英语语言学概论the naming of people in english李明霞

英语语言学概论The RestorationThe bourgeois dictatorship was established, and Cromwell became the Protector of the English Commonwealth After the death of Cromwell, the Parliament recalled Charles II to England in 1660.Only when Charles II threatened to restore the old absolute monarchy that bourgeoisie expelled him and invite William, Prince of Orange, from Holland, to be King of England in 1688: Glorious Revolution(光荣革命)——Glorious because it was bloodless and there was no revival of the revolutionary demands.Paradise LostIt is a long epic（史诗）in 12 books，written in blank verse.Plot：Although defeated by God，Satan is not discouraged, he chooses the Garden of Eden for the battlefield ，where live the first man and woman, Adam and Eve, who are allowed by God to enjoy the supreme beauties of Paradise, if they do not eat the fruit that grows on the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. Satan desires to tear them away from the influence of God and make them tools in his struggle against God’s authority.Satan assumes the shape of a serpent and appears before Eve, He persuades her to break God’s command. Eve eats an apple from the forbidden tree and plucks（摘）another for Adam. God sees all this, and Adam and Eve are both deprived of immortality, exiled（逐出）from Paradise and doomed to an earthly life full of hardship and sufferings.Paradise Lost is Milton’s masterpiece. The story were taken form the Old Testament: the creatio n, the rebellion in Heaven of Satan and his fellow-angels; their defeat and expulsion fromHeaven; the creation of the earth and of Adam and Eve; the fallen angels in hell plotting against God; Satan’s temptation of Eve; the departure of Adam and Eve from EdenThemeThe poem, as we are told at the outset, was “to justify the ways of God to man,” to advocate submission to the Almighty. But after reading it one gets the impression that the main idea of the poem is a revolt against God’s authority.characterizationGod: a selfish, cruel, and unjust despot.In the poem God is no better than a selfish despot, seated upon a throne with a chorus of angels about him eternally singing his praises. His long speeches are never pleasing. He is cruel and unjust in his struggle against Satan. His Archangel is a bore. His angels are silly. The Angles never think of expressing any opinions of their own, resembles the court of an absolute monarch.Adam and Eve: embody Milton’s belief in the powers of man. Their craving fo r knowledge is highly praised. Satan: real hero, brave, strong-minded, represent the spirit questioning the authority of God.The rebel Satan who rose against God and , though defeated, still sought for revenge, is the most striking character in the poem. Satan is the real hero of the poem. Like a conquered and banished giant, he remains obeyed and admired by those who follow him down to hell. He is firmer than the rest of the angels. It is always from him that deep counsels, unlooked-for resources and courageous deeds proceed. Satan and his followers freely discuss all the issues in council, bear close resemblance to a republican Parliament. It is he who, passing the guarded gatesand boundless chaos, amid so many dangers, and across so many obstacles, makes man revolt against God. Though defeated, he prevails, since he has won from God the third part of his angels, and almost all the sons of Adam. Though wounded, he triumphs for the thunder which hit upon his left his heart invincible.Samson AgonistesSamson Agonistes is a poetical drama modeled on the Greek tragedies. It deals with the story from the “Book of Judges”(士师记)in the Old Testament. Samson was an athlete of the Israelites. He stood as their champion fighting for the freedom of his country. But he was betrayed by his wife Dalilah and blinded by his enemies the Philistines. Led into the temple “to make them sport” he wreaked his vengeance upon enemies by pulling down the temple upon then and upon himself in a common ruin.There is much in common between Samson and Milton. Like Samson, Milton has also been embittered by an unwise marriage, persecuted by his enemies, has suffered from blindness and yet is unconquerable. Samson’smiserable blind servitude among his enemies, his agonizing longing for sight and freedom, and the last triumph all strongly suggests Milton’s passionate longing that he too could bring destruction down upon the enemy at the cost of his own life, Samson is Milton.John Bunyan约翰.班扬（1628—1688）Life Experience1628 born in a poor family whose father is a tinker (make and mend kettles and pot)"My descent was of a low and inconsiderable generation, my father's house being of that rank that is meanest and most despised of all the families of the land".1635 receiving educatio n at his father’s house and later with other country boys at local school.1640 choosing a job like his father by adopting the trade of tinker1644 joining the parlimentary army during the revolution time and become a preacher1661 tried by the local magistrate for not attending the parish church and for holding unlawful meeting ,later was sentenced for 12 years.While he was in jail, he was starting his most famous work pilgrim’s progress1672 released and licensed as a teacher1678 Pilgrim’s Progress was published1688 died of a chillJohn Bu nyan’s masterpiece The Pilgrim’ Progress was probably written in prison, but for some reason he did not publish till 1678 long after his release. The Pilgrim’ Progress is a religious allegory.The first partChristian the Pilgrim, setting out in his search for salvation(救赎）, is accompanied by Pliable, Mr. Evangelist, Faithful and then Hopeful.On the way he meets with many pitfalls like the Slough of Despond（绝望的深渊）, V anity Fair , Doubting castle and so on On the way he meets with many hindrances like Mr. Worldly Wiseman, Apollyon（恶魔) and Judge Hategood, and Giant Despair.After many narrow escapes and numerous tests of his steadfastness（坚定不移）he finally arrives at Celestial city（天国）.The second partThe great popul arity of the book led the author to write a sequel. The second part of The Pilgrim’s Progress, dealing with similar adventures of Christian’s wife Christiana and her children in their pilgrimage to the celestial city, is much inferior to the first part.The Story of the First PartThe story starts with a dream in which the author seesChristian the Pilgrim, with a heavy burden on his back,reading the Bible. When he learns from the book that the city in which he and his family live shall be burnt down in a fire, Christian tries to convince his family and his neighbors ofthe oncoming disaster and asks them to go with him insearch of salvation, but most of them simply ignore him. So he starts off with a friend, Pliable. Pliable turns back afterthey stumble into a pit, the Slough of Despond. Christianstruggles on by himself. Then he is misled by Mr. WorldlyWiseman and is brought back onto the right road by Mr.Evangelist. There he joins Faithful, a neighbor who has setout later but has made better progress.The two go on together through many adventures, including the great struggle with Apollyon, who claims them to be his subjects and refuses to accept their allegiance to God. After many other adventures they come to the V anity Fair where both are arrested as alien agitators. They are tried and Faithful' is condemned to death.Christian, however, manages to escape and goes on his way, assisted by a new friend, Hopeful. Tired of the hard journey, they are tempted to take a pleasant path and are then captured by Giant Despair. Finally they get away and reach the Celestial City,where they enjoy eternal life in the fellowship of the blessed.V anity Fair（名利场）The vivid picture of Vanity Fair, where all things are bought and sold（including honors, titles, wisdoms, lusts pleasures and lives）and where cheating and roguery（坏事）and murders and adulteries（通奸）are normal, everyday occurrences, is a biting satire on the English society with which the writer was familiar."The V anity Fair," An Excerpt from Part 1 of The Pilgrim's ProgressThen I saw in my dream, that when they were got out of the wilderness, theyPresently saw a town before them, and the name of that town is V anity; and atthe town there is a fair kept, called V anity Fair; it is kept all the year long; ithearth(1) the name of V anity Fair because the town where it is kept is lighterthan vanity; and also because all that is there sold, or that cometh thither, isvanity. As is the saying of the wise, "All that cometh is vanity".Almost five thousand years ago, there were pilgrims walking tothe Celestial City, as these two honest persons are; and Beelzebub,Apollyon, and Legion, with their companions, perceiving by thepath that the pilgrims made, that their way to the city lay throughthis town of V anity, they contrived to set up a fair; a fair whereinshould be sold all sorts of vanity, and that it should last all the yearlong. Therefore at this fair are all such merchandise sold, as houses,lands, trades, places, honors, preferment, titles, countries, kingdoms,lusts, pleasures, and delights of all sorts, as whores, bawds, wives,husbands, children, masters, servants, lives, blood, bodies, souls,silver, gold, pearls, precious stones, and what not.And, moreover, at this fair there is at all times to be seen juggling,cheats, games, plays, fools, apes, knaves, and rogues, and that ofevery kind. Here are to be seen, too, and that for nothing, thefts,murders, adulteries, false swearers, and that of a blood-red color.Theme1. Describes the spiritual suffera nce of the poor people at a time of great changes, and their aspiration for “the land that flow with milk and honey” .”There you will not see such things as sorrow, sickness, affliction, and death”.2. Pilgrim’s Progress is a biting satire on the Englishsociety with which the writer was familiar. It is not onlyabout something spiritual but also bears much relevance to the time. The objects that Christian meets are homely and commonplace, and the scenes presented are typicalEnglish ones, but throughout the allegory a spiritualsignificance is added to the commonplace details. Here the strange is combined with the familiar and the trivial joined to the divine.3. It reveals Bunyan’s Puritan ideal.Reading comprehensionNow, as I said, the way to the Celestial City lies just through this town where this lusty fair is kept; and he that will go to the city, and yet not go through this town, must needs "go out of the world". The Prince of princes himself, when here, went through this town to his own country, and that upon a fair-day, too, yea, and as I think, it was Beelzebub, the chief lord of this fair, that invited him to buy of his vanities; yea, would have made him lord of the fair, would he but have done him reverence as he went through the town. Y ea, because he was such aman of honor, Beelzebub had him from street to street, and showed him all the kingdoms of the world in a little time, that he might, if possible, allure the Blessed One to cheapen and buy some of his vanities; but he had no mind to the merchandise, and therefore left the town, without laying so much as one farthing upon these vanities. This fair, therefore, is an ancient thing, of long standing, and a very great fair.Where is this passage chosen form?John Bunyan: The Pilgrim’s Progress.Jesus Christ.John Bunyan is talking about vanity, one of the evils of human life. The idea that everybody is potentially vain and vanity is something that the “world” encourages, and that is takes courage and effort to get rid of one of vanity. Even Jesus Christ(the Prince of Princes) was troubled by vanity, but he stood the test and conquered it. Thus Christians should do like Christ ifthey wish to reach the kingdom of God.What is the theme of John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress?John Donne，the founder of the Metaphysical school of poetry.Main works: Devotions Upon Emergent Occasions (shows the intense interest Donne took in the spectacle of mortality under the shadow of death, a vision that haunted him perpetually, and inspired the highest of his eloquence. )The Songs and Sonnets, by which Donne is probably best known, contains most of his early lyrics. Love is the basic theme. Donne holds that the nature of love is the union of soul and body. Donne's interest lies in dramatizing and illustrating the state of being inlove.Donne's chief power as a religious poet is shown in the Holy Sonnets and the last hymns.Death, Be Not ProudDeath, be not proud, though some have called theeMighty and dreadful, for thou art not so;For those whom thou think'st thou dost overthrowDie not, poor Death, nor yet canst thou kill me.From rest and sleep, which but thy pictures be,Much pleasure; then from thee much more must flow,And soonest our best men with thee do go,Rest of their bones, and soul's delivery.Thou art slave to fate, chance, kings, and desperate men,And dost with poison, war, and sickness dwell,And poppy or charms can make us sleep as wellAnd better than thy stroke; why swell'st thou then?One short sleep past, we wake eternallyAnd death shall be no more; Death, thou shalt die.Reading comprehensionOne short sleep past, we wake eternallyAnd death shall be no more; thou shalt dieQuestions:1.Identify the poet and the poem.2.What does the phrase “one short sleep” mean?3.What idea does these two lines express?Answers:1.It is taken from John Donne’s Death, Be Not Proud.2.It means death.3.It means that shortly after we die we will wake up (as from sleep) and live eternally. It reveals the poet’s beli ef in life after death: death is but momentary while happiness after death is eternal.Other MetaphysicalsGeorge Herbert, “the saint of the Metaphysical school.” was a devout Anglican clergyman who believed that a poet should sing the glory of God. He describes his joys, fears and doubts in a symbolic way. Many of his poems overloaded with far-fetched conceits, too obscure to be appreciated. (The Altar) Andrew Marvell, another Metaphysical poet, was a puritan who served as Milton’s assistant in the Commonwealth. He wrote poems on nature. (To His Coy Mistress)To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time by Robert HerrickGather ye rosebuds while ye may,Old Time is still a-flying:And this same flower that smiles to-dayTo-morrow will be dying.The glorious lamp of heaven, the sun,The higher he's a-getting,The sooner will his race be run,And nearer he's to setting.That age is best which is the first,When youth and blood are warmer;But being spent, the worse, and worstTimes still succeed the former.Then be not coy, but use your time,And while ye may, go marry:For having lost but once your prime,Y ou may for ever tarry.Some Prose-WritersThe seventeenth century was a period of revolution and restoration. Much of the prose was devoted to political and religious controversies. Nevertheless, besides Milton and other militant pamphleteers, there are still some other prose writers who reflected their age from different angles and whose works carry quite different message with them.Robert BurtonHis masterpiec e “The Anatomy of Melancholy” . Nominally, it claims to offer the definition, symptoms, causes, properties and cure of melancholy, that is, human disorder, especially love melancholy and religious melancholy.But in reality the book is an enormous collection of detached essays on the whole life and thought of man, and on man’s dissatisfaction with the world and the ways to mitigate it, illustrated with the best stories in the world. Other Prose-Writers Thomas BrowneReligio Medici (a collection of opinions on a vast number of opinions on a vast number of subjects more and less connectedwith religion, expressed from a distinctly personal viewpoint ) Jeremy TaylorHe is famous for his Holy Living and Holy dying, Both written to help the Anglican royalists during the reign of the Commonwealth.Holy Living offers rules of conduct for the Royalists under the difficulties of the age. Holy Dying warns that human life is short and it is necessary to begin preparing for death while still healthy.Thomas Browne and Jeremy Taylor have been called two representative baroque prose writers in English literature for their elaborate and magnificent style.Baroque literature: It is the transition from Renaissanceto classicism.It began in Italy, Spain and flourished in France and thenEngland. It has direct influence on 19th romanticistliterature.It is called in 18th-century as “Rococo Style”, the style of painting, writing and decoration characterized by lightness, delicacy, and elaborate ornamentation.Exercise One I. Name the Writers by the given passages. (10%) ( ) 1. What man art thou,quoth he, That lookest as thou wouldst find a hare; For ever on the ground I see thee stare.( ) 2. Here where nothing is private, the common affairs be earnestly looked upon...?There where all things be common to every man, It is not to be doubted that any an shall lack anything necessary for his private use, so ?that ?the ?common ?storehouses bars be sufficiently stored ( ) 3. ...What though the field be lost? All is not lost; the unconquerable will And study of revenge, immortal hate, And courage never to submit or yield...( ) 5. It sucked me first, and now sucks thee, And in this flea, our two bloods mingled be; This flea is you & I,& this Our marriage-bed, marriage temple is.II.True & False statement. (20%)( ) 1. Chancer's contribution to English poetry lies chiefly in the fact he introduced from France the rhymed stanza in Iambic meter to English poetry.( ) 2. Hamlet,the great tragedy of Shakespear, with perfect artistry, studys the big question "to be or no to be.“( ) 3. Bacon was the founder of modern science & also famous for his "essays."( ) 4. Milton's Areopagistica is a pamphlet about religious abuse.( ) 5. University wits contribute a lot in prose writing as well as drama writing.( ) 6. Romance is a typical kind of noble literature & has nothing to do with common people.( ) 7. Sperser's "Faerie Queene", Sidney's "Astrophel & Stella "& Shakespeare's?"Sonnets" are the most famous sonnet sequences of Elizabethan Age.( ) 8.Blank verse is the most popular literary form in 11th-14th century.( ) 9. Marlowe was the greatest pioneer of English drama & it was Marlowe ?who ?first made blank verse the principal instrument of English drama.( ) 10.The eighteenth century is an enlightenment century that most of the writers show great interest on reasoning, rationality & classicism (Neo-classicism)Representatives of the Restoration1. Sir George Etherege乔治·埃恩里奇爵士The man of Mode《时髦男子》2. William Wycherley 威廉·威彻利Love in a Wood《林中之爱》The Country Wife《乡村妇女》The Plain Dealer《坦率的人》Representatives of the Restoration3.Sir John Vanbrugh约翰·范布勒爵士The Relapse, or Virtue in Danger 《故态复萌》The Provoked Wife《恼怒的妻子》4. William Congreve威廉·康格里夫The Double Dealer《两面派》Love for Love 《以爱还爱》The Way of the World 《如此世道》Representatives of the Restoration5. Jeremy Collier杰雷米·科利尔, a non-conformist(非国教的) clergymanA Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage《略论英国舞台上的不道德和亵渎》现代语言学一绪论1 Linguisitics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants3 Phonology" : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone.4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemesare arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and "ish"---boyish,teach---teacher.5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,"John like linguistics."6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried." The seal could not be found,The king became worried." Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, "I do" The word do means different context.8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language.9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don't.4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.5 allophone: The different phones which can represent aphoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others.9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature.10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest}三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to creat a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form nes words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat new words.四句法学1 linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed bytransformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.5 Move а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called M ove а{$isbest}五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation betweena more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed b y structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.六语用学1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consistsof the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4 locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning。

