Examples of template construction1, Selective sample:CHARACTER: to sample only part of sub-groups in the whole general population. SEE ALSO: quantity of the sample, are the respondents representative, changing scopes.BASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that the current sample is not randomly selected and could not represent the general group, or that the survey studies only some special groups of subjects and many other sub-groups have been ignored.EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that the current sample is not representative)One major problem is about the sample the author studied in the survey. EXPLANATION:the author considers only…(selective sub-groups) CONCESSION:although (the sub-groups the author studied)do constitute a significant part of (the whole general population), however, (many other sub-groups) are actually excluded from the survey.ILLUSTRATIONS: (the conditions/situation of other sub-groups might be quite different)PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: without ruling out all the possibilities above, the author could not make any general conclusion about… merely based on (selective sub-groups).2, Quantity of the sampleCHARACTER:the size of the sample is insignificant to be statistically representative.SEE ALSO:selective sample, are the respondents representative, changing scopes.BASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that the current sample is not sufficient in size, and might not represent all other sub-groups.EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that the current sample is too small in its size)(the fact cited by the author) could hardly illustrate the assumption that…. EXPLANATION:because the author provides only N samples of (the general population),TRANSITION: however, (the limited sample) might not be representative of the whole general group.ILLUSTRATIONS:(the sample is too limited to be representative) PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION:thus we cannot accept the author’s conclusion that… before he/she could provide more stat istic data about (the situation of other sub-groups).3, Do the statistics make any difference:CHARACTER: the purpose or the result of the survey is insignificant in supporting the final conclusion.SEE ALSO: what question was asked in the survey, insufficient evidence. BASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that the result of the study could not givesupport to the final conclusion, or even has nothing to do with the conclusion in some cases.EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that the result of the survey is insignificant)The information provided by the author is insufficient for the author to reach the conclusion.EXPLANATION: the survey only studies the situation of …(an(some) insignificant case(s)),TRANSITION:however, many other more essential cases (related to the final conclusion) were ignored in the survey.ILLUSTRATIONS: (we need to know the condition of some other cases about which we care more/ the current case studied in the survey makes little sense on the final conclusion, the author should provide some more important information about the case he studied. )PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION:Lacking further studies on these important issues, the author could not hastily conclude that… merely based on the insignificant study.4, What question was asked in the survey:CHARACTER: the question asked in the survey was not directly related to the final conclusion, or the question itself may have some misleading effects.SEE ALSO: do the statistics make any difference, insufficient evidence.BASIC ARCHITECTURE:to point out that there are logical gaps between thequestion asked in the survey and the final conclusion, or some other critical questions should be asked in the survey.EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that the question asked in the survey is insignificant)Another problem which should be pointed out is the question asked in the survey about….EXPLANATION:merely these questions could not lend strong support to the author’s conclusion that…ILLUSTRATIONS: (the question has no direct relation to the final conclusion, or some other critical questions should be asked in the survey to get more valuable information. )PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: For the flaws existed in the survey question, the result cited above could hardly constitute concrete evidence for the conclusion.5, Who conducted the survey:CHARACTER: the institution who conducted the survey may have vested interest in the result, or it may affect the reliability of the result.BASIC ARCHITECTURE:to point out that the institution may have vested interest in the result and may distort the actual opinions of respondents.EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that the result of the survey may not be reliable because of the institution or individuals who conducted the survey)The reliability of the survey is also open to doubt due to the organization who conducted the survey.EXPLANATION:(the organization)has vested interest in the final decision/conclusion which was based on the result of the survey, and thus might distort the actual answers of the respondents.ILLUSTRATIONS: (the institution/individuals may benefit greatly from the result if the result was interpreted as was currently )PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: Thus, the author should cite a survey which is conducted by an independent institution to convince us that (the assumption).6, When was the survey conducted:CHARACTER:the survey was conducted during a special period, or was conducted a long time ago, thus its result could