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ProceedingsoftheFourthInternationalNaturalLanguageGenerationConference,pages121–123,Sydney,July2006.c󰀁2006AssociationforComputationalLinguisticsBuildingasemanticallytransparentcorpus

forthegenerationofreferringexpressions

KeesvanDeemterandIelkavanderSluisandAlbertGatt

DepartmentofComputingScience

UniversityofAberdeen

{kvdeemte,ivdsluis,agatt}@csd.abdn.ac.uk

Abstract

Thispaperdiscussestheconstructionof

acorpusfortheevaluationofalgorithms

thatgeneratereferringexpressions.Itis

arguedthatsuchanevaluationtaskre-

quiresasemanticallytransparentcorpus,

andcontrolledexperimentsarethebest

waytocreatesucharesource.Weaddress

anumberofissuesthathaveariseninan

ongoingevaluationstudy,amongwhichis

theproblemofjudgingtheoutputofGREalgorithmsagainstahumangoldstandard.

1CreatingandusingacorpusforGRE

Adecadeago,DaleandReiter(1995)published

aseminalpaperinwhichtheycomparedanum-

berofGREalgorithms.Thesealgorithmsincluded

aFullBrevity(FB)algorithmwhichgeneratesde-

scriptionsofminimallength,agreedyalgorithm

(GA),andanIncrementalAlgorithm(IA).The

authorsarguedthatthelatterwasthebestmodel

ofhumanreferentialbehaviour,andversionsof

theIAhavesincecometorepresentthestate

oftheartinGRE.DaleandReiter’shypothe-

siswasmotivatedbypsycholinguisticfindings,

notablythatspeakerstendtoinitiatereferences

beforetheyhavecompletelyscannedadomain.

However,thisfindingaffordsdifferentalgorithmic

interpretations.Similarly,thefindingthatbasic-

leveltermsinreferringexpressionsallowhearers

toformapsychologicalgestaltcouldbeincorpo-

ratedintopracticallyanyGREalgorithm.1

WedecidedtoputDaleandReiter’shypothesis

tothetestbyanevaluationoftheoutputofdif-

1AseparateargumentforIAinvolvestractability,butal-thoughsomealternatives(suchasFB)areintractable,others(suchasGA)areonlypolynomial,andcanthereforenoteas-ilybedismissedonpurelycomputationalgrounds.ferentGREalgorithmsagainsthumanproduction.

However,itisnotoriouslydifficulttoobtainsuit-

ablecorporaforataskthatisassemanticallyin-

tensiveasContentDetermination(forGRE).Al-

thoughexistingcorporaarevaluableresources,

NLGoftenrequiresinformationthatisnotavail-

ableintext.Suppose,forexample,thatacorpus

containedarticlesaboutpolitics,howwouldthe

outputofaGREalgorithmbeevaluatedagainstthe

corpus?Itwouldbedifficulttoinferfromanar-

ticleexactlywhichrepresentativesintheBritish

HouseofCommonsareLiberalDemocrats,or

Scottish.Combiningmultipletextsishazardous,

sincefactscouldalteracrosssourcesandtime.

Moreover,theconditionsunderwhichsuchtexts

wereproduced(e.g.fault-criticalornot,asex-

plainedbelow)arehardtodetermine.

ArecentGREevaluationbyGuptaandStent

(2005)focusedondialoguecorpora,usingMAP-

TASKandCOCONUT,bothofwhichhaveanas-

sociateddomain.Theirresultsshowthatreferent

identificationinMAPTASKoftenrequiresnomore

thanaTYPEattribute,sothatnoneofthealgo-

rithmsperformedbetterthanabaseline.Incon-

trasttoMAPTASK,COCONUThasamoreelabo-

ratedomain,butitischaracterisedbyacollabora-

tivetask,andreferencesfrequentlygobeyondthe

identificationcriterionthatistypicallyinvokedin

GRE2.Mindfulofthelimitationsofexistingcor-

pora,andoftheextenttowhichevaluationde-

pendsonthecorpusunderstudy,weareusing

controlledexperimentstocreateacorpuswhose

constructionwillensurethatexistingalgorithms

canbeadequatelydifferentiatedonanidentifica-

tiontask.

2JordanandWalker(2000)havedemonstratedasignifi-cantlybettermatchtothehumandatawhentask-relatedcon-straintsaretakenintoaccount.2Setupoftheexperiment

LikeDaleandReiter(1995),wefocusedonfirst-

mentiondescriptions.However,wedecidedtoin-

cludesimple‘disjunctive’referencestosets(as

in‘theredchairandtheblacktable’),inaddi-

tiontoconjunctionsofatomicproperties,since

thesecanbehandledbyessentiallythesameal-

gorithms(vanDeemter,2002).Forgenerality,we

lookedattwoverydifferentdomains.Oneofthese

involvedartificiallyconstructedpicturesoffurni-

ture,wheretheavailableattributesandvaluesare

relativelyeasytodetermine.Theotherinvolved

realphotographsofindividuals,whichprovidea

richerrangeofoptionstosubjects.Todate,data

hasbeencollectedfrom19participants,andanal-

ysisisinprogress.