英语文学作品中的人名汉译本科毕业论文毕业设计（论文）英语文学作品中的人名汉译Translation of Personal Names in English Literary WorksTranslation of Personal Names in English Literary WorksA ThesisSubmitted in Partial Fulfillment of the RequirementsFor the Bachelor’s Degree in English Language and LiteratureByWang QiongUndergraduate ProgramDepartment of Foreign LanguagesXiangnan UniversitySupervisor: Li QijiuAcademic Title: Associate Professor Signature＿______ApprovedDecember 2012CONTENTSAbstract in Chinese (i)Abstract in English (ii)Introduction (1)1. The definition and characteristics of personal name (2)1.1 The definition of personal name (2)1.2 The characteristics of personal name (2)1.2.1 Symbolicness (2)1.2.2 Definiteness (3)1.2.3 Varistion (3)1.Personal name and culture (5)2.1 Relationship between personal names and culture (5)2.2 Cultural information in literary works (5)2.3 Personal names in literary works (6)2.Naming methods of persons in English literature (7)3.1 Implying the meaning in pronunciation (7)3.2 Expressing the meaning by personal names (7)3.3 Originating from the allusions (7)4. Translation strategies (9)4.1Two fundamental strategies: domestication and foreignization (9)4.2Translation strategies for personal names in literary works (9)4.2.1 Foreignization (9)4.2.1.1 Transliteration (9)4.2.2 Domestication (10)4.2.2.1 Culture compensation (10)4.2.2.2 Giving up the name, only getting the meaning (11)Conclusion (12)Bibliography (13)Acknowledgements (14)摘要人名是一门艺术，也是人类社会中最普遍的语言现象，是人们利用语言符号区别他人的特定标志。

