中国产品出口竞争力外文翻译文献

外文翻译原文Foreign T rade o f ChinaMaterial Source:W anfang Database Author:Hitomi Iizaka1.IntroductionOn December11,2001,China officially joined the World T rade Organization(WTO)and be c a me its143rd member.China’s presence in the worl d economy will continue to grow and deepen.The foreign trade sector plays an important andmultifaceted role in China’s economic development.At the same time, China’s expanded role in the world economy is beneficial t o all its trading partners. Regions that trade with China benefit from cheaper and mor e varieties of imported consumer goods,raw materials and intermediate products.China is also a large and growing export market.While the entry of any major trading nation in the global trading system can create a process of adjustment,the o u t c o me is fundamentally a win-win situation.In this p aper we would like t o provide a survey of the various institutions,laws and characteristics of China’s trade.Among some of the findings, we can highlight thefollowing:•In2001,total trade to gross domestic pr oduct(GDP)ratio in China is44%•In2001,47%of Chinese trade is processed trade1•In2001,51%of Chinese trade is conduct ed by foreign firms in China2•In2001,36%of Chinese exports originate from Gu an gdon g province•In2001,39%of China’s exports go through Hong Kong to be re-exported elsewhere2.Evolution of China’s Trade RegimeEqually remarkable are the changes in the commodity composition of China’s exports and imports.Table2a shows China’s annu al export volumes of primary goods and manufactured goods over time.In1980,primary goods accounted for 50.3%of China’s exports and manufactured goods accounted for49.7%.Although the share of primary good declines slightly during the first half of1980’s,it remains at50.6%in1985.Since then,exports of manufactured goods have grown at a muchfaster rate than exports of primary goods.As a result,the share of manufactur ed goods increased t o90.1%,and that of primary good decr eased to9.9%by2001.Also shown in those tables are five subgr oups for manufactur ed goods and primary goods.China’s export was highly dependent on its exports of coal, petroleum,and petr oleum products until mid-80s.The large export volume of petr oleum was also support ed by a sharp rise in oil prices during the period.In1985, the share of mineral fuels is26.1%.In1986,the su d d en decline in the share of primary goods in total exports occurs,which is largely associated with the decline in the export volume of mineral fuels.The price reforms coupled with the declined world petr oleum price areattributable t o the decline.Domestic agriculture production expanded during the1980’s in response to the higher prices thr ough the price reforms and mo r e opportunities given t o the producers to market their products.Although the share of food and live animals in total exports has declined over time,China has become a net exporter of such products since1984.T urning to the manufactur ed goods,the large increase in the share of the manufactur ed goods in the total exports since mid-80s is largely accounted for by the increase in the export in the textile category and the miscellaneous products category.These two gr oups include labor-intensive products such as textiles,apparel, footwear,and toys and sporting goods.During the1990s,the category that exhibited the mos t significant surge in exports is machinery and transport equipment.Its share exp anded from9.0%in1990t o35.7%in2001.3.China’s Processing Trade and Trade by For eign Invested FirmsChina established the legal framework for processing and assembly arrangements in1979.Since then,China has built up considerable strengths in assembling and processing of industrial parts and components.It covers a wide range of industries such as electric machinery,automobile,aerospace,and shipbuilding.T able3a and T able3b demonstrate the amount of processing exports and imports and the importance of stateowned enterprises(SOEs)and foreign-invested enterprises(FIEs)in such forms of trade for1995-2001. Throughout the period from1995to2001,the shares of these two types of processing exports exceed more than half of China’s total exports.In2001，processing exports account for55.4%of the total exports.As is seen in T able3a, process&assembling was dominat ed by SOEs in1995.However,the tr end has been changing.The share of SOEs in process&assembling has been steadilydeclining over the years from84%in1995to62%in2001.The other type of trade, process with imported materials was largely conducted by FIEs and their shares have been gradually increasing from81%in1995to88%in2001.In China’s imports(see T able3b),processing trade is relatively small comp a r ed to exports. After it peak ed at49%in1997,processed imports decline to39%in2001.The decreasing importance of SOEs can be seen in China’s imports as well.Shares by SOEs decr eased from81%in1995t o58%in2001for process&assembling,and from18%to7%for process with imported materials.The decr eased role for SOEs in processing trade may reflect the inefficiency in conducting their business.Since 1997,the Chinese government decided t o implement the shareholding system and t o sell a large numbe r of medium-and small-sized SOEs to the private sector.A n u mbe r of larger enterprise gr oups will be established in various industries thr ough mergers,acquisitions,and leasing and contracting.The restructuring of SOEs is intended to increase profits and to improve their competitive edge.4.China’s Tr ade by Provinces and RegionsA regional breakdown of exports and imports reveals important characteristics of the foreign trade in China.In1997,89.1%of the total exports came from the Eastern region of China(Beijing,Tianjin,Heibei,Lioaning,Guangxi,Shanghai, Jiangsu,Zhejiang,Fujian,Shangdong,Guandong and Hainan).Within the East,the Southeast region accounts for76.3%of China's exports in1997.4Gu ang dong alone pr oduces41.6%of the total exports for the sa me year.Such regional imbalances in exporting activities persist to the present day.In2001,Guandong's share of the national exports is36.0%.For the Southeast and the East,the shares are respectively 79.0%and91.1%.This imbalance of the regional growth in foreign trade may partially be attributed t o the various geographic-specific and sequential o pen-d oo r policies China has exercised thr oughout the last twenty years.The strong growth of th e export sector in the coastal area has been support ed by the massive use of foreign direct investment(FDI).FDI was first attracted by the creation of the Special Economic Zones(SEZ).FDI was concentrated in the provinces of the Southeast coast,namely,Guandong and Fujian.The multinational enterprises that are export-oriented or use adv anced technologies are able to enjoy various preferential policies in the SEZs,such as r educed or ex empt e d corporate income tax,exemption from import tariffs on imported equipment and raw materials.In1984,fourteen coastal cities were opened and were grant ed similar policies as SEZs.Out of thosefourteen cities,ten are located in the Southeast coast regions and four are in the rest of the Eastern regions.Furthermore in1985,similar preferential policies were grant ed t o other coastal economic regions,Pearl River Delta,Y angtze River Delta and Minnan Delta which is t o the south of Fujian.In1990,Pu d o n g in Shanghai was opened and was grant ed extensive preferential policies.Since1984,the Chinese government established thirty-two national-level Economic and T echnological Development Zones(ETDZs).The share of exports in The Y angtze River Delta,the home of Shanghai and two provinces,Jiangsu and Zhejiang has grown steadily during the period1997to 2001.The share of those three regions grew to10.1%,11.0%,and9.1%in2001 from8.1%,7.9%and5.9%in1997,respectively.As the role of high-tech industry beco mes mo r e significant in China’s output and China’s comparative advantage in skilled-labor and capital-intensive industries beco mes higher,the Y angtze River Delta be co mes a new magnet for investment by foreign enterprises.These foreign investments in turn lead to mo r e export and trade.5.Foreign T rade by Major World RegionsUsing China’s official statistics,Table4a and4b highlight merchandise export s and imports t o and from major world regions for1993-2001:Asia,Africa,Europe, Latin America,North America and Oceania.As we see from Table4a,China’s most important export region has always been Asia,which absorbs53%of China’s exports in2001.However,their share of absorption declines from almost62%,their peak level of1995.The importance of North America and Europe in China’s exports, however,has been increasing since1998.In2001,North America takes in mo r e than22%of exports and Europe takes in mo r e than18%.6.China’s Merchandise Exports and Imports by Major Trading PartnersTable5a and Table5b document China’s merchandise exports to and imports from its major trading partners,using China’s official statistics.According to Tabl e 5a,the major exports markets for China in2001are:the United States(20.4%), Hong Kong(17.5%),Japan(16.9%)and the European Union(15.4%).It is well-known that a large proportion of Chinese exports to Hong Kong are re-exported elsewhere so that the true size of the Hong Kong export market has t o be estimated. T o save space for this paper,we will just rely on the official Chinese figures.6Even without adjusting for re-exports,the United States in2001is the largest export market for China.Thus,from an international trade perspective alone,the most important bilateral trade relationship for China is the relationship with the UnitedStates.T ogether t he United States,Hong Kong,Japan and the European Union take in70.2%of China’s exports in2001.Within ASEAN(Association of Southeast Asian Nations),Singapore has been the largest export market for China.In2001, 31.5%of China’s total exports to ASEAN is destined for Singapore.Within the European Union(EU),Germany is the largest market with23.8%of the total Chinese exports going to the EU.9.ConclusionIn the future,we see that there are at least two challenges facing China in the area of international trade.First,with China’s competitiveness growing,many countries will perceive that their producers will no t be able to c o mpe t e with the Chinese exports,either in the third market or in their own domestic market.The backlash will take the form of an increased use of anti-dumping duties and safeguards.W e have already seen the use of such trade instruments against China from a variety of countries,including Japan,the European Union and the United States.A relatively new development is that even developing countries such as India and Mexico are using anti-dumping measur es against Chinese exports to their countries.The difficulty with anti-dumping duties is that they are generally WT O-consistent.Thus joining the WTO d o es no t mean that other countries will reduce their use of anti-dumping duties against China.A second challenge facing China is how t o manage its trade relationship with the United States.The United States is the largest economy on earth.The United States is China’s largest export market.It is also a critical source of technology.A stable and healthy relationship with the United States is important for China’s economic development.It is always a difficult adjustment process for countries to accept a newly e mer gen t economic power.The United States as well as other countries may perceive China as a potential economic threat.Judging from the experience of the relationship betw een the United States and a rising Japan in the 1970s and the1980s,it will n o t be too har d to imagine that there will be difficulties in the trade relationship betw een the United States and China.Managing and smoothing such a relationship should be an important goal for China.译文中国的对外贸易资料来源:万方数据库作者：Hitomi Iizaka1、简介2001年12月11日，中国正式加入世界贸易组织（WTO），成为其第143个成员，中国在世界经济中的作用将继续增强和深化。