not represent the current or future conditions.SEE ALSO: inferring a future condition from a past conditionBASIC ARCHITECTURE:to point out that the result of the survey which was conducted during a special period may not accurately reflect the current trends or opinions.EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that the result of the survey may not be representative of current situation due to the date when the survey was conducted)The effectiveness of the result of the survey cited by the author as main evidence is also open to doubt.EXPLANATION: The survey was conduct (during a special period, or a long time ago), thus may not reflect the current situations accurately. CONCESSION: It is true that ( the survey may reflect the opinions or situations of respondents at the time when it was conducted),TRANSITION:but people’s opinion toward (the subject surveyed)may have changed greatly during the past time (or,while this fact could not sufficiently illustrate that (the general group)will also… all the time) ILLUSTRATIONS: (many factors that could influence the validity of the survey will change in the future, or respondents may act differently during the period when the survey was conducted, thus the result of the survey could not represent the all-time situation. )PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: Thus, a more recent survey, if a survey is needed at all, should be p rovided to sufficiently illustrate the author’s assumption that….7, Vague data:CHARACTER: the data or information provided in the argument is too vague for us to make thorough and justified evaluation about the actual situation.SEE ALSO: incomplete informationBASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that the data or information provided by the author is misleadingly vague. We need more accurate data, or in many cases, more information about the base amount or corresponding fraction of the sample in its general group .EXAMPLE:T.S ( pointing out that the data cited in the analysis is too vague)The information concerning … is not accurate enough for us to evaluate the actual condition of ….1)lack of base amount:EXPLANATION:The author only informs us that (the percentage/fraction of sub-groups which…)TRANSITION: but we do not know the base amount of (the general group)2)lack of fraction:EXPLANATION: The author only informs us that many/few (sub-groups) …TRANSITION: however, we need to know what fraction of (the general group) actually …ILLUSTRATIONS:(if the base amount or corresponding fractions vary, the conclusion would be different. )PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: For lack of detailed information about ( the base amount / fraction of)…, we can hardly assess…8,Incomplete information:CHARACTER: the information provided in the argument is incomplete for us to make thorough and justified evaluation about the actual situation.SEE ALSO:vague data, incomplete comparison/selective comparison/ex parteinformation, confusing comparison and variation, failing to weigh the advantage and disadvantage thoroughly, failing to consider the feasibility of the conclusion, insufficient evidenceBASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that the information provided by the author is incomplete. We need more accurate information about the cases studied, or some other information that is more pertinent to the cases should be provided to assess the conclusion.EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that the information provided in the analysis is not sufficient for us)The author does not provide complete information concerning … in illustrating that …EXPLANATION:The author only informs us that…TRANSITION:but what we care more about is that…, which is not provided by the author.ILLUSTRATIONS:(some other substantial information are needed for us to assess the soundness of the argument, and the conclusion would vary greatly when other conditions varied. )PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION:For lack of detailed information about …, we can hardly evaluate …9, Are the respondents forthright when answering the questions: CHARACTER: the respondents may not express their actual feeling or conditionsdue to some circumstances in which the survey was conducted.SEE ALSO: credibility of the evidenceBASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that some setting of the procedure of the survey might be improper to obtain true information from respondents, or the respondents might be unwilling to tell the truth about what they have been asked for some reason.EXAMPLE:T.S ( pointing out that the information provided by the respondents might be inaccurate or misleading)The reliability of the respondents’ answers to the survey’s question is not sufficiently justified to support the conclusion…EXPLANATION: There is possibility that the respondents may not tell the truth about…ILLUSTRATIONS:(answering the questions honestly may lead to some undesirable consequences for the respondents, thus they may evade the crucial point, or even lie in their answers. )PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION:Under such circumstances, it is almost impossible for us to expect the respondents to provide accurate information about their opinion toward…10, Are the respondents representative:CHARACTER: the respondents could not represent the general population, or the respondents constitute a selective sample due to certain reasons.SEE ALSO: selective sample, quantity of the sample, changing scopesBASIC ARCHITECTURE:to point out that the respondents might not be randomly selected, or people who are interested in the subject of the survey are more likely to respond to the survey than are other