英语语言学概论第八章笔记Chapter 8 Socio-linguistics 社会语言学1.What is socio-linguistics? 什么是社会语言学？Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts.社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究社会环境中的语言。

nguage variation 语言变异a)S peech community 言语社区In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are treated as members of social groups. The social group isolated for any given study is called speech community. A speech community thus defined as a group of people who form a community (which may have as few members as a family or as many member as a country), and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.社会语言学研究中，说话者被当作是社会群体的成员。

课程名称：语言学概论（英语）课程代码：ENGL2016英文名称：An Introduction to Linguistics课程性质：专业必修课适用专业：英语师范、英语、翻译开课学期：第3学期学时：34学时学分：2学分开课单位：外国语学院先修课程：无后续课程：Applied Linguistics, Comparative Linguistics大纲审核人：一、课程性质和教学目标课程性质：语言学概论（英语）是普通高校英语师范专业学生的必修课程，是进一步学习其它语言学分支课程的先决条件。

本课程旨在介绍英语语言系统、语言使用及语言学习的基本理论和概念；培养学生对于人类语言主要特性和基本元素的感性和理性认识；使学生逐步形成对语言现象进行观察、思考以及抽象概括的能力；为英语师范专业学生将来的教学工作提供理论指导，同时也为部分同学将来进一步从事语言学研究打好基础。

教学目标：本课程旨在传授系统的英语语言学基本理论知识，帮助学生掌握普通语言学的基础知识和基本概念，掌握普通语言学的理论和方法，培养学生勤于思考、善于钻研并渴望解决问题的能力，培养学生的团队合作能力，使学生逐步形成对语言现象进行观察、思考以及抽象概括的能力。

本课程教材由三个模块组成：英语语言的系统、英语语言的使用和英语语言的学习，其中语言系统模块包括语言的本质、语音学、音位学、形态学（词法）、句法学、语义学；语言使用模块包括语用规则、跨文化交际、语言变体；语言学习模块包括第二语言习得研究领域的主要观点、影响第二语言习得的主要因素、培养跨文化语言交际能力。

在教学过程中，教师针对教材内容，指导学生理解语言学的基本概念和基础知识，掌握观察、研究和分析语言使用的方法，通过使用多种教学方法，如小组讨论、集体报告等，培养学生的团队合作能力，使学生掌握必要的语言学的基本理论和基本知识，掌握研究、运用语言的基本方法，为今后的英语教学工作打下坚实的基础。

本课程的具体教学目标如下：1.了解语言的本质特征、语言的功能、语言学中的重要概念区别及普通语言学的主要分支；2.系统了解语言学各分支的知识，即语音学、音位学、形态学（词法）、句法学、语义学、语用学等的基本内容和研究方法；3.了解语言使用的正确规则，语言的变体，跨文化交际的基本方法；4.了解第二语言习得的主要研究问题，影响第二语言习得的主要因素，培养和发展跨文化交际能力；5.培养学生勤于思考、善于钻研并渴望解决问题的能力；6.培养学生的团队合作能力，帮助其形成对教学的基本认识，为今后的英语教学工作打下坚实的基础教学目标与毕业要求的对应关系：二．课程教学内容和学时分配第一章What is language? （支撑教学目标1、5、6）课时：1周，共2课时教学内容1.The nature of language2.Distinctions between important concept pairs in linguistic study. 思考题：Language is something that we tend to take for granted; something with which we are familiar from childhood in a practical, unreflecting manner. This practical familiarity with language tends to stand in the way of its objective examination. There are all sorts of social, cultural, and nationalistic pr ejudices associated with the layman’s view of language and of particular languages. Look at the people around you and see whether they have some innate prejudices with regard to language(s). If yes, what are they?第二章Phonetics （支撑教学目标2、5、6）课时：1周，共2课时1.教学内容Speech organs2.Consonants and vowels思考题：With the exception of some remarkable individuals, adult learners do not often achieve native-like competence in the second language, especially with respect to pronunciation. Randomly select some of your classmates coming from different provinces and see whether there is any association between their English pronunciations and that of their dialects.第三章Phonology（支撑教学目标2、5、6）课时：1周，共2课时教学内容1.Important concepts in phonology2.Identifying phonemes3.Sequence of phonemes4.Co-articulation effects5.Supra-segmental features思考题：In a study comparing the tone choice (the rising tone, the falling tone, and the rising-falling tone, etc.) in second language parallel teaching presentations (naturally occurring) given by 6 Chinese and 6 North American male teaching assistants (TAs), Pickering (2004) found that the native-English-speaking TAs systematically exploited their tone choices to increase the accessibility of the lecture materials and establish rapport with their students. Conversely, the typical tonal composition of the Chinese TAs’ presentations made the information structure unclear and frequently characterized these speakers as unsympathetic and uninvolved. Randomly select two video lectures, one by a native speaker of English and the other by a Chinese EFL speaker of English, and see how the two speakers differ with regard to the tone choices.第四章Morphology （支撑教学目标2、5、6）课时：2周，共4课时教学内容1.What is morphology2.Morpheme3.Classifications of morphemes4.Morpheme, morph, allomorph5.Empty morph and zero morph6.Morphemic analysis7.The role of morphology in English思考题：The Watergate Scandal began with the arrest of five men for secretly entering the DemocraticNational Committee headquarters at the Watergate Office complex in Washington, D.C. on June 17, 1972. Investigations conducted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) revealed that this burglary was one of many illegal activities authorized and carried out by Nixon's staff. Since the revelation of this scandal, the suffix -gate has often been associated with political scandals involving abuse of power, bribery, and obstruction of justice. It is sometimes even used when talking about pornographic scandals. Search on the Internet and see how many gate-related words you can come up with and then probe into the stories behind each of them.第五章Syntax（支撑教学目标2、5、6）课时：1周，共2课时教学内容1.Structural description of sentences2.Generation of sentences思考题：Generally speaking, the English language develops in the right-branching direction, i.e., the modifying clause typically appears to the right of the head noun; while the Chinese language develops in the left-branching direction, i.e. the modifying clause typically appears to the left of the head noun. Randomly select two pieces of writing from a Chinese newspaper (e.g. The Xinhua News Daily) and an English newspaper (e.g. The New York Times), and see how the development of the typical sentence structure differs in the two languages.第六章Semantics（支撑教学目标2、5、6）课时：1周，共2课时教学内容1.What is semantics?2.Lexical semantics3.Sentence semantics思考题：Collocations are ‘ready-made chunks,’ which can be stored and retrieved directly and immediately from our mental lexicon. In fact, about 70% of what we say, hear, read, and write is in some form of fixed expression. Randomly select a Chinese newspaper (e.g. The Xinhua News Daily) and an English newspaper (e.g. The New York Times), and pick up one particular column, such as sports, or stock market. Spot and calculate the collocations used and see whether there are similarities and differences between English and Chinese in terms of features (e.g. free collocation, restricted collocation, and figurative idioms) as well as structures (e.g. Adjective + Noun, Verb + Noun, and Verb + Preposition) of the collocations used. If yes, what are they?第七章General principles of communication（支撑教学目标3、5、6）课时：2周，共4课时教学内容1.The cooperative principle2.The politeness principle3.The principle of relevance思考题：Record a piece of ordinary conversation in a setting of your choice. Make a simple transcription and describe the compliance with and disregarding of the maxims of Cooperative Principle that the conversation involves.第八章Intercultural communication（支撑教学目标3、5、6）课时：1周，共2课时教学内容1.Important conceptsnguage and culture3.Diverse intercultural communication patterns4.Potential problems in intercultural communication思考题：As students, you have probably learned English for many years, during which you may have had a number of different foreigner teachers, or you may have had some travels in some English-speaking countries. Recall your past experiences with different foreigners or foreigner teachers and see what kind of cultural differences there are between your culture and that of your foreigner teachers.第九章Language variety（支撑教学目标3、5、6）课时：1周，共2课时教学内容nguage-dialect-regional dialect-social dialect2.Lingua franca-pidgin-creole3.Style-genre-taboo-euphemism4.Gender and language use思考题：Where did you spend the greatest part of your childhood? State some of the ways in which the speech of that region differs from what you would consider Mandarin Chinese.第十章Major issues in SLA（支撑教学目标4、5、6）课时：1周，共2课时教学内容1.Contrastive analysis hypothesis2.Error analysis3.The inter-language hypothesis4.The monitor model5.The output hypothesis6.The open-choice principle and the idiom principle思考题：Record and transcribe a piece of ordinary English conversation in a high school setting; identify the errors and mistakes and then interview the students who made them; and finally see what kind of inter-language rules you can infer regarding the Chinese s tudents’ learning of English as a foreign language.第十一章Factors affecting second language learning （支撑教学目标4、5、6）课时：2周，共4课时教学内容1.Factors not easily modified by learners2.Factors easily modified by learners思考题：Randomly select a good student and a poor student, or rather, a high-achiever and an underachiever, in your class, and see how they differ in terms of the strategies employed in theirlearning of English.第十二章Developing an intercultural communicative competence （支撑教学目标4、5、6）课时：1周，共2课时教学内容1. A brief review of current models of second language competence2.Why are current models inadequate?3. A model of intercultural competence4.Intercultural competence in communicative language use思考题：Record, with permission, a short conference involving a decision-making among executives in a joint venture where the participants are from different language backgrounds but English is used the only working language, and see whose cultural rules dominate and why.三、教学方法本课程遵循传授语言学基本理论知识与培养语言运用和研究能力相结合的教学原则。