外文翻译原文Foreign Trade of ChinaMaterial Source: Wanfang Database Author: Hitomi Iizaka1. IntroductionOn December 11, 2001, China officially joined the World Trade Organization(WTO) and became its 143rd member. China’s presence in the worl d economy will continue to grow and deepen. The foreign trade sector plays an important andmultifaceted role in China’s economic development. At the same time, China’s expanded role in the world economy is beneficial to all its trading partners. Regions that trade with China benefit from cheaper and more varieties of imported consumer goods, raw materials and intermediate products. China is also a large and growing export market.While the entry of any major trading nation in the global trading system can create a process of adjustment, the outcome is fundamentally a win-win situation. In this paper we would like to provide a survey of the various institutions, laws and characteristics of China’s trade. Among some of the findings, we can highlight thefollowing:∙ In 2001, total trade to gross domestic product (GDP) ratio in China is 44%∙ In 2001, 47% of Chinese trade is processed trade1∙ In 2001, 51% of Chinese trade is conducted by foreign firms in China2∙ In 2001, 36% of Chinese exports originate from Guangdong province∙ In 2001, 39% of China’s exports go through Hong Kong to be re-exported elsewhere2. Evolution of China’s Trade RegimeEqually remarkable are the changes in the commodity composition of China’s exports and imports. Table 2a shows China’s annu al export volumes of primary goods and manufactured goods over time. In 1980, primary goods accounted for 50.3% of China’s exports and manufactured goods accounted for 49.7%. Although the share of primary good declines slightly during the first half of 1980’s, it remains at 50.6% in 1985. Since then, exports of manufactured goods have grown at a muchfaster rate than exports of primary goods. As a result, the share of manufactured goods increased to 90.1%, and that of primary good decreased to 9.9% by 2001.Also shown in those tables are five subgroups for manufactured goods and primary goods. China’s export was highly dependent on its exports of coal, petroleum, and petroleum products until mid-80s. The large export volume of petroleum was also supported by a sharp rise in oil prices during the period. In 1985, the share of mineral fuels is 26.1%. In 1986, the sudden decline in the share of primary goods in total exports occurs, which is largely associated with the decline in the export volume of mineral fuels. The price reforms coupled with the declined world petroleum price areattributable to the decline.Domestic agriculture production expanded during the 1980’s in response to the higher prices through the price reforms and more opportunities given to the producers to market their products. Although the share of food and live animals in total exports has declined over time, China has become a net exporter of such products since 1984.Turning to the manufactured goods, the large increase in the share of the manufactured goods in the total exports since mid-80s is largely accounted for by the increase in the export in the textile category and the miscellaneous products category. These two groups include labor-intensive products such as textiles, apparel, footwear, and toys and sporting goods. During the 1990s, the category that exhibited the most significant surge in exports is machinery and transport equipment. Its share expanded from 9.0% in 1990 to 35.7 % in 2001.3. China’s Processing Trade and Trade by For eign Invested FirmsChina established the legal framework for processing and assembly arrangements in 1979. Since then, China has built up considerable strengths in assembling and processing of industrial parts and components. It covers a wide range of industries such as electric machinery, automobile, aerospace, and shipbuilding. Table 3a and Table 3b demonstrate the amount of processing exports and imports and the importance of stateowned enterprises (SOEs) and foreign-invested enterprises (FIEs) in such forms of trade for 1995-2001. Throughout the period from 1995 to 2001, the shares of these two types of processing exports exceed more than half of China’s total exports. In 2001，processing exports account for 55.4% of the total exports. As is seen in Table 3a, process & assembling was dominated by SOEs in 1995. However, the trend has been changing. The share of SOEs in process & assembling has been steadilydeclining over the years from 84% in 1995 to 62% in 2001. The other type of trade, process with imported materials was largely conducted by FIEs and their shares have been gradually increasing from 81% in 1995 to 88% in 2001. In China’s imports (see Table 3b), processing trade is relatively small compared to exports. After it peaked at 49% in 1997, processed imports decline to 39% in 2001. The decreasing importance of SOEs can be seen in China’s imports as well. Shares by SOEs decreased from 81% in 1995 to 58% in 2001 for process & assembling, and from 18% to 7% for process with imported materials. The decreased role for SOEs in processing trade may reflect the inefficiency in conducting their business. Since 1997, the Chinese government decided to implement the shareholding system and to sell a large number of medium- and small-sized SOEs to the private sector. A number of larger enterprise groups will be established in various industries through mergers, acquisitions, and leasing and contracting. The restructuring of SOEs is intended to increase profits and to improve their competitive edge.4. China’s Tr ade by Provinces and RegionsA regional breakdown of exports and imports reveals important characteristics of the foreign trade in China. In 1997, 89.1% of the total exports came from the Eastern region of China (Beijing, Tianjin, Heibei, Lioaning, Guangxi, Shanghai, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Shangdong, Guandong and Hainan). Within the East, the Southeast region accounts for 76.3% of China's exports in 1997.4 Guangdong alone produces 41.6% of the total exports for the same year. Such regional imbalances in exporting activities persist to the present day. In 2001, Guandong's share of the national exports is 36.0%. For the Southeast and the East, the shares are respectively 79.0% and 91.1%.This imbalance of the regional growth in foreign trade may partially be attributed to the various geographic-specific and sequential open-door policies China has exercised throughout the last twenty years. The strong growth of the export sector in the coastal area has been supported by the massive use of foreign direct investment (FDI). FDI was first attracted by the creation of the Special Economic Zones (SEZ). FDI was concentrated in the provinces of the Southeast coast, namely, Guandong and Fujian. The multinational enterprises that are export-oriented or use advanced technologies are able to enjoy various preferential policies in the SEZs, such as reduced or exempted corporate income tax, exemption from import tariffs on imported equipment and raw materials. In 1984, fourteen coastal cities were opened and were granted similar policies as SEZs. Out of thosefourteen cities, ten are located in the Southeast coast regions and four are in the rest of the Eastern regions. Furthermore in 1985, similar preferential policies were granted to other coastal economic regions, Pearl River Delta, Yangtze River Delta and Minnan Delta which is to the south of Fujian. In 1990, Pudong in Shanghai was opened and was granted extensive preferential policies. Since 1984, the Chinese government established thirty-two national-level Economic and Technological Development Zones (ETDZs) .The share of exports in The Yangtze River Delta, the home of Shanghai and two provinces, Jiangsu and Zhejiang has grown steadily during the period 1997 to 2001. The share of those three regions grew to 10.1%, 11.0%, and 9.1% in 2001 from 8.1%, 7.9% and 5.9% in 1997, respectively. As the role of high-tech industry becomes more significant in China’s output and China’s comparative advantage in skilled-labor and capital-intensive industries becomes higher, the Yangtze River Delta becomes a new magnet for investment by foreign enterprises. These foreign investments in turn lead to more export and trade.5. Foreign Trade by Major World RegionsUsing China’s official statistics, Table 4a and 4b highlight merchandise export s and imports to and from major world regions for 1993 - 2001: Asia, Africa, Europe, Latin America, North America and Oceania. As we see from Table 4a, China’s most important export region has always been Asia, which absorbs 53% of China’s exports in 2001. However, their share of absorption declines from almost 62%, their peak level of 1995. The importance of North America and Europe in China’s exports, however, has been increasing since 1998. In 2001, North America takes in more than 22% of exports and Europe takes in more than 18%.6. China’s Merchandise Exports and Imports by Major Trading PartnersTable 5a and Table 5b document China’s merchandise exports to and imports from its major trading partners, using China’s official statistics. According to Tabl e 5a, the major exports markets for China in 2001 are: the United States (20.4%), Hong Kong (17.5%), Japan (16.9%) and the European Union (15.4%). It is well-known that a large proportion of Chinese exports to Hong Kong are re-exported elsewhere so that the true size of the Hong Kong export market has to be estimated. To save space for this paper, we will just rely on the official Chinese figures.6 Even without adjusting for re-exports, the United States in 2001 is the largest export market for China. Thus, from an international trade perspective alone, the most important bilateral trade relationship for China is the relationship with the UnitedStates. Together the United States, Hong Kong, Japan and the European Union take in 70.2% of China’s exports in 2001. Within ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations), Singapore has been the largest export market for China. In 2001, 31.5% of China’s total exports to ASEAN is destined for Singapore. Within the European Union (EU), Germany is the largest market with 23.8% of the total Chinese exports going to the EU.9. ConclusionIn the future, we see that there are at least two challenges facing China in the area of international trade. First, with China’s competitiveness growing, many countries will perceive that their producers will not be able to compete with the Chinese exports, either in the third market or in their own domestic market. The backlash will take the form of an increased use of anti-dumping duties and safeguards. We have already seen the use of such trade instruments against China from a variety of countries, including Japan, the European Union and the United States. A relatively new development is that even developing countries such as India and Mexico are using anti-dumping measures against Chinese exports to their countries. The difficulty with anti-dumping duties is that they are generally WTO-consistent. Thus joining the WTO does not mean that other countries will reduce their use of anti-dumping duties against China.A second challenge facing China is how to manage its trade relationship with the United States. The United States is the largest economy on earth. The United States is China’s largest export market. It is also a critical source of technology. A stable and healthy relationship with the United States is important for China’s economic development. It is always a difficult adjustment process for countries to accept a newly emergent economic power. The United States as well as other countries may perceive China as a potential economic threat. Judging from the experience of the relationship between the United States and a rising Japan in the 1970s and the 1980s, it will not be too hard to imagine that there will be difficulties in the trade relationship between the United States and China. Managing and smoothing such a relationship should be an important goal for China.译文中国的对外贸易资料来源: 万方数据库作者：Hitomi Iizaka1、简介2001年12月11日，中国正式加入世界贸易组织（WTO），成为其第143个成员，中国在世界经济中的作用将继续增强和深化。