people and inherently form a selective sample, thus could not represent the general population.EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that people who responded to the survey might not be representative of the general group)We should also notice that the respondents studied in the survey may not represent the general group of …EXPLANATION:We all know that in many cases, people who are interested in … might be generally more likely to respond to the survey than other people are, or are more willing to express their own opinions and positions on the issue of …ILLUSTRATIONS: (other people who did not respond may hold a totally different position toward the issue studied, and the author should include those people in the study to present a more convincing result. )PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION:Without considering the situation of other groups of people, the result of the survey in itself could not justifiably illustrate that …11, False analogy:CHARACTER: the author recommends one of two institutions (cities, companies, etc.) to copy the actions or policies of the other, while actually the two institutionsare not comparable.SEE ALSO: incomplete comparison, changing scopesBASIC ARCHITECTURE:to point out that there might be many differences between the two institutions, and copying the actions (policies, solutions, etc.) of other city (companies, colleges, etc.) indiscriminately may not bring about expected results.EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that the two institutions in the argument might not be comparable)In the argument the author recommends A to carry out same (policies, actions, solutions on …) as B, but the analogy between them might be unsubstantiated. EXPLANATION: The author fails to illustrate that A and B are similar enough at every aspect and are indeed comparable.CONCESSION:While it is true that A and B share some common ground on …, TRANSITION: there are still some obvious differences between them. ILLUSTRATIONS: (many differences exist between A and B and these differences may well render the policies(actions, solutions, etc) proved to be effective for A might not have the same effectiveness for B )PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION:Before A decide to copy B’s experiences, the author should take these differences into account and make careful study on the comparability of the two (cities, companies, schools, etc).12, Incomplete comparison /selective comparison /ex parteinformation:CHARACTER:the argument compares two subjects through only limited or selective aspects, while other important factors that would influence the result are ignored. / the argument provides information only about one of the two subjects being compared, thus we could not make thorough and justified evaluation. SEE ALSO: incomplete information, false analogyBASIC ARCHITECTURE:to point out that the author compares only selective aspects of the two subjects, or provides information about only one side, and we need to know if other factors that would influence the result are equal in each case, or to know much more detailed information about the other side.EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that the comparison between the subjects might be incomplete or selective)The author hastily implies that A is superior to B i n …, but the comparison between A and B is incomplete.EXPLANATION: The author only compares …TRANSITION: however, there are myriad of factors which, if differ in these cases, would bring about totally different result for the comparison. ILLUSTRATIONS: (many other factors would influence the result while ignored by the author in the argument )PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: Without any further consideration about these factors, the author could not convince us that (A is better than B in certain aspect) merely based on an incomplete comparison.13, Confusing comparison and variation:CHARACTER: the author provides only the variation about certain subject, while in fact, the comparison between the subject and its counterparts is needed to evaluate the argument, or vice versa.SEE ALSO: lack of controlled experiment, incomplete informationBASIC ARCHITECTURE:to point out that to substantiate the conclusion, the author should provide information about the comparison between those entities (companies, schools, cities, etc.) instead of the variation in certain aspect of one entity, or vice versa.EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that the author provides only the variation of certain subject, or vice versa)In the argument the author provides the variation in … to illustrate that …CONCESSION:Although the variation in … could partly prove that …, TRANSITION:however, we all know that to demonstrate … the comparison between A and B is actually more convincing and necessary. ILLUSTRATIONS:(the comparison between those entities could be more convincing in illustrating the conclusion )PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION:Lacking comparison between …, we could not assess if …14, Unrelated concepts:CHARACTER: the author uses term A to infer term B while actually there is no direct logical relationship between the two terms.SEE ALSO: non causal relationshipBASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that there are critical differences or logical gaps between term A and term B, term A could not necessarily indicate term B.EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that B could not be properly inferred merely based on A)In illustrating the assumption that … the author commits a fallacy of hasty generalization.EXPLANATION: The author cites A to prove B,TRANSITION: however, A