Chapter 1 Introduction: Language and Linguistics●What is language?As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication●Features of human language⏹Creativity◆Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have neverbeen sent before and for understanding novel messages.◆The grammatical rules and the words of a language are finite, but thesentences are infinite. Every speaker uses language creatively.⏹Duality◆Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other ofmeanings.◆Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings.◆Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequences ofspeech sounds.⏹Arbitrariness◆The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary.◆There is no logical connection between sound and meaning.⏹Displacement◆There is no limit in time or space for language.◆Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present orfuture.⏹Cultural transmission◆Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned.◆Language is a way of transmitting culture.⏹Interchangeability◆All members of a speech community can send and receive messages.⏹Reflexivity◆Human languages can be used to describe themselves.◆The language used to talk about language is called meta-language.●Functions of language – three meta-functions⏹The ideational function◆To identify things, to think, or to record information.⏹The interpersonal function◆To get along in a community.⏹The textual function◆To form a text.●What is linguistics?⏹Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of language.⏹Branches of linguistics◆Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions●Phonetics●Phonology●Morphology●Syntax●Semantics◆External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions●Pragmatics●Psycholinguistics●Sociolinguistics●Applied linguistics●Computational linguistics●Neurolinguistics⏹Modern linguistics began in the early 20th century. It founder is the Swissscholar, Ferdinand de Saussure.(索绪尔)Chapter 2 Phonetics●What is phonetics?Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds. (It studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.)●Description of speech sounds⏹Description of English consonants◆General feature: obstruction◆Criteria of consonant description●Places of articulation●Manners of articulation●V oicing of articulation◆Places of articulation●This refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified toproduce a sound.⏹Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w]⏹Labiodental: [f] [v]⏹Interdental: [ ] [❆]⏹Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r]⏹Palatal: [☞] [✞] [t☞] [d✞] [j]⏹Velar: [k] [g] [☠]⏹Glottal: [h]◆Manners of articulation●This refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it iscompletely blocked or partially obstructed.⏹Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]⏹Fricatives: [s] [z] [☞] [✞] [f] [v] [ ] [❆] [h]⏹Affricates: [t☞] [d✞]⏹Liquids: [l] [r]⏹Glides: [w] [j]⏹Nasals: [m] [n] [☠]◆V oicing of articulation●This refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds areproduced.⏹V oiced sounds⏹V oiceless soundsChapter 3 Phonology●What is phonology?Phonology is the study of sound patterns and sound systems of language.●Discovering phonemes⏹Contrastive distribution – phonemes◆If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be incontrastive distribution.◆Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs andminimal sets.● A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one soundin the same position.●Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by onesegment in the same position.◆The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented bythe English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.◆Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English.However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features.Therefore, they are separate phonemes.⏹Complementary distribution – allophones◆Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be incomplementary distribution.◆If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number offeatures, they are allophones of the same phoneme.●Syllable structure⏹ A syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.⏹Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.⏹The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onset andfollowed by one or more consonants called the coda.Chapter 4 Morphology●What is morphology?Morphology is defined as t he study of the internal structure and the formation of words.●Morphemes and allomorphs⏹The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.⏹The different morphs of the same morpheme are called allomorphs.●Conclusion: classification of morphemes⏹Morphemes◆Free morphemes: can be used independently as a word◆Bound morphemes: are the morphemes which cannot be used as a word,they must be attached to the other morphemes.●Formation of new words⏹Derivation◆Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.◆Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create aderived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes tothe word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness,unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a freemorpheme is termed complex derivation.◆Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category.Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a differentlanguage origin.◆Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.◆Some English suffixes also change the word stress.⏹Compounding◆Compounding is another common way to form words. It is thecombination of free morphemes.◆The majority of English compounds are the combination of words fromthe three classes – nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the threeclasses.◆In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech ofthe word.◆The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of thecomponents.⏹Conversion◆Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class intoanother class.◆Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.⏹Clipping◆Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one ormore syllables.◆Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informaloccasions.◆Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even informal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian),gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator)and fax (facsimile)are rarelyused in their complete form.⏹Blending◆Blending is a process that creates new words by putting togethernon-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog(smoke +frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfastand lunch), motel(motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word inthe textbook for junior middle school students –“plike” (a kind ofmachine that is like both a plane and a bike).⏹Back-formation◆Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a realor supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed fromtelevision. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefixtele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix–sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in theword television as that suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.⏹Acronyms and abbreviations◆Acronyms and abbreviations are formed by putting together the initialletters of all words in a phrase or title.◆Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer thanabbreviations, which are read letter by letter.◆This type of word formation is common in names of organizations andscientific terminology.⏹Eponyms◆Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals orplaces. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originatingfrom the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slicesof bread so that he could eat while gambling.⏹Coinage◆Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existingmorphemes.◆This way of word formation is especially common in cases whereindustry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak andCoca-cola.Chapter 5 Syntax●What is syntax?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of sentence formation.⏹Immediate constituent (IC) analysis◆Structural grammar is characterized by a top-down process of analysis.◆ A sentence is seen as a constituent structure. All the components of thesentences are its constituents. A sentence can be cut into sections. Eachsection is its immediate constituent. Then each section can be further cutinto constituents. This on-going cutting is termed immediate constituentanalysis.◆Examples:●Old men and women: old | men and women, old || men | and women●The ||| little || girl | speaks || French.◆In this way, sentence structure is analyzed not only horizontally but alsovertically. In other words, IC analysis can account for the linearity andthe hierarchy of sentence structure.●I will suggest | that this || in itself reflects ||| a particular ideology|||| about gender ||||| that deserves to be re-examined.◆Two advantages of IC analysis:●It can analyze some ambiguities.●It shows linearity and hierarchy of one sentence.●Transformational-generative (TG) grammar⏹Background and the goal of TG grammar◆Chomsky (1957) – grammar is the knowledge of native speakers.⏹Syntactic categories◆Noun Phrase (NP)◆Verb Phrase (VP)◆Sentence (S)◆Determiner (Det)◆Adjective (Adj)◆Pronoun (Pro)◆Verb (V)◆Auxiliary Verb (Aux)◆Prepositional Phrase (PP)◆Adverb (Adv)⏹Phrase structure (PS) rules◆S →NP VP(Det) (Adj) N◆NP →{Pro◆VP →(Aux) V (NP) (PP)◆PP →P NPChapter 6 Semantics●What is semantics?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.●Lexical sense relations⏹Synonymy◆Synonyms are words which have different forms but similar meanings.●Dialectal synonyms –lift/elevator, flat/apartment●Synonyms of different styles –gentleman/guy●Synonyms of different registers –salt/sodium chloride●Synonyms differing in affective meaning –attract/seduce●Synonyms differing in collocation –beautiful/handsome,able/capable◆Synonyms are frequently used in speaking and writing as a cohesivedevice. In order to avoid repetition the writer/speaker needs to use asynonym to replace a word in the previous co-text when he/she wants tocontinue to address that idea. The synonyms together function to createcohesion of the text.⏹Antonymy◆Antonyms are words which are opposite in meaning.●Gradable antonyms – pairs of words opposite to each other, but thepositive of one word does not necessarily imply the negative of theother. For example, the words hot and cold are a pair of antonyms,but not hot does not necessarily mean cold, maybe warm, mild orcool. Therefore, this pair of antonyms is a pair of gradableantonyms.●Complementary antonyms –words opposite to each other and thepositive of one implies the negative of the other: alive/dead●Reversal (relational) antonyms – words that denote the same relationor process from one or the other direction: push/pull, up/down,teacher/student◆Antonymy is frequently utilized as a rhetorical resource in language use.Oxymoron and antithesis based on antonymy. Gradable antonyms maygive rise to fuzziness.⏹Homonymy◆Homonyms are words which have the same form, but differentmeanings.●Homographs – words which are identical in spelling, but different inmeaning and pronunciation: tear [♦☪☜] (v.)/tear [♦♓☜] (n.)●Homophones –words which are identical in pronunciation, butdifferent in spelling and meaning: see/sea●Full homonyms –words which are identical in spelling andpronunciation, but different in meaning: bear (v. to give birth to ababy/to stand)/bear (n. a kind of animal)◆Rhetorically, homonyms are often used as puns.⏹Polysemy◆ A polyseme is a word which has several related senses.◆Polysemy is based on the intuition of native speakers as well as theetymology or history of words.⏹Hyponymy◆Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion.◆Tiger, lion, elephant and dog are hyponyms of the word animal. Wordslike animal are called superordinates.◆This kind of vertical semantic relation links words in a hierarchicalwork.●Sentencial sense relations – semantic relations of sentences⏹Sentences may be related in sense. I will illustrate sense relations within andbetween sentences.◆Tautology: The bachelor is unmarried.◆Contradiction: The bachelor is married.◆Inconsistency: John is single./John is married.◆Synonymousness: John broke the glass./The glass was broken by John.◆Entailment: The meeting was chaired by a spinster./The meeting waschaired by a woman.◆Presupposition: Sam has returned the book./Sam borrowed the book.⏹These semantic relations are found within or between meaningful sentences.There are sentences which sound grammatical but meaningless. Thesesentences are said to be semantically anomalous. For example:◆Colourless green ideas sleep furiously.◆The pregnant bachelor killed some phonemes.Chapter 7 Pragmatics●What is pragmatics?Pragmatics can be defined as the analysis of meaning in context.●Speech acts⏹In linguistic communication, people do not merely exchange information.They actually do something through talking or writing in variouscircumstances. Actions performed via speaking are called speech acts.⏹Types of speech acts◆Locutionary speech act – the action of making the sentence◆Illocutionary speech act – the intentions◆Perlocutionary speech act – the effects◆Of these dimensions, the most important is the illocutionary act.●Cooperation and implicature⏹Conversational Implicature◆In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation aregenerally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people aretalking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly andsuccessfully. In accepting speakers’ pres uppositions, listeners have toassume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense ofcooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are notnormally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevantinformation from one another.◆However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often notthe literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied inthe words is called conversational implicature. For example:[1]A: Can you tell me the time?B: Well, the milkman has come.◆In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is notanswering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accuratetime, but through saying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving arough time. The answer B gives is related to the literal meaning of thewords, but is not merely that. That is often the case in communication.The theory of conversational implicature is for the purpose of explaininghow listeners infer the speakers’ intention through the words.◆The study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (1967), theAmerican philosopher. He thinks, in daily communication, people areobserving a set of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as tocommunicate effectively through conversation. He calls this set of rulesthe cooperative principle (CP) elaborated in four sub-principles(maxims), that is the cooperative principle.⏹The Cooperative Principle◆Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage atwhich it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talkexchange in which you are engaged. The maxims are:●Quantity⏹Make your contribution as informative as is required (for thecurrent purposes of the exchange).⏹Do not make your contribution more informative than isrequired.●Quality – Try to make your contribution one that is true.⏹Do not say what you believe to be false.⏹Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.●Relation – Be relevant.●Manner – Be perspicuous.⏹Avoid obscurity of expression.⏹Avoid ambiguity.⏹Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).⏹Be orderly.◆We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriateamount of information, i.e. they are telling the relevant truth clearly. Thecooperative principle given by Grice is an idealized case ofcommunication.Chapter 11 Second Language Acquisition (SLA)●What is SLA?The term language acquisition refers to t he natural process of children’s language development.To summarize, second language acquisition(SLA) may be defined as the process by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting or ina classroom.◆Contrastive analysis●Compare the target language with the mother tongue.◆Error analysis●Describing errors⏹Omission-He came into _ classroom with a book in _ hand.⏹Addition/wordy-My child goes to his school.⏹Selection-I hope/wish…⏹Disordering-I yesterday went to … (I, yesterday, went to …/I went to …yesterday)Chapter 12 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching (FLT)⏹Syllabus design and material development。