X X X X 大学学生学士学位论文（设计）外文译文假设有两个下游企业——分别为一家国内企业和一家外国企业——产生一种同质产品,国内企业加工进口的半成品以生产最终产品，并供应国内市场和出口到第三国市场,外国企业使用进口的中间产品以制造最终产品，并全部出口到第三国市场。

假设国内政府对进口的中间产品征收关税,但为了鼓励出口，采用了一个按比例退还所有由国内公司为出口货物所支付的进口关税的退税政策,。

国内企业最终输出的商品包括对国内销售部分和出口部分。

用D表示国内企业对国内市场最终产品的输出，用E表示出口最终产品的输出。

假设外国公司的最终产品全部出口,用Y表示其最终产品的输出。

为了简化分析,把国内市场和在第三国市场的逆需求函数假定为线性,分别如下:=a-bD（1a）=α-β（E+Y）（1b）其中，a,b,α，β>0; 和本别表示最终产品在国内市场和国际市场的价格，并且国内市场和第三国市场互相隔离。

为了研究需要，我们假定以单位的中间产品可以生产一单位的最终产品。

国内企业的利润函数可以表示为：其中是国内公司的利润函数,c是由使用输入产品而不是利用中间产品以生产最终产品所产生的边际成本,t是中间产品的进口关税,m是中间产品的进口价格,γ是出口退税率。

在式中,第一和第三项,分别是国内公司来自国内的收入和出口销售额减去生产成本;第二和第四项分别表示在国内和出口市场销售的最终产品的进口成本,包括中间产品的采购成本和税收成本;方程的最后一个项是出口退税的数额。

