distribution.4.3 Phrase categories and their structuresa. Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category。