1. What are the difference between general linguistics and descriptive linguistics and what sis the relationship between them? (P.1)A: Differences between general and descriptive linguistics:(1) They have different goals:General linguistics deals with language; descriptive linguistics study one particular language;(2) They have different aims:General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of human language in general;Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a model that describes the rules of this particular language.Relationships between general and descriptive linguistics:General and descriptive linguistics depend on each other:(1) General linguistics provides descriptive linguistics with a general framework in which a particular language can be analyzed and described; (2) The resulting descriptions of particular languages supply empirical evidence which may confirm or refute the models put forward by general linguists.2. What is the nature of language? (P7)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, which is creative, double-structured and changeable.3. What is the difference between langue and parole? (P2/P24)a. Langue is the system of language. Parole is the speakers’ speech.b. Langue refers to the abstract system of a language, while parole refers to the concrete act of speaking in a definite time, place and situation.c. Langue underlies parole and parole, in turn, is a manifestation of langue.4. What is the difference between competence and performance? (P2)a. Competence is the speaker-hearer’s knowledge of his language.b. Performance is the actual use of language in concrete situations.c. Competence is abstract, while performance is concrete.5. Why do linguists maintain that language is primarily speech? (P4) Linguists maintain that language is primarily speech, and not the written form. This view may be justified by the following reasons.a. Biologically speaking, children begin to learn to speak much earlier than to learn to read and write.b. Functionally speaking, the spoken form is used more frequently than the written form in our daily life.c. Historically speaking, all human languages were spoken before they were written and there are still many languages in the world today which have not been written down.The emphasis on the spoken form indicates that linguistic study is primarily based on the data collected from living speech.6. What does it mean by saying that language is arbitrary, creative and double-structured? (P4-5)A. The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is arbitrary.B. Language is creative.a. Every language contains an infinite number of sentences, which, however, are generated by a small set of rules and a finite set of words.b. The length of a sentence has no limit in theory.c. The rules with recursive properly can account for the creative aspect of language.C. Language is double-structured. There are two levels: grammatically-meaningful and sound-meaningless.7. What features of language can differentiate human languages from animal communicative systems? (P7)Human language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, which is creative, double-structured and changeable. Those unique features like creativity, duality of structure and changeability can differentiate human languages from animal communicative systems and enable human languages to be the most efficient, flexible and versatile means of communication in the world.8. How many stages does the scientific method have? What are they? (P9) There are four stages of scientific method:a. collecting data,b. forming a hypothesisc. testing the hypothesisd. drawing conclusions9. What are the three linguistic biases? (P9-10, P7)a. One common linguistic bias is that some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced.b. Another deep-rooted bias is that only the standard variety is the pure form of a language.c. Change is not natural for all living languages and such a language is a sign of corruption and decay.10. How is a rule constructed? (P15)a. To construct a rule, the linguist starts with collecting data.b. Based on the data collected, he may construct a very simple rule as a tentative version.c. Then he examines the tentative rule against further data. If the additional data do not agree with it, he has to modify it.d. He keeps on testing the rule and, accordingly, revising the rule until the rule can account for all the relevant data collected.Thus, the rule formed is open to further modifications.11. Give examples to illustrate the two features of an adequate model of competence: explicitness and generativeness. (P15-16/P6)a. By saying a linguistic model is explicit, we mean that the rules the model contains are clearly and precisely defined. Even a computer can produce all and only the grammatical sentences if the rules are fed to the machine.b. By saying the model is generative, we mean that the model contains only a small set of rules which, however, can generate an indefinitely large number ofc. For example, “so…that” is explicit, but they can generate infinite sentences. eg. He is so fat that he could not ran fast.He was so lazy that he never washed his clothes.…12. What are the four types of linguistic knowledge? (P18-19)The four types of linguistic knowledge are phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic.a. Phonological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the sounds and sound patterns of his language.b. Morphological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about how a word is formed.c. Syntactic knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.c. Semantic knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the meaning of language.13. Why is Saussre regarded as the former of modern linguistics? (P21-22)a. The obvious reason is that the book under his name “A Course in General Linguistics” is the first real essay on linguistic theory.b. In this book, quite a few theoretical distinctions introduced have become foundations of linguistic study and exerted great influence on the later development linguistics.c. Chief among them are the distinctions between synchronic and diachronic, syntagmatic and paradigmatic, langue and parole.14. Give examples to illustrate the difference between synchronic and diachronic. (P22)a. If we study the changes in the Chinese language that took place between the 1940’s and the 1960’s, it would be a diachronic study.b. But if we study the Chinese language in the 1940’s, then it would be a synchronic study.concerned with the historical development of a language and the latter is concerned with the “state” of a language at a particular point of time.15. Give examples to illustrate the difference between syntagmatic and paradigmatic. (P116-118/P22-23)a. A syntagmatic relation refers to the sequential characteristic of speech.b. A paradigmatic relation is a relation between a linguistic element in an utterance and linguistic elements outside that utterance.c. We can go tomorrow syntagmatic relationShe may come soonI will ask nextY ou could sleep now………paradigmatic relation16. What is a consonant and what is a vowel? (P30)a. A consonant is a speech sound where the airstream from the longs is either completely blocked, partially blocked or where the opening is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.b. A vowel is a speech sound in which the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usually pronounced with vibrations of the vocal cords.17. Is the spelling of words a reliable means of describing English sounds? Why or Why not? (P30-31)No, it isn’t.a. Sometimes a single letter may represent different sounds.b. Sometimes, different letters or combinations of letters may r4epresent a single sound.c. The advantage of this system is that within the system, one symbol represents one sound and every symbol has a consistent value.18. What is the difference between plosives and affricates? (P37)b. Affricates are brought together to form a complete closure but not followed by a sudden release, rather by a low release with audile friction.19. What is the difference between phonetics and phonology? (P20, P53)a. English phonetics is concerned with all speech sounds that occur in the English language. It studies how those sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived, and how they re described and classified.b. Different from English phonetics, English phonology does not deal with the actual production of English sounds, but with the abstract aspects: the function of sounds and their patterns of combination.20. What are the three conditions of a minimal pair? (P54)a. They are different in meaningb. They differ only in one sound segment.c. The different sounds occur in the same position in strings.21. Give examples to illustrate the differences between phonemes, phones and allophones. (P90)a. Phonemes are said to be minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.b. Phones are the realizations of phonemes.c. Allophones are the realizations of a particular phoneme.d. For example,22. Give examples to illustrate the differences between contrastive distribution, complementary distribution and free variation. (P59-60)a. If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change in meaning, they are in contrastive distribution.b. If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment, they are said toc. If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another does not cause a change in meaning, they are said to be in free variation.d. The sounds either in contrastive distribution or in free variation can occur in the same environment. The difference between them lies in the fact that in the former case, the substitution of one sound for another results in a change in meaning, but this does not happen in the latter case. Complementary distribution is clearly different from the previous two types of distribution. The sounds in complementary distribution never occur in the same environment.23 What are the 3 principles of identifying phonemes? (P61)a. The sounds that are in contrastive distribution are different phonemesb. The sounds that are always in free variation are allophones of the same phoneme.c. The sounds that are in complementary distribution and also phonetically similar are allophones of the same phoneme.24. What is the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features? (P69)a. The distinctive features, which can only have an effect on one sound segment, are called segmental features.b. The distinctive features, which can affect more than one sound segment and can also contrast meaning, are called suprasegmental features.25. What’s the difference between phonemes and morphemes? (P54, P83)a. Phoneme is defined as a minimal distinctive unit in the sound system of a language.b. A morpheme is defined as a minimal meaningful unit in the grammatical system of a language.26. What are interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes? (P84, P86)a. Semantically, morphemes are grouped into general categories: root morphemes (roots) and affixational morphemes (affixes).b. Structurally, they fall into two classes: free morphemes and bound morphemes.c. All free morphemes are roots, but not all roots are free morphemes. All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes..27. Please explain the difference between inflectional and derivational28. How do we judge whether two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are one morph or different morphs? (P92-93)a. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are identical in both form and meaning, then they are regarded as one morph.b. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are the same in form but different in meaning, then there are as many morphs as there are meanings.c. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are the same in meaning but different in form, then there are as many morphs as there are forms.d. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are different both in form and meaning, there are as many morphs as there different forms and meanings.If two or more morphs are semantically identical and also in complementary distributing, they are then said to allomorphs of the same morpheme; otherwise, they belong to different morphemes.30. What is IC analysis? (P99/P126)a. IC analysis simply means that we divide the morphemes of a word into the two groups and then divide each group into subgroups and so on, until we reach single morphemes.b. Labeled IC simply means that we divide the morphemes of a word or the words of a sentence into the two groups and then divide each group into subgroups and so on, until we reach single morphemes of a word on a signal word of a sentence..31. What is the difference between an empty morph and a zero morph? (P97-98)a. Empty morph is defined as a morph that has form but no meaning.b. Zero morph is defined as a morph that has no form but has meaning.32. What are two ways of studying sentences? Explain them. (P116)a. We make structural descriptions of sentences to illustrate the parts of a sentence and the relationships among them, this is called static study.b. We examine the process by which sentences are generated by syntactic rules this is called dynamic study.33. What are the three syntactic relations? (P116-118)a. Sequential or syntagmatic relations are refers to the linear ordering of the words and the phrases within a sentence.b. Substitutional (paradigmatic) relation is a kind of relation between linguistic forms in a sentence and linguistic forms outside the sentence.c. Hierarchical relation shows us the inner layering of sentences.34. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?a. A surface structure corresponds to the linear arrangement of words; a deep structure corresponds to the meaningful grouping of words.b. A surface structure is relatively concrete, and a deep structure is abstract.c. A surfaces structure gives the form of a sentence; while the deep structure gives the meaning of a sentence.d. A surface structure is pronounceable, but a deep structure is not pronounceable.35. What are the three kinds of operations performed by T-rules? (P180)a. rearranging the sentence elements;b. adding a new element to the phrase marker;c. deleting an element from the phrase marker.36. What are the differences between PS rules and T-rules? (P139)a. TG grammar has assumed that to generate sentences, we start with deep structures and then transform them into surface structures.b. Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules), and surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).英语语言学概论11Phonetics has three sub-branches:(1) articulatory phonetics that is concerned with how a sound is produced by the vocal organs;(2) acoustic phonetics that deals with how a sound is transmitted from the speaker ’s mouth to the listener ’s ears;(3) auditory phonetics that investigates how a sound is perceived by the listener.2. Speech organs1-nasal cavity; 2-lips; 3-teeth; 4-aveolar ridge; 5-hard palate 6-velum (soft palate); 7-uvula; 8-apex (tip) of tongue; 9-blade (front) of tongue;10-dorsum (back) of tongue; 11-oral cavity;12-pharynx; 13-epiglottis;14-larynx; 15-vocal cords; 16-trachea; 17-esophagus;。