外国企业的利润函数表示为：其中表示由使用输入产品而不是利用中间产品以生产最终产品所产生的边际成本。

在上述假定条件下，国内政府决定使用出口退税以补贴国内企业出口的进程被描述为两个阶段。

在第一阶段,国内政府根据公司的生产策略决定出口退税率，以使社会福利最大化。

在第二阶段,知道了由政府提供的出口退税率,国内公司不仅决定了国内销售的输出D,也分别决定了它本身和外国竞争者在在第三国市场古诺数量竞争的最优输出E和Y。

外文翻译：绿色贸易壁垒对我国农产品出口贸易的影响及对策原文来源：Journal of Northeast Agricultural University译文正文：摘要：随着环境的恶化，许多国家更多地关注日益严重的环境保护。

绿色（有机）贸易壁垒逐渐吸引更多的关注。

根据不同国家的经济水平存在的很大差异，这些国家在作为贸易保护的绿色贸易壁垒这项研究分类的内涵和特色的绿色贸易壁垒的出现，制定环境标准，提供了关于发展和绿色贸易壁垒类型的描述，并分析了对中国的出口影响，提出了一些刺激我国对外贸易的发展对策。

近年来，环境在国际贸易保护倾向将越来越强，新开发的非关税贸易壁垒，如绿色（有机）贸易壁垒已经成为一定的合理性，伪装和技术在环境保护名义下，成为贸易保护主义的有力武器，致使我国农产品出口发展出现严重困难。

我们是否可以在中国新形势下，加入世贸组织这个绿色屏障成为我国农产品出口的持续和不断发展的关键问题。

1 绿色壁垒含义，特征和制定1.1 含义绿色贸易壁垒的定义，包括关税壁垒，两种非关税贸易壁垒，技术壁垒是主要形式的非关税壁垒，绿色壁垒也称环境贸易壁垒，是指国际贸易领域的一种贸易保护措施。

具体来说，是指某些国家尤其是一些发达国家凭借其科技优势，以保护有限资源，生态环境和人类健康为名，通过立法，制定繁杂的环保公约、法律、法规和标准、标志等形式对国外商品进行的准入限制。