Ourfirstchallengewastomaketheexperiment

naturalistic.Subjectswereshown38randomised

trials,eachdepictingasetofobjects,oneortwo

ofwhichwerethetargets,surroundedby6dis-

tractors(Figure1).Ineachcase,aminimaldistin-

guishingdescriptionofthetargetswasavailable.

Subjectswereledtobelievethattheywouldbe

describingthetargetsforaninterlocutor.Oncea

descriptionwastyped,thesystemremovedfrom

thescreenwhatittooktobethereferents.

Figure1:Astimulusexamplefromthefurnituredomain.

Threegroupsperformedthetaskindifferent

conditions,namely:󰀄±FaultCritical󰀅,where

halfthesubjectsinthe󰀄+FaultCritical󰀅case

coulduselocation(‘inthetopleftcorner’).The

󰀄+FaultCritical󰀅groupwastold:‘Ourprogram

willeventuallybeusedinsituationswhereitis

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关心下一代超过上一代的英语作文

关心下一代超过上一代的英语作文

关心下一代超过上一代的英语作文

Caring for the Next Generation More Than the Previous

Generation

Introduction

In today's rapidly changing world, it is important for society

to prioritize the well-being and success of the next generation

over that of the previous generation. By focusing on the needs

and challenges faced by young people, we can create a better

future for all. In this essay, we will explore the reasons why it is

crucial to care for the next generation more than the previous

generation and propose some strategies to achieve this goal.

Why We Should Care for the Next Generation More

1. Greater potential for growth and innovation

One of the main reasons we should prioritize the next

generation is that they represent the future of our society. Young

people have a boundless potential for growth and innovation,

关于代沟的英语作文8篇精华版

关于代沟的英语作文8篇精华版

《关于代沟的英语作文》

关于代沟的英语作文（一）：

如何让弥合代沟？How to Bridge the Generation Gap?

The generation gap is unavoidable in almost every family， which

brings about a number of conflicts in a family。 In my opinion， to

limit the bad effects of the generation gap， each family should use

the following three methods:

大部分的家庭免不了存在代沟，代沟给一个家庭带来很多冲突。我认为，为了控制代沟的不良影响，每个家庭都就应尝试以下方法：

First of all， it is important that family members discuss

openly about their pleasures or sadness in childhood in family

gatherings。 This activity does not only create a close relationship

but also help build up understanding among all members。 For

instance， once children are aware that their grandparents and even

their parents did not have a good upbringing during their hard

childhood， they will stop plaining about the previous generations

作为年轻的一代我们应该做英语作文

作为年轻的一代我们应该做英语作文

作为年轻的一代我们应该做英语作文

全文共10篇示例，供读者参考

篇1

As young generation, we should work hard to learn English.

English is very important because it is the international language.

First of all, we can learn English by watching English movies

and TV shows. It's a fun way to improve our listening and

speaking skills. We can also listen to English songs and sing

along. It helps us improve our pronunciation and vocabulary.

Secondly, we should read English books and articles.

Reading is a great way to improve our vocabulary and grammar.

We can start with simple books and gradually move on to more

difficult ones.

Thirdly, we can practice speaking English with our friends or

classmates. We can have conversations in English and help each

other improve.

Moreover, we can join English clubs or take English courses

Role of alkaline ceramidases in the generation ofsphingosine and its phosphate in erythrocytes

Role of alkaline ceramidases in the generation ofsphingosine and its phosphate in erythrocytes

TheFASEBJournal•ResearchCommunication

Roleofalkalineceramidasesinthegenerationof

sphingosineanditsphosphateinerythrocytes

RuijuanXu,*WeiSun,*JunfeiJin,*LinaM.Obeid,*,†,‡andCunguiMao*,†,1¶

*DepartmentofMedicine,†DepartmentofBiochemistryandMolecularBiology,and‡RalphH.

JohnsonVeteransAdministrationHospitalattheMedicalUniversityofSouthCarolina,Charleston,

SouthCarolina,USA

ABSTRACTPlasmasphingosine-1-phosphate(S1P)

hasbeensuggestedtomainlyoriginatefromerythro-

cytes;however,withintheerythrocyte,howsphingosine

(SPH)generation—theprecursortoS1P—iscontrolled

isunknown.SPHisonlygeneratedfromthehydrolysis

ofceramidesviaceramidases.Fivehumanceramidases

havebeenidentified:1acid,1neutral,and3alkaline

ceramidases(ACER1,ACER2,andACER3).Here,we

demonstratethatonlyalkalineceramidaseactivityis

expressedinerythrocytesandthatitisinstrumentalfor