Is language a system?Yes.Is there intrinsic connection between form and meaning?No. It’s arbitrary .Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in their synchronic solidarity. (de Saussure, 1916)[Language is] a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.A system ----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot bearranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned. bkliArbitrary ----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning.Vocal --------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Symbols ----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by convention.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device” (LAD)语言习得机制Origin of language1.The divine theory 神论说--- God created language for human beings.2.The bow-wow theory 拟声说--- Language developed from the imitation of the calls ofanimals.3.The pooh-pooh theory 感叹说--- Language developed from instinctive sounds of pain,anger and joy of human beings.4.The “yo-he-ho” theory 韵律说--- Language developed from rhythmic grunts of peoplewhen they worked together.Properties of Language -Design featuresArbitrariness [‘a:bi,trərinis] 任意性•The arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between sounds and meanings (form and meaning).Arbitrariness◆Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning◆Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelThe sentence is less arbitrary than words.Correspondence between word order and natural event.◆Arbitrariness and conventionWhile arbitrariness makes language flexible and creative, convention makes it stable and laborious to learn.Conventionality is more important than arbitrariness in learning a language.Duality二元性•The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels.◆Two levels of structures•Primary level: meaningful units(e.g. words)•Secondary level: meaningless units(e.g. sounds)Productivity 多产性•The speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.•Eg.•He bought a book / which was written by a teacher / who taught in a school / which was known for its graduates / who…•We can speak an endless number of sentences with a limited vocabulary, and one sentence can expand into endless theoretically possible sentences in the way of recurring. Cultural transmission 文化传递性How did you learn language?•While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.Displacement 时间移位性•To symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Functions of LanguagePractical functionsTo chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet people...Abstract functionsTo refer, to inform, to communicate…▪Halliday 2003•Three broad functions of language (Page10)▪Jakobson•Six key elements of communication•Six basic functions of language▪Hu et al: (7 functions)Functions of LanguageHalliday (born 1925)Functional GrammarIdeational Function 概念功能Interpersonal Function 人际功能Textual Function 语篇功能M.A.K. Halliday―Three broad functions of language→IdeationalLanguage expresses our perception of the world→InterpersonalLanguage enables us to communicate with people→TextualLanguage is used to organise texts: written and spokenFunctions of LanguageJakobsonSix key elements of communication-addresser, addressee, context, message, code, contactFramework of language functions-referential 所指功能poetic 诗学功能emotive 情感功能conative 意动功能phatic 交感功能metalingual 元语言功能●Addresser---emotive情感(to express attitudes,feelings and emotions)(e.g. 'Oh!' )●Addressee---Conative意动(to persuade andinfluence others through commands and entreaties)(eg. imperatives: Come here! )●Context---referential所指( to convey messageand information)(eg. The Earth is round ; Water boils at 100 degrees.)▪Code---metalingual 元语言(to clear up intentions, words and meanings).▪What do you mean by 'krill' ?▪Contact---Phatic 交感(to establish communion with others)▪(e.g. Good morning!)▪Message---Poetic 诗学(to indulge in language for its own sake)▪(e.g. 'Oh!' )胡壮麟Seven basic functions of languageInformative 信息功能Interpersonal 人际功能Performative 施为功能Emotive 感情功能Phatic 交感功能Recreational 娱乐性功能Metalingual 元语言功能Informative function of languageThe predominant function of language, also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.Language expresses our perception of the worldInterpersonal function of languageThe most important function in sociological use of language.1.To express the identity of the addresser and addressee. For example,①Physical identity: age, sex, voice print, etc.②Psychological identity: language, personality, intelligence, etc.③Geographical identity: accent, dialect, etc.④Ethnical and social identity: class, status, role, solidarity, distance, etc.2.To express the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about. (e.g.Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant)Performative function of language1.To change the social status of persons.▪In marriage ceremonies: Now I pronounce you man and wife.▪In a law court: Now I sentence you to 3 three years imprisonment.▪In church: May God bless y’all.▪In a launching ceremony: Now I name the ship Elizabeth II.▪In cursing someone: God damn it.2.To control reality–in Chinese：岁岁平安-Every year be safe and happy.Emotive function of language1.To change the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.–What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Ow ...2.To express one’s own feelings without any implication of communicating with others–Damn! Man! Oh, boy! And hurrah!Phatic function of languageWe all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content.1.To start or end a conversation- “Nice day, isn’t it?”- “Hi, I’m William Blake.”- “I must go home, or my husband will beat me.”2.To help maintain a comfortable socio-interpersonal relationship between people.- “Good morning”- “吃饭了吗？”Recreational functionThe use of language for the sheer joy.1.To entertain people- nursery rhymes 童谣- nonsensical lyrics 无意义的歌词2.To show skills in the use of language.- poetry for its sheer beautyMetalingual function of languageThe use of language to talk about language.This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive: We human beings talk about talk and think about thinking, and thus only human beings can ask what it means to communicate, to think, to be human.。