它属于一种新的非关税壁垒形式，已经逐步成为国际贸易政策措施的重要组成部分。

绿色壁垒凭借其外表的合理性和内在的隐蔽性成为继关税壁垒之后，国际上广泛采用的一种国际贸易壁垒。

1.2绿色壁垒的制定绿色壁垒的制定是保护环境和发展国际贸易，国际需求的必然结果。

1.2.1全球环境问题使保护环境成为全球性的和共同的声音第二次世界大战后，随着各国经济的快速增长，全球环境问题日趋恶化。

鉴于面对生态环境被破坏和污染之苦，绿色和平组织发出了尖锐的指责：人类已经将生活垃圾，并日益蔓延的瘟疫造成的500种动物和植物灭绝，是对地球的抢劫。

外文文献翻译原文及译文（节选重点翻译）中小企业的核心竞争力外文文献翻译文献出处：Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Volume 78, Issue 7，September 2020, Pages：65-76译文字数：4000 多字英文The Core Competitiveness of Small and Medium EnterprisesJoseph OstroyAbstractSMTE faced severe competition in today’s market. In this paper, core competitiveness is describe as the source of persistent competitive advantage of enterprise, and yields generous profits in new business environment. The study aimed at develop enterprise strategies to promote core competitiveness, also referring to core competitiveness as both prerequisite and final target to develop enterprise strategies in today’s business environment.Keywords: Core Competitiveness, SMTE, Enterprise Strategies.1 IntroductionThe definition of SMTE in China is originated from "Innovation Fund Temporary Provisions for Mid- and Small-Scale Technology Enterprise" which enact by Science and technology Department & Ministry of Finance in 1995.The provision required SMET to meet the standards as follows: (1) “no more than500 employees, among which technicians qualified for a higher education than colleges and universities is no less than 30 percent”; (2) “should mainly engaged in the development, exploitation, production andservice of new and high-tech products”; (3) “enterprise leaders are relatively capable of innovation, market development and management”;(4) “the funds for R&D of new and high-tech products is no less than 3 percent of the sales every year, and technicians directly related to R&D are more than 10 percent of all employees”; (5) good management and achievement are required to enterprises which have leading products and will come to the stage of mass production, as well as those which have come to the stage of mass production.The SMTE develops rapidly due to the predominance of technology and innovation. However, the restrictions upon the SMTE and the entry into WTO put them into a cruelly fierce competition with big enterprises home and abroad which have accumulated rich market experiences. In such a case, if SMTE can’t find the position and make full use of their advantages, they may have problems to survive, to say nothing of development.The core competitiveness of an enterprise is the long-term formation of the enterprise, which is embedded in the internal quality of the enterprise and unique to the enterprise. It supports the past, present and future competitive advantages of the enterprise, and becomes the core ability that the enterprise can surpass to obtain the initiative in the competitive environment. Enterprise core competitiveness is the source of persistent competitive advantage of enterprise, and yields generous profits.Thus, to survive and develop, SMTE may promote core competitiveness which can be achieved by enterprise strategy. So, the important method which guides SMTE to survive and develop is to identify and estimate enterprise core competitiveness, to develop reasonable, scientific and feasible developmental strategies on the basis of identification of exterior and inner environment.As the "engine" to gain the advantages of enterprises, core competitiveness must have its own characteristics:•Value. The core competitiveness has unique value to the enterprise and customers, and has a special contribution to the enterprise to win and maintain its competitive advantage. The core competitiveness is conducive to the improvement of the efficiency of the enterprise, which can enable the enterprise to provide users with more use value than other companies in terms of value creation and cost reduction. It can enable enterprises to have higher labor efficiency and converted product costs than leading, thereby obtaining higher and long-term economic benefits and maximizing enterprise value.•Extensibility or overlap. Provide support for a variety of products or services. Once an enterprise has established its own core competitiveness, it can make related technical fields and new innovations a big win. Because in the production practice, enterprises can combine their core competitiveness into different innovations to accumulate newfoundations for creation and development, and then establish their own competitive advantages in certain fields, and constantly launch innovations.•Difficult to imitate or imitation. A company's core competitiveness should be unique to the company, that is, other companies do not have it (at least temporarily not participating), and it is not imitable and irreplaceable. This is the case of the company Porsche, as a German company. Small and medium-sized automobile companies, in a wide variety of automobile industries, Porsche only chooses sports cars as the main product, and is known for creating outstanding performance and noble quality. The circled customers are obsessed with "driving wisdom, galloping technology" The car family has formed a unique product positioning, unique customer positioning, unique price positioning and continuous innovation to meet the needs of customers. It is unique in the manufacturing industry and creates first-class economic benefits.•The core competitiveness is constantly evolving. If the external environment undergoes drastic changes or is poorly managed, the core competitiveness of an enterprise at a certain stage will depreciate into general capabilities or be lost. The core competitiveness also has a life cycle from birth, growth, growth to decline. After the reduction, the core competitiveness of the enterprise, especially the final product, core product, and core technology will shift the intensified market competitionand the development of science and technology, while gradually losing its competitive advantage or even being eliminated. Therefore, enterprises must constantly manage the development trend of the industry, the development trend of the enterprise and the storage status of the enterprise's own resources, and timely improve the core competitiveness of the enterprise. Core competitiveness needs timely protection and innovation.•Interrelatedness. Core competitiveness is a collection of skills and technologies, rather than scattered skills or technologies. The core competitiveness is generated by the interaction of many different units or individuals. Its carrier is the entire enterprise, not a certain department of the enterprise. The formation of the core competitiveness of an enterprise is bound to be the result of the overall optimization of the enterprise.2 Current ResearchIn order to study enterprise core competitiveness and developmental strategy which are interrelated with each other, current research focus on concrete enterprise, or general enterprise. Current research focus on three main headings: the significance of certain enterprise strategy used to promote enterprise core competitiveness; select enterprise strategy or the executive mode of certain strategy according to the source and level of advantages related to core competitiveness; select proper developmental strategy so as to promote enterprise core competitiveness.In this paper, study aimed at SMTE core competitiveness and developmental strategies is supposed to be developed, especially, put core competitiveness as both prerequisite and final target to develop enterprise strategies, is applied to SMTE for core competitiveness analysis.3 Theoretical ResearchWe may consider that, the structure and developmental level of enterprise core competitiveness advantages plays a critical role in inner environment of enterprise, and embodies the core strength, so it is an important base for enterprise to select and develop strategies. Meanwhile, to enterprise, core competitiveness is the source of development, is the goal of growth, and is the necessity of strategies. Furthermore, the structure of enterprise core competitiveness pointed out the direction how enterprises make a long-term existence and how they realize enterprise strategy. The most important is that, enterprise core competitiveness is dynamical and relative, so it is necessary to maintain and develop it persistently.This paper’s idea is, by enterprise core competitiveness theory, obtaining estimation system and method on the basis of analyzing the structure of SMTE core competitiveness concretely. Then, we obtain the analytical framework of inner and exterior environment related to SMTE, and try to give multistage developmental strategy of SMTE in its general sense. We have to point out two relations here: first, the goal of enterprisedevelopmental strategy is defined by the structure of SMTE core competitiveness; second, the structure and level of SMTE core competitiveness is most important content of enterprise inner environment, defines enterprise’s advantage source and advantage degree, so that it exercises an influence on the choice of enterprise strategies. So we may conclude that core competitiveness and level are target and condition of strategical choice.4 Analytical Model of SMTE Developmental Strategy Based on Core CompetitivenessThere are meanings about SMTE developmental strategy based on core competitiveness: first, the developmental strategy is aimed at maintaining and promoting SMTE core competitiveness; second, in order to establish the developmental strategy, we need to inspect inner and external environmental factors comprehensively, especially, the situation of enterprise core competitiveness, which includes the structure and level of core competitiveness. Third, the developmental strategy mainly focuses on every factors influencing core competitiveness level.4.1Analytical Model of SMTE External EnvironmentThe analysis of SMTE external environment refers to those factors which are external to the SMTE and have a potential impact on SMTE, and according to different influence circle, it is divided into macroscopic environment analysis and analysis of industry lifecycle and industrycompetition.(1)Analytical model of macroscopic environmentAnalysis of macroscopic environment includes PEST analysis and environmental uncertainty analysis, among which, PEST (Political, Economic, Social, and Technological) analysis is shown as Fig: Uncertainty analysis is the analysis of complexity and varying speed of four primary influential factors. Environmental uncertainty level is measured by two points: one is the simple complexity, which means quantity and diversity degree of external factors related to SMTE running, and the other is degree of stability, which means varying rate of external environment.(2) Analytical model of SMTE’s industrial life circle and industrial competition Generally speaking, industrial life circle is divided into formative period, growing period, mature period and declining period, so as to the industries SMTE reside in. Now, we study the influence of industry life circle to strategy, and give the analytical framework of industry life circle based on the indicator characteristics which include market development, market structure, production series, financial affairs and current situation of production and so on, and which are separately analyzed by four periods of the industrial circle that SMTE belong to.4.2 Analytical Model of SMTE Inner EnvironmentThe analysis of SMTE inner environment includes three aspects: analysis of resources hold by SMTE, capability analysis, and core competitiveness analysis.Resources refer to the production factors which enterprises use to provide customs value product and services, they are generally divided into three categories: material resources, intangible resources and human resources, and they are displayed in Table. The goal of analysis to SMTE capability and core competitiveness is to make varieties of the capabilities that enterprise use to create or maintain competitive advantage clear, is to understand enterprise’ core specialty, is to know enterprise’ competitive disadvantage. SMTE capability analysis means analyzing the capability that SMTE integrating resources so as to accomplish certain goal. The commonly used method is Baud’s value chain analysis.Two methods can be used to analyze SMTE core competitiveness: one is the qualitative method, in which six standards are used to judge whether a resource or capability is the core capability; the other is the quantitative method, that is to say, the method to establish and apply indicator system estimation mentioned before.4.3 SMTE Strategic Choice MethodSMTE strategic choice inspects the results of enterprise inner and external environment synthetically. So, for the purpose of developing reasonable strategy to guide enterprise development, we have to analyzethe factors revealing SMTE inner and external environment.This paper adopts strategic position and action assessment matrix (SPACE) to analyze SMTE inner and external environment concretely, and makes corresponding strategic choices by the analysis. Matrix SPACE uses four-dimensional system of coordinate. Generally, the horizontal axis represents two enterprise external factors: environmental stability (ES) and industrial stability (IS), and the vertical axis represent two enterprise inner factors: financial strength (FS) and competitive advantage (CA), as shown in Fig.5 ConclusionEnterprise developmental strategies are composed of three levels: corporation strategy, business strategy and functional strategy. Now, starting with the promotion of SMTE core competitiveness, we combine SMTE inner and external environment and give SMTE multiple developmental strategies.Growing strategy, that is to say, the expanding strategy is supposed to the first choice of SMTE corporation strategy.Among competitive strategies, cost excelling strategy makes no great sense to SMTE, but production diversity strategy and concentration strategy are good to SMTE. Production diversity strategy avoids the price war while satisfying certain consumptive groups, so it brings high profit. Concentration strategy avoids direct confliction with competitors in largescale, which brings growing production, lower cost, and bigger competitive advantage based on concentration of lesser resources.SMTE functional strategy assumes the responsibility of resource accumulation and core competitiveness promotion while thining enterprise overall strategy and competitive strategy.• Technology innovation strategy. First, enterprise should value technology innovation highly. Second, the training and development of enterprise technicians, especially the R&D technicians should be made much account of. Third, enterprise may increase the devotion on R&D to maintain the level of technology and production. Otherwise, enterprise could cooperate with colleges and universities which have technological advantage in related domain to speed up enterprise technology i nnovation.• Financing strategy. Lacking of capital has restricted SMTE from further development, including narrow financing channels, high financing cost, disordered financing proportion, single financial service, and so on. Seeking for capital support of government is an effective capital resource for survival and development of SMTE.• Human resources strategy. First, effective knowledge management and new structure fitting knowledge innovation is critical. Second, human resources training system is need to be established.• Enterprise culture strategy. Enterprise culture generally includes the values, brand, and inner image of the enterprise, among which valuesis the core by leading the development of whole enterprise. First, enterprise should build up the values of “innovation”, “learning”, “science”, and then set up brand sense, emphasize enterprise characteristics. Meanwhile, enterpriser factors are highly valued and enterprisers’ good qualities are brought up.译文中小企业的核心竞争力研究约瑟夫·奥斯特罗伊摘要中小企业在当今市场上正面临着激烈的竞争。