is not a good indication of B. ILLUSTRATIONS: (there are basic differences between A and B, thus A could not be properly used to illustrate B )PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION:The author ought to make careful and clear differentiation between A and B before we could evaluate if the inference that … i s justified.15, Changing scopes:CHARACTER:the argument generalizes from the condition of some individual cases to a general principal or conclusion which is intended to be applied to a wider range of subjects, or reversely, applies the condition or characteristics of a certain general group to some individual case(s) in that group.SEE ALSO:selective sample, quantity of the sample, are the respondentsrepresentative, false analogy.BASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that the condition of specific case(s) may not be representative, and could not be used to generalize a general principal for a wider range of subjects, or reversely, the general situation or condition or characteristic of an entire group may not be properly applied to every single case among that group.EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that the author studies only limited or special case(s), while improperly draws a conclusion concerning a wider range of subjects )The fact that … could sufficiently substantiate the conclusion that… EXPLANATION: since the argument is based only on (some special cases) and the author does not differentiate between the … of (different subjects) . CONCESSION:Although the author’s inference that … might be true for some cases, for example, …TRANSITION: Unfortunately, this is not true of every individual (in the general group).ILLUSTRATIONS: (other subjects may have totally different situation thus the author’s inference could not be properly applied to them. )PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION:Unless the author can demonstrate that (the condition of other subjects is similar to that of the case studied), the general conclusion cannot be reached merely basing on these special and limited cases.16, Inferring a future condition from a past condition:CHARACTER:the author announces that we could implement former solutions which were proved to be successful in solving some past problems to solve current problems, while in fact, those old-fashioned ways might be ineffective due to some changing conditions.SEE ALSO: when was the survey conducted.BASIC ARCHITECTURE:to point out that many factor or condition may vary during the past years, thus a solution which was successful in the past might not also be successful in current days or in the future.EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that the author suggests to use former effective methods to solve current problems )In the argument the author suggests that we can (solve current problems or achieve current goals) through methods which have successfully solved the same kind of problems in the past.EXPLANATION:There is a hidden assumption assumed by the author that all conditions and factors upon which the effectiveness of (the method) depend have remained unchanged during the past (N years).TRANSITION: However, many factors could have been changed during the past years.ILLUSTRATIONS: (many conditions and factors could have varied, which might render the solutions which were proved to be effective in the past might not have the same effectiveness in current days or in the future. )PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: Without taking into account all these constantlychanging factors, the author could not convince us that the proposed solution could be used to solve current problems successfully.17, Sufficiency and necessity of a solution:CHARACTER: the author proposes a solution to achieve certain purpose while in fact the solution is neither sufficient nor necessary for that purpose.SEE ALSO: incomplete information, incomplete thoughts, non-causal relationship. BASIC ARCHITECTURE:1)to point out tha t adopting the author’s proposal alone could not solve theproblem sufficiently, to reach the author’s goal, many other important conditions must be fulfilled.2)To point out that many other effective methods could also be adopted to reachthe author’s goal, thus the proposed actions may not be necessary.EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that the author’s proposal is neither sufficient nor necessary for solving the problem )The author assumes that the proposed actions are both sufficient and necessary for (achieving certain goal).EXPLANATION(1): To solve the problem successfully, many other fundamental requirements must be fulfilled.ILLUSTRATIONS: (many other important works must be done. ) EXPLANATION(2):Furthermore, many other available methods besides (the author’s proposal) could also be used to achieve the same purpose.ILLUSTRATIONS: (many other effective methods could also be adopted. ) PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: Before the author make a careful and thorough comparison between the effectiveness of his own proposal and other possible methods, the author’s proposal should not be hastily carried out.18, Failing to consider the feasibility of the conclusion: CHARACTER:there might be obstacles when carrying out the author’s proposal, rendering the solution practically unfeasible.SEE ALSO: incomplete information, sufficiency of the solution.BASIC ARCHITECTURE:To point out that there are many obstacles to the effectiveness of the solution, or some critical premise could not be fulfilled, thus the proposal could not be successfully carried out.EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that the author’s proposal might be practically