语言学概论研究生课程使用教材：语言学入门（英语版）An Introduction to Linguistics by Stuart C. Poole 外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press麦克米伦出版社Macmillan Publishers Ltd参考资料：[1] Halliday, M. A. K. (1994[1985]) An Introduction to Functional Grammar. 2nd edn. London:Edward Arnold.[2] Labov, William 1966. The Social Stratification of English in York City. Washington, DC:Center for Applied Linguistics.[3] Ladefoged, Peter. 1993. A Course in Phonetics . 3rd ed. Fort Worth,TX: Harcourt Brace.[4] Lakoff, George & M. J. Johnson 1980. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of ChicagoPress.[5] Leech, G. 1969. A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry. Longman.[6] Leech, G. and M. Short. 1981. Style in Fiction. Longman.[7] Radford, Andrew et all. 1999. Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press.[8] Roach, Peter. 1991. English Phonetics and Phonology. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press.[9] Yule, George. 1996. The Study of Language, 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress.[10] 胡壮麟. 2001.《语言学教程》北京：北京大学出版社.第一章What Is Language?本章的教学目的、要求与内容：掌握语言的意义和定义、语言的功能和结构特征。

Linguistics IntroductionCourse Code: 61086000Course Name: Linguistics IntroductionCredit: 3 Credits Course Semester: The Fifth SemesterTeaching Object: Chinese Language and Literature MajorsRequired Course in Advance:Ancient Chinese, Modern ChineseTeaching Staff: Shao Wenli, Professor, BachelorCourse Introduction:Linguistics introduction is a major-specific required course for Chinese language and literature undergraduate students. This course takes human language as the research object, and the main teaching content of this course are introduce of language in the society, language structure, the relationship between language and society, the development of language and so on. By learning the basic theory and conception of linguistics, this course aims to provide essential theoretical knowledge for other language course, and lay a sound foundation for further linguistics theory study.Practical Teaching Links,During the teaching process, there will be some simple language investigation according to the teaching objectives. For example, a student will be chosen as the speaker of his dialect, other students are to listen, identify and record the sound under the guide of teacher.Course Assessment:Final Marks=Usual Marks*30%+ Final Examination Marks*70%Usual marks depend on the attendance, the quality of homework and thesis.Close-book form will be used in the final examination.Designated Teaching Material:[1] 叶蜚声,徐通锵.《语言学概论》.北京:北京大学出版社,1997年4月,第三版.Bibliography:[1] 索绪尔.《普通语言学教程》.北京:商务印书馆，1980年11月，第一版.[2] 刘伶,黄智显,陈秀珠.《语言学概要》.北京:北京师范大学出版社,1987年6月,第一版.[3] 徐通锵.《历史语言学》.北京:商务印书馆,1991年6月,第一版.[4] 袁家骅.《汉语方言概要》.北京:语文出版社,2001年1月,第二版.[5] 罗常培,王均.《普通语音学纲要》.北京:商务印书馆,2002年2月,修订版.。