北京联合大学毕业论文外文原文及译文题目：福建省茶叶出口现状及对策研究专业：国际经济与贸易指导教师：学院：学号：班级：姓名：一、外文原文Current status and future development of global tea production and tea productsAlastair HicksFAO Regional Office for Asia and the PacificTea is globally one of the most popular and lowest cost beverages, next only to water. Tea is consumed by a wide range of age groups in all levels of society. More than three billion cups of tea are consumed daily worldwide. Tea is considered to be a part of the huge beverage market, not to be seen in isolation jus t as a ‘commodity’. Tea active ingredients are of interest to functional foods markets. Africa, South America, the Near East and especially the Asian region produces a varied range of teas, this, together with a reputation in the international markets for high quality, has resulted in Asia enjoying a share of every importing market in the world. Huge populations in Asia, Middle East, Africa, UK, EU, and countries of the CIS consume tea regularly and throughout the day. The main tea producing countries globally are: in Africa: Burundi, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe and others. In South America: Argentina, Brazil and others; In Near East: Iran and Turkey. In Asia: Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Viet Nam and others. In addition, the Russian Federation and CIS countries produce quantities of tea. Numerous types of teas are produced in the countries listed above. In China, for example, the country with the largest planting of tea and second in output, green tea is around half of the total export, black tea around one third and other teas one fifth. Depending on the manufacturing technique it may be described as green, black, oolong, white, yellow and even compressed tea. The Intergovernmental Group on Tea monitors market conditions and provides an update of potential market prospects for tea over the medium term. which examines the current situation and medium term prospects for production, consumption and trade of tea, and its impact on the world tea market.In summary, tea is considered as having a share of the global beverage market, ahighly competitive field. A wide range of tea products continue to be developed, through product and process development for added-value, as market shares become more sophisticated and competitive. The tea industry must rise to these challenges, facing the future with confidence.IntroductionThe Asian region produces a varied range of teas and this, together with a reputation in the international markets for high quality, has resulted in Asia enjoying a share of every importing market in the world. Africa, South America and the Near East also produce quantities of tea. Huge populations of Asia, UK, EU, Middle East, Africa and countries of the CIS consume tea regularly and throughout the day .The common tea plant is the evergreen shrub, Camellia sinensis. There are several varieties of this species of plant, a well known one being the Indian Assam tea (C. sinensis var. assamica Kitamura). Traditionally, tea is prepared from its dried young leaves and leaf buds, made into a beverage by steeping the leaves in boiling water. China is credited with introducing tea to the world, though the evergreen tea plant is in fact native to Southern China, North India, Myanmar and Cambodia .Although there are a growing number of countries that produce teas in a multiplicity of blends, there are essentially three main types of Camellia tea, which are Green, ‘Oolong’ and Black. The difference lies in the ‘fermentation’, which actually refers to oxidative and enzymatic changes within the tea leaves, during processing. Green tea is essentially unfermented, Oolong tea is partially fermented and Black tea is fully fermented. Black tea, which represents the majority of international trade, yields an amber coloured, full-flavour liquid without bitterness .For example, both Orange Pekoe and Pekoe are black teas. refers to the silver-tipped Assam teas. Orange Pekoe is made from the very young top leaves and traditionally comes from India or Sri Lanka. Pekoe tea comes from India, Indonesia or Sri Lanka and is made from leaves even smaller than those characteristically used for Orange Pekoe.In addition to these conventional teas, many countries of Asia have a number of herbal teas, made from brewing plant leaves, or other plant parts including flowers. For example, Gymnema sylvestre, a member of the botanical family Asclepiadaceae, found mainly in India, has been used as a healthy and nutritive herbal tea which claims to have a number of medicinal properties. Numerous other herbal teas are gaining more popularity recently .Current SituationThe global tea production growth rate in 2006 was more than 3% to reach an estimated 3.6 million t.. The expansion was mainly due to record crops in China, Viet Nam and India. Production in China increased 9.5% over the record in 2005, to 1.05 million t. in 2006, through Government policies to increase rural household incomes. Expansion of 28 percent in Viet Nam gave an output of 133,000t as tea bushes reached optimum yields. India had a 3% increase in harvest output of 945,000t for the year. This growth offset other major countries, Kenya and Sri Lanka, where output declined by 6 and 1.6%, respectively.ExportsExports in 2006 reached 1.55 million t. compared to 1.53 million t. in 2005 (Table 2).Increased shipments from Sri Lanka, India and Viet Nam offset major declines in Kenya and Indonesia, down by 12.4 and 7%. Tea exports from Sri Lanka reached 314,900 in 2006, a gain of 5.4%, while exports from Viet Nam and India expanded by 24 and 14%. The increase was due to expansion in trade to the Near East, with their growth and strength of the economies in the region. Significant growth was also achieved by Rwanda, and Tanzania, while shipments from China were relatively unchanged. Decline in exports from Kenya were affected by political uncertainty in Pakistan, its major market. Pakistan’s uncertainty also affected shipments from Indonesia and Bangladesh where exports declined, and structural problems plague the industry (FAO 2008).ImportsWorld net imports of tea declined by 1.7% to 1.57 million t. in 2006 (Table 3), reflecting reduced tea imports by Pakistan, the Russian Federation, and the Netherlands. Increased imports by traditional markets such as the United Kingdom, United States, Egypt and Germany, did not offset these declines. Imports by Pakistan declined by 3%, Russian Federation by 2%, and Netherlands by 25%, imports increasing by 7% in United Kingdom, United States, and Egypt. In Germany a 9 percent increase was recorded.ConsumptionWorld tea consumption grew by 1% in 2006, reaching 3.64 million t., but less than the annual average of 2.7% over the previous decade (Table 4). The biggest influence has been the growth in agricultural products consumption, tea included, in China and India, as their economies expanded dramatically. In 2006, China recorded a spectacular annual increase of 13.6% in total consumption, which reached 776,900 t., whilst annual growth in tea consumption in India was less, it was higher than the previous decade. Income gains inIndia, China, other developing countries, translate to more demand, for higher value-added items.Tea Added Value Product and Process DevelopmentTraditional loose tea has been largely replaced by bagged tea in many forms, for convenience. There are a range of preferences for tea styles and drinking habits among different consumers in various countries . Green and black tea will remain as major forms of tea, however, instant tea, flavored tea, decaffeinated tea, organically grown tea,‘foamy’ tea, roasted tea, herbal tea, ready-to-drink tea (canned and bottled) are developing into the market. Food products being developed are tea-rice, tea-noodles, tea-cake, tea-biscuits, tea-wine, tea-candy, tea-ice cream. In particular new types of herbal, fruit-flavor and decaffeinated teas, as well as ready-to-drink teas are becoming popular. The organically grown and healthful image of tea can be exploited, as can the utilization of active-ingredients of tea as their functional properties and nature become better known.Ready-to-drink tea is cheaper than coca-cola derivatives and this is perceived as a main competitor. There is a risk that tea consumption may drop as other drinks come on the market, from e.g. rice, potatoes, mulberry leaves. Diversified products such as tea chewing gum have been developed (Hicks 2001).Some ConclusionsThe review of the world tea market indicates some improvement in the fundamental oversupply situation in the world market which has persisted in recent years. However, in the medium term, projections suggest that although supply will continue to outstrip demand, the gap could be closer to equilibrium, if consumption improves in traditional markets. Strategies must be devised to continue the improvement in demand. Opportunities for an expansion in consumption and improvement in prices exist in producing countries themselves, as per capita consumption levels are relatively low. E.g. per capita consumption level in the major importing countries, such as the Russian Federation is 1.26 kg and for the UK, is 2.20kg, whilst per capita consumption levels in India is 0.65 kg and for Kenya is 0.40 kg.The results of research into the health benefits of tea consumption should also be used more extensively in promoting consumption in both producing and importing countries. In addition, strategies to exploit demand in value-added market segments, including specialty and organic teas, should also be more aggressively pursued. In targeting potential growth markets, recognition of and compliance with food safety and quality standards is essential.Even the impact of imposing a minimum quality standard as a means of improving the quality of tea traded internationally, would by default, reduce the quantity of tea in the world market and improve prices, at least in the short to medium term (FAO 2008).In summary, tea can be considered as having a share of the soft drink/beverages market, as well as having functional food potential. A wide range of tea products will continue to be developed through product and process development for added-value as the market shares become more sophisticated and competitive. The industry must rise to these challenges and face the future with confidence (Hicks 2001).Article ID:/ducument/d11.pdf二、译文世界茶叶产业现状和未来发展茶是全球最受欢迎和最低成本的饮料之一,仅次于纯净水。

