Lecture9a

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The Industrial Revolution and the effect on everyday life科技史与科技考古系· 石云里教授西方科学史Lecture 9力的本质之争牛顿莱布尼兹惠更斯Controversies over “force”•Dead Matter + imposed force; (NicolausMalebrache,1638-1715 )•Matter + primitive (active/passive) forces derivative (active/passive) forces; (Leibniz)•Matter + inherence force/inertia + Impressed forces; Causes are not essential to the understanding of forces. (Newton)Criticism of the Newton’s Gravitation:•Huygens: Gravitation is absurd, although Newton is a great Mathemacian.•Leibniz: Gravitation is a miracle, a mystical form.•Newton: Hypothesis non fingo/I do not feign a hypothesis! But tried to explain with ether in his queries of his Opicks.Proofs of Gravitation•Mathematical study of Newton’s works.-------Johann Bernoulli, 1667-1748 Issue on the shape of the earth•Descartes, D. Cassini, J. Cassini: the earth is as prolate as a lemon. Newton: no it is as oblate as an orange. Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis,1698-1759)莫佩尔蒂•Expeditions to Ecuadorand Lapland, 1835-36.Crisis in Moon calculations.•Alexis Clairaut,1713-65 •Théorie de la figure de la terre, 1743;•Théorie de la lune, 1750;The Return of Halley Comet.•Newton: Comets can return.•Halley: 1682—1531—1605------1758/59 ;•Clairaut: 1759,4-5;Analytical Mechanics•Mathematical analysisMathematicalfunctions;•Partial Differentiation;•Calculus of variations;•Application in Mechanics.Leonhard Paul Euler,1707-83Seeking more general principles.•Principle of the Conservation of vis viva. / mechanical energy-----Leibniz, Johann Bernoulli, Daniel Bernoulli.•Principle of Virtual Velocity----Johann Bernoulli,1717;•Principle of D’Lambert: 1743;•Principle of the Least Action---Maupertuis,1744;Joseph Louis de Lagrange,1736-1813 •Mécanique Analytique, 1788 0r ·Fin1ii=0r ·amFiiin1ii〕-〔=iiiQqLqLdtd-L=T-VPierre Simon Laplace,1736-1813 •Mécanique céleste, 1799-1825.Imponderable Fluids•electron= Amber in GreekOtto Von Guericke Stephen Gray,1688-1736 Benjamin Franklin,1706-90 "Benjamin Franklin Drawing Electricity from the Sky" by Benjamin West (1738-1820) Joseph Priestley,1733-1804 Henry Cavendish,1731-1810Charles Augustine Coulomb,1736-1806 Pierre Simon Laplace,1736-1813 •Mécanique céleste, 1799-1825.Newton and the Century of Light •François-Marie Arouet , Voltaire,1694-1778 1734Marquise du Châtelet,1706-49 Francesco Algarotti, 1712–1764 Newtonianism for the ladies, 1737Denis Diderot,1713-84 Newton becomes a GodWere we required to characterise this age of ours by any single epithet, we should be tempted to call it, not an Heroical, Devotional, Philosophical, or Moral Age, but, above all others, the Mechanical Age. It is the Age of Machinery, in every outward and inward sense of that word; the age which, with its whole undivided might, forwards, teaches and practises the great art of adapting means to ends. Nothing is now done directly, or by hand; all is by rule and calculated contrivance….We war with rude Nature; and, by our resistless engines, come off always victorious, and loaded with spoils. Signs of the Times (1829)Thomas Carlyle(1795 –1881) 不能经由机械的方法加以理解和研究的东西就是不可理解和不可研究的东西。关于人及其行为的科学只有在采用从物理科学中引申出的方法才有可能进步。John Stuart Mill (1806-1873 )Ancient of Days Newton Get up, monsieur de Comte! Remember you have great things to do!Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon (1760-1825)革命与新社会制度的建立•社会是一个有机体,阶级是他的器官;•旧的教会与国家组织是建立在已经过时的科学信仰的基础之上的,应该予以废除;•资产阶级革命推翻了旧的社会制度,但是革命的目的并没有达到,新的社会制度并没有随着革命而建立起来;•对支配社会的规律的发现将导致对这些规律的有计划应用,由此导致一个健康的社会有机体的产生。——这是“生命科学”或者“社会物理学”(social physics) 的任务。支配新社会的力量•新的社会应该是一个“实业家”的社会,他为大多数人谋利益。•推动社会进步的力量不是亚历山大大帝,而是阿基米德,不是拿破仑,而是牛顿;是工具和技术,是物质生产和科学发展的力量;•新社会的主导力量应该是科学家、工程师和实业家。假如法国突然同时损失了50名最优秀的物理学家、50名优秀诗人、50名优秀化学家、50名优秀作家、50名优秀数学家、50名优秀军事和民用工程师……法国马上会变成一具没有灵魂的僵尸。因为这些人“对祖国最有用处”,要重新培植这批人,则“至少需要整整一代人的时间”。假如法国失去的是国王的兄弟、王公贵族、参事、省长、主教、和养尊处优的大地主等人,并不会因此“给国家带来政治的不幸”,因为这些人“并没有用自己的劳动促进科学、美术和手工业的进步”。科学治国论•应该有一个新的政府来统治欧洲甚至整个世界;•新政府的核心是一个由21人组成的“牛顿委员会”,其任务是“发现可应用于社会物体的引力定律”,其首领是获得最多选票的数学家;•不服从命令者会被其他人当作畜牲来对待,因为“人类进步的定律引导和支配一切,人只不过是它的工具”。“新宗教”•―(牛顿委员会)是上帝在人间的代表,他们要剥夺教皇、大主教和教士们的权力,因为后者不懂得上帝托付给他们的神圣科学,这科学将会使时间重新变为天堂”。•科学家应该象天主教教士们那样组织起来,对群众进行教化。他们应该“选出一个科学的教皇,把意识形态上的罪犯驱逐出教,并建立一种牛顿是的洗礼。”对圣西门来说,科学已经不是为人类带来“好”的工具,而本身就是这个“好”。富兰克林(Benjamin Franklin, 1705—1790)…the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God……We hold these truths to be self evident…《独立宣言》谢谢大家!