语言学概论（2）复习要点Chapter 61、three approaches to the study of language and cognition P129 para.22、Psycholinguistics(definition) P130 para.23、Psycholinguistics has its roots in... P130 para.34、Six subjects of research within psycholinguistics P130 para.45、Three central topics in psycholinguistics P131 para.16、Four stages of children's acquisition of language P131-P1337、cohort theory P135 para.58、minimal attachment theory P138 para.29、schemata P139 para.3 （或见课件）10、image schema P147.para.111、metaphor(definition) P148 para.612、3 kinds of conceptual metaphors P149. para.213、metonomy (definition)P151. para.214、3 ICMs in ontological realms P151. para.315、blending theory P155. Para.6Chapter 71、sociolinguistics (definition)P159. para.22、speech community, register P160. Para.33、Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis P162. para.24、Linguistic determinism, Linguistic relativity P163 para.15、Three objectives for us to teach culture in our language class P169 para.76、Some social factors that influence our language behavior in a social context P171 para.47、William Labov, the professor in the linguistics department of the University ofPennsylvania,.the founder of the discipline of quantitative sociolinguistics8、the features of women register P172 para.29、linguistic sexism P173 para.110、A sociolinguistic study of society (macrosociolinguistics)A sociolinguistic study of language (microsociolinguistics):P173 para3 -- P174 para1--311、Pidgin and Creole(definition) P174 para. 3（见课件）Chapte r 101、computational linguistics P242, para. 22、Distinguish CAI, CAL & CALL P243, para.4--53、Four phases of CALL development P244 para. 2-- P245 para. 14、Machine Translation (MT) P247 para. 15、Two types of Machine Translation and the definition P247 para. 16、Development of MT（3 subtitles) P247--P2487、MT research methods (4 types) P249--P2508、the relationship between MT and human translation P253 para. 2--49、Corpus and Corpus Linguistics (definition) P25410、The roles of corpus data （5 subtitles) P258-- P259Chapter 111、applied linguistics(definition) P266 Para.12、Dr. Ellis, who is known as the "Father of Second Language Acquisition", has served as the Director of the Institute of Language Teaching and Learning at the University of Auckland.3、Input-based teaching methods (7 approaches) (见课件）4、input hypothesis (definition) P270, para. 45、Interlanguage(definition) P271, last para.6、Dr. David C. Nunan , Director of the English Centre and Chair Professor of Applied Linguistics, University of Hong Kong. He is currently serving as President of TESOL and teaches at Newport Asia Pacific University and Hong Kong University.7、Two broad types of tasks: real-world tasks and pedagogical tasks P273, para.48、Syllabus and curriculumP277, para.2; P277, para.49、Types of syllabus P 279--P280 (4 subtitles)10、Components of a syllabus P285 para.2-311、language transfer P287 para.312、Contrastive Analysis P287 para.413、Error and mistake P289 para.214、In terms of the source of errors, errors ... P289 para.3In terms of the nature of errors, errors... P289 para.4Chapter 121、About Saussure P294 para.1, para. 3, Line 1-22、The contributions of Saussure to modern linguistics (见课件）3、The differences between modern linguistics and traditional grammar(见课件）4、The most important contribution of Prague School to linguistics P296. para.3；P297.para.15、Functional Sentence Perspective P298-P299 para.16、theme and rheme P299 para.27、Representatives in London School P301.para.3-48、M A K Halliday and his Systemic-Functional GrammarSpecial features of Systemic-Functional Grammar P307 para.3;P307 para.5 —P308 para.19、transitivity choices P310 (learn to analyze examples)10、Representatives in American Structuralism :Boas , Sapir, Bloomfield11、Bloomfield contribution to English linguistics：P320-P32112、behaviorism (definition) P320 para.213、Noam Chomsky and his TG GrammarThe publication of his Syntactic Structures(1957) marked the beginning of the Chomskyan revolution14、Five stages of development of TG grammar Perspective P326, para.315、The innateness hypothesis P327 para.2LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE P327 para.316、Main features and influences of TG grammar (课件)I. Term Defining：1、Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language. It usually studies thepsychological states and mental activity with the use of language, with focus on the process of language acquisition, language comprehension and language production. It takes upon itself the job of exploring the biological basis of human language, critical periods for child language acquisition, and the relationship between language and though t.2、Cognitive Linguistics: A newly established approach to the study of language. It is thescientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think. It is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.3、Garden Path sentences are sentences that are initially interpreted with a different structure thanthey actually have. It typically takes quite a long time to figure out what the other structure is if the first choice turns out to be incorrect. They have been “led up the garden path,” fooled into thinking the sentence has a different structure than it has. Examples are The horse raced past the barn fell. The boat floated downstream sank. While Mary was mending the sock fell off her lap.4、Corpus: is a collection of linguistic data, either compiled as written texts or as a transcription ofrecorded speech. The main purpose of a corpus is to verify a hypothesis of language.5、Corpus linguistics: an approach to investigating language structure and use through the analysisof large databases to real language examples stored on computer.6、Interlanguage is the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners whoare still in the process of learning a language / a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language. Interlanguage is a dynamic language system, which is constantly moving from the departure level to the native-like level. It is formed when the learner attempts to learn a new language，and it has features of both the first language and the second language but is neither.7、B ehaviorism:This principle was put forward by American descriptive linguist L. BloomfieldFor Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology. And specifically of the positivistic brand of psychology known as BEHA VIOURISM. Behaviorism is a principle of scientific method, based on the belief that human beings cannot know anything they have not experienced.Behaviorism in linguistics holds that children learn language through a chain of “stimulus-response reinforcement”, and the adult’s use of language is also a process of STIMULUS-RESPONSE.8、M ethaphor: Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts andexperiences in the world around us. It involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is constructed in terms of the other. It is often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.9、I nput hypothesis learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed tothem. Krashen brought forward the concept of “i+ 1” principle, i.e. t he language that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence that they can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress. Input should neither be so far beyond their reach that they are overwhelmed, nor so close to their current level that they are not challenged at all.10、Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: It is a belief that our language helps mould our way of thinking and,consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns. On the other hand, similarity between languages is relative. The greater their structural differentiation is, the morediverse their conceptualization of the world is. As this hypothesis was put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, it has often been called the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.II. Questions:1. What are the contributions of Saussure to modern linguistics?The revolution aspect of modern linguistics is that relations and relation system are given great priority, which was insisted by Saussure. Saussure’s contribution to modern linguistics involves the following aspects:First, Saussure proposed the direction for linguistic research and explained the tasks of linguistics. Saussure believed that language was a system constituted by signs and relations, and the aim of linguists was to analyze the system including identifying the units, explaining their relations and the rules governing their combination. Later on, it almost becomes the definition of linguistic research. Structural approach started by Saussure covers nearly all the important schools in modern linguistics, Prague school, Copenhagen school, Functionalism, American structuralism, even Norm Chomsky.Second, Saussure believed that language was a system of sense. He held that the linguistic sign unit was a concept and a sound-image. The combination of a concept and a sound-image made up the whole of the linguistic sign. Saussure called the concept signified and the sound-image signifier. The relationship between signified and signifier was arbitrary. For Saussure, meaning existed only because there were differences of meaning, and it was these differences of meanings that enabled one to establish the articulation of linguistic form.Third, Saussure proposed some basic concepts and their distinctions which were influential. They are langue and parole, synchronic and diachronic, prescriptive and descriptive, syntagmatic and paradigmatic relation.2. Why should language teachers learn some knowledge of linguistics?Some knowledge of linguistics will not only help language teachers to better understand the nature of language, but also helps them better understand how to teach language. Theoretical views of language explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching. Language teachers do need theories of language in order to teach language effectively, and they need to know at least how the language they teach works. To discover the real language and to obtain some understanding of it, language teachers may well turn to linguistics. Many language learning theories are proposed based on certain linguistic theories. In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of understanding what language learners can learn, how they actually learn and what they learn ultimately. Therefore, linguistics has always played an important role in the studies of language acquisition and learning.3. In what way are language and computer related?With the development of the computer technology and internet system, more and more people touched upon the computer field. Computer has been used in the classroom for foreign language teaching and learning. CAI stands for computer-assisted instruction, which means the use of a computer in a teaching program. CAL stands for computer-assisted learning, which means the use of computer in both teaching and learning. Following CAI and CAL, CALL appears. It refers to the use of a compute in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language. If CAI or CAL deals with teaching and learning in general, then CALL deals with language teaching and learning in particular.4、Why do we need to teach culture in our language classroom? Give examples if necessary.1) Language not only reflects culture but also is part of culture.2) Language is an indispensable carrier of culture and culture finds a better representation through language use.3) Learning a foreign language is inseparable from learning its culture. The influence of cultural knowledge on the linguistic perfomance of language learners has been identified and highlighted.4) It has repeatedly been found that learners who lack sufficient knowledge about the target language can hardly become active and appropriate language usres in their target language.5) For these reasons, the information concerning cultural differences has rightly been introduced in language classrooms of different kinds for enhancing learners’ cultural consciousness and improving their performance in cross-cultural contexts of communication.5、What is the relationship between MT and Human Translation?At the beginning of the new century, it is already apparent that MT and human translation can and will co-exist in harmony. When translation has to be of “publishable”quality, both human translation and MT have their roles.For the translation of texts where the quality of output is much less important, machine translation is often an ideal solution. It is undeniable that there are still faults in all present actual translations produced. One can still find those errors that no human translators would ever commit, such as wrong pron., incorrect choice of terms, etc. Translation is not an operation that preserves meaning. Three types of knowledge are needed so that MT systems can be improved: linguistic knowledge independent of context ( semantics); linguistic knowledge that relates to context, sometimes called pragmatic knowledge (pragmatics); common sense/real world knowledge ( non-linguistic).For the one-to-one interchange of information probably always need a human translator. As for spoken language translation, there must surely always be market for the human translator.6、How do you understand Chomsky’s LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE?Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with a Language Acquisition Device, which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. He argues the child comes into the world with specific innate endowment, not only with general tendencies or potentialities, but also with knowledge of the nature of the world, and specifically with the knowledge of the nature of language. According to this view, children are born with knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal. The categories and relations exist in all human languages and all human infants are born with knowledge of them. According to him, the study of language, or the structure of language, can throw some light on the nature of the human mind. This approach to language is a reaction against behaviorism in psychology and empiricism in philosophy, making linguistics a branch of psychology.。

27037英语语言学概论2007-06-11一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求（一）课程性质和特点《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。

本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。

（二）本课程的基本要求本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。

第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。

通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。

具体应达到以下要求：1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念；2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论；3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用；4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。

（三）本课程与相关课程的联系英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。