如何提高出口竞争力英语作文To enhance the competitiveness of exports, it is essential to focus on product quality and innovation. 为提高出口竞争力，重点要关注产品质量和创新。

With the increasing globalization and competition in the international market, it is crucial for companies to continuously improve their products and services to meet the ever-changing demands of consumers. 随着全球化进程的加速和国际市场竞争的激烈化，企业必须不断提升产品和服务质量，以满足消费者不断变化的需求。

High-quality products not only help in building a good reputation for the company but also ensure customer satisfaction, which ultimately leads to repeat purchases and customer loyalty. 高质量的产品不仅有助于树立公司良好的声誉，而且确保了客户满意度，最终导致重复购买和客户忠诚度。

In addition to focusing on product quality, it is also essential to consider the pricing strategy. 除了关注产品质量外，还要考虑定价策略。

Competitive pricing can give a company an edge in the international market, helping to attract more customers and increase market share. 竞争性定价可以让公司在国际市场获得竞争优势，帮助吸引更多客户，增加市场份额。

如何提高出口竞争力英语作文英文回答：To enhance export competitiveness, several measures can be taken. Firstly, it is important to improve product quality. High-quality products are more likely to attract international buyers and gain a competitive edge in the global market. For example, China has made significant progress in improving the quality of its manufactured goods in recent years, which has contributed to its increased export competitiveness.Secondly, investing in research and development (R&D) is crucial. By continuously innovating and developing new products, companies can stay ahead of the competition and meet the changing demands of international customers. For instance, Apple Inc. invests heavily in R&D to constantly introduce new and innovative products, which has helped it maintain a strong position in the global market.Additionally, enhancing logistics and infrastructure is essential for improving export competitiveness. Efficient transportation systems and well-developed ports can reduce shipping costs and delivery time, making products more competitive in terms of pricing and delivery. For instance, the expansion of the Panama Canal has allowed for larger ships to pass through, enabling faster and more cost-effective transportation of goods.Furthermore, promoting international trade cooperation and reducing trade barriers can also boost export competitiveness. Negotiating free trade agreements and participating in regional economic integration initiatives can provide companies with greater access to foreign markets and reduce trade costs. For example, the European Union has established numerous free trade agreements with countries around the world, which has facilitated trade and increased export competitiveness for its member states.In conclusion, improving product quality, investing in R&D, enhancing logistics and infrastructure, and promoting international trade cooperation are key strategies toenhance export competitiveness. By implementing these measures, countries can strengthen their position in the global market and attract more international buyers.中文回答：提高出口竞争力可以采取几种措施。

文献出处：Gaulier G. The research of high-tech product export trade [J]. Economic Change and Restructuring, 2015, 10(2): 27-37.原文The research of high-tech product export tradeGaulier GAbstractThe development of world economic integration, makes the competition of the international trade market, outstanding performance for the competition of science and technology, especially high-tech products, the development of high-tech products has become the embodiment of the national competitiveness. The development of high-tech industries to the development of the whole world economy plays a vital role. New high-tech product export to promote upgrading of the industrial structure, is of great significance to the economic growth mode transformation, is a measure of a country's economic strength, science and technology the important index of strength and export power. Under the background of a significant change in the economy, further improve the quality and efficiency of growth of high-tech products, is to realize the economy and the important way of foreign trade imports and exports rose sharply. Therefore, the related research of high-tech products export trade is very necessary. We must identify the actualities of the development of new high-tech product export trade structure, explore the essence of the problem, investigate its reason, and adopt corresponding strategies.Keywords: High technology industries; Technology products export; Technology innovation1 IntroductionThe world economy in the 1990 s after the development speed is generally slow, appear serious insufficient effective demand, the world market and in developed countries to accelerate worldwide industrial structure adjustment and technology capital to promote the economic development of developed countries, the result is the new and high technology industries in developed countries, increasing the proportion of high-tech products export has become the developed countries and emergingindustrialized countries the main form of international trade and world market competition is mainly determined by the new and high technology products. In the face of the development of world economy and the arrival of knowledge economy, to show new and high technology industries and expand new high-tech product export trade as the international competitiveness, promote economic growth, implementing trade country to trading powers, the key to cultivate new growth point of foreign trade. High-tech products export trade has become the key to the rapid growth of foreign trade to achieve. High and new technology industry development is to achieve by extensive trade growth to quality and change the way of growth.2 An overview of the new and high technology productsThe definition standard of high-tech industries in different countries of more, a common definition of high and new technology industry is based on the R&D funds accounted for the proportion of sales or engineers, scientists, in the proportion of total worker. For example, the American scholar r. nelson in the five countries are more high-tech policy points out: "refers to the high and new technology industry, those funds to invest a lot of research and development, rapid technological progress as the symbol of industry.” About the definition of high and new technology industry and its products in different countries, different regions and different development period is different. But we usually use the organization for economic co-operation and development (OECD) definition of standards. The OECD's standard is according to the industrial sector in the research and development funds accounted for the proportion of the total output value to determine the technology intensity and the high technology industry is divided into five sectors: medical, precision and optical scientific instruments; Office, accounting, and computing devices; Medicine; Radio, television and communication equipment; Aerospace.The characteristics of high and new technology products(1) High knowledge intensity, high risk and high investmentIs high and new technology has been used widely in a variety of modern scientific and technological achievements, on the basis of a variety of knowledge innovation, the characteristics of high and new technology itself makes high-techproducts combined with a variety of new and high technology become inevitable. High-tech products are with high intensity of knowledge. In the processing and manufacturing of the products, packaging, sales each link such as application of new and high technology, increase the technology content of products, improves the performance and quality, to expand the function of the product, finally to improve the market competitiveness of products. High and new technology product is highly centralized capital and manpower, need early high investment. High and new technology research and development and creation, first of all need a lot of high technology management and development of talent, you must devote to the innovation talented person has a certain scale to achieve technology research and development. Second high concentration of creative talents must have a lot of money as a guarantee, so the large concentration of high technology research and development need the money. High investment will bring high risk, to the high return of high-tech products, high investment and high risk must be prominent features of high technology products. Have a certain scale to achieve technology research and development. Second high concentration of creative talents must have a lot of money as a guarantee, so the large concentration of high technology research and development need the money. High investment will bring high risk, to the high return of high-tech products, high investment and high risk must be prominent features of high technology products. (2) With increasing marginal revenue of uniquenessHigh and new technology product breaks through the traditional product law of diminishing marginal returns, shows the characteristics of marginal increasing returns. First, because the marginal cost of high and new technology to copy is decreasing, they can realize sharing and reuse. Second, the high and new technology as the most dynamic factors of production, has a unique savings and economies of scale, it can save the material in the production of manpower, material, time, money, improve labor productivity, shortening production high-tech products of social necessary labor time, reduce the production value per unit product; Increased with the application scope, sharing, more show the trend of increasing return to scale, in the international trade exchange can obtain more trade benefits. The third, along with the increase ofthe content of goods at improve the quality of the goods and performance formed the brand effect, high value-added profit can be obtained. Fourth, the leader of the new high-tech product, and is due to take the opportunity, will take the lead in the international market to establish a favorable technology standard, product standard, market access and market competition rules, thereby gaining monopoly and monopoly profits.(3) The present special life cycle of high-tech productsDue to the speeding up of the scientific and technological progress, scientific and technological achievements into productivity cycles are getting shorter; leading to high and new technology product update speed, shorten the life cycle. Moore says integration of semiconductor integrated circuit is doubling every about 18 months, the law has been proved. According to the theory of product life cycle theory, the technology gap, in the stage of product innovation, because innovation countries invested a lot of research and development spending, innovative products production in the first place in the United States and other developed countries, and then exported to other similar level of economic development in developed countries, and income level is higher; Therefore, high-tech products trade development is the structural adjustment and transfer of international industry complement each other. But innovative countries and multinational companies will not have monopoly advantages of high and new technology transfer to developing countries, it will be the core technology firmly in their own hands, developing countries are difficult to introduce the world's most advanced high technology.(4) The unique high-tech products market demandFirst of all, the international market demand for high-tech products rendering of irreversible one-way, new technology products will completely replace old technology products. Market demand is the motive force of high technology innovation, when a new and high technology products has been after the innovation, form and expand new market demand, which triggered a new round of high and new technology innovation, this new technology may replace the old technology, for example the digital mobile phone has fully replace simulator. Second, the international marketdemand for high-tech and derivative products, namely high-tech achievements can be derived into the related industries and products. A kind of new and high technology can be applied to many products, such as chip technology, digital technology; The emergence of a kind of new and high technology products will form a "chain reaction" and "diffusion effect", the cause and promote a group of related high-tech products, to form a new market demand, leading to the international high-tech products market demand, has the high growth potential..3 Related research progressesAbout high and new technology industry and its products export trade of existing research, most studies focused on the influence factors of high-tech products export, policy and way were analyzed. Study of high and new technology industry and trade products is necessary to draw lessons from the regional research results, combined with the actual do deeper analysis and research. Scholars for high-tech products export trade have their own different opinions; the following is related to the paper research content and views on some enlightenment in this paper.Ibarra (2005), first in Japan and the United States, two countries abroad high-tech exports as the basis, from the level of market openness, the development of science and technology and new high-tech product export trade strategy formulation and implementation, as well as technical ability to open made a comparative study on four aspects, such as; Second is high and new technology industry development as the research object, highlight different development advantages and characteristics of each region are analyzed, and its technical innovation, new achievements, talents technology equipped with relatively important position in the high-tech development.DM Bickford (2005), analyzes the actuality of high and new technology industry development, summarizes the development of high-tech industries with high industrial concentration and pillar industry is highlighted increasingly market-oriented, science and technology enterprises, and leading enterprise scale become the core strength of high and new technology industry development, etc, for the future development direction and development of new and high technology industries of Hunan road to give a clear argument.Reynolds (2003) of the new and high technology industries and products export trade at present situation analysis, for foreign trade in the international status and the present situation of high-tech products export is also analyzed, prominent is the export of products, computer and communication technology as a high-tech products and joint ventures rely on playing an increasingly important role in export trade, processing trade as a main way of trade continued its in new high-tech product export trade position that cannot be ignored.Williams (2007) for the sustainable development of high-tech products export were studied, combined with new high-tech product export in an increasing number of proportion in the total export, export enterprises and the quantity of varieties, mainly processing trade export trade way, using the method of SWOT, location advantages, industry foundation, enterprise competitive advantages of Shanghai hi-tech products export, is put forward in the new and high technology talent references, R&D investment, the establishment of the risk investment mechanism, improve innovation capability, and optimize the allocation of resources and so on should intensify their efforts to work and to promote the development of high and new technology industry better and faster.JB Berger (2005) studied the high and new technology industry development, think high-tech industrial output and exports have increased significantly, and increase in the number of science and technology plan projects at the same time, there exist some problems, such as policies and regulations do not coordinate with industry development needs, the system innovation lag, resources shortage, investment subject is single, intermediary services are relatively smaller also relatively backward, and so on, it has become the bottleneck of high and new technology industries and product export trade development.4 ConclusionsThe world economy the development level of high and new technology industry has become an important index to measure a country's economic strength. Therefore, promote the traditional industry to speed up the upgrading, improve the independent innovation ability, improve the proportion of high-tech industry in the economy hasbecome the top priority., therefore, in order to speed up the development of high-tech industries, must give the policy, capital, talent cultivation and attaches great importance to technology introduction and innovation, etc, to set up as soon as possible to promote the export of high-tech products to comprehensive policy supporting system.译文高新技术产品出口贸易研究Gaudier G摘要世界经济一体化程度的发展，使得国际贸易市场的竞争日趋激烈，突出表现为科技尤其是高新技术产品的竞争，高新技术产品的发展状况已成为国家竞争力的体现。

农产品出口竞争力研究英语The global agricultural trade landscape has undergone significant transformations in recent years, driven by evolving consumer preferences, technological advancements, and shifting economic dynamics. In this context, the competitiveness of agricultural product exports has become a crucial factor in determining the success and sustainability of nations' agricultural sectors. This essay delves into