unfeasible )The feasibility of the arguer’s proposal can also be cast doubt on. EXPLANATION: The proposal relies on an assumption that (the proposal could be successfully carried out)TRANSITION:however, the assumption might be unwarranted due to some critical obstacles.ILLUSTRATIONS: (possible obstacles to the effectiveness of the solution. ) PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: Unless the author could demonstrate that those obstacles could be effectively overcome, the proposal might be practicallyunfeasible.19, Failing to weigh the advantage and disadvantage thoroughly: CHARACTER:the author overemphasizes the advantage (or, reversely, the disadvantage) of certain actions, while ignores the opposite effect. Specifically, the author hastily advocates adopting certain actions, while in fact, that series of actions might bring about undesirable consequences; or the author hastily proposes to abandon certain actions, while those actions might actually bring about great benefits.SEE ALSO: incomplete information, ex parte information, feasibility of the conclusion.BASIC ARCHITECTURE:To point out that adopting the author’s proposal may actually bring about undesirable effects (if the author overemphasize the advantage of the proposal, or vice versa).EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that the author might ignores the disadvantage of the proposal ) In claiming that …, the author needs to do more comprehensive rese arch on both positive and negative effects of the proposal.CONCESSION: Although the proposal could be adopted to (solve the problem) to a certain degree,TRANSITION: however, carrying out the proposal may actually bring about more harmful effects.ILLUSTRATIONS: (possible harmful effects ignored by the author. ) PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION:Under such scenario, adopting the author’s proposal would harm, rather than benefit, (the author’s purpose).20, False dilemma:CHARACTER:the author falsely insists that we have only two extreme and mutually exclusive choices (or possibilities, explanations) in solving certain problem (or in explaining certain phenomenon), while in fact, there are many other choices (or possibilities, explanations) for us.SEE ALSO: necessity of the solution.BASIC ARCHITECTURE:To point out that there are many other choices for us to solve the problem, or many other explanations towards certain result, not necessarily the two either-or choices suggested by the author.EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that the author unfairly imposes an either-or choice between two courses of action )In explaining …, the author is presenting a false dilemma. EXPLANATION: The author simply assumes that (the situation would be either A or B), while the two… ar e not necessarily mutually exclusive. ILLUSTRATIONS: (many other solutions/explanations could be more justifiable.) PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: Before ruling out all the possibilities above, the author could not convince us that there are only those two possible explanationsfor us to accept.21, Non-causal relationship:CHARACTER: the author implies that A is the reason for B, while in fact, there is no essential relation between the two facts.SEE ALSO: unrelated concepts, incomplete informationBASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that there is no logical relation between the cause and the effect suggested by the author, or to point out that there are many other alternative explanations which could also explain the result, or to point out that the comparison (or controlled experiment) between counterparts should be conducted to substantiate the causal relationship.EXAMPLE:T.S( pointing out that the causal relationship implied by the author is open to doubt)The author unfairly assumes that it is … that resulted in ….TRANSITION: But we can find no concrete evidence to substantiate the inevitable relationship between … and ….ILLUSTRATIONS: (many other factors could also lead to the result/the author should conduct controlled study to demonstrate the causal relationship ) PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: In short, the author could not hastily conclude that … is the only possible reason for … before taking above factors into account.22, Confusing the cause and the effect:CHARACTER: the author implies that A is the reason for B, while in fact, it is B that results in A.BASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that actually it is B that results in A, rather than the reversed relationship implied by the author.EXAMPLE:T.S(pointing out that the causal relationship implied by the author is open to doubt)In the process of reasoning the author assumes that A is the reason for B. TRANSITION: However, the author may confuse the cause and the effect. ILLUSTRATIONS: (there is possibility that it is B that actually causes A )The author fails to rule out the possibility that (B results in A). PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: Since the author has not adequately take this possibility into account, the assumption that … is untenable.23, Confusing concurrence with causality:CHARACTER: the author implies that A is the reason for B, pointing out the mere fact that A and B occur simultaneously as evidence.SEE ALSO: non-causal relationshipBASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that there is no substantial evidence which could prove the causal relationship, or to point out that there are many other alternative explanations which could also explain the result, or to point out that the comparison (or controlled experiment) between counterparts should be conducted to substantiate the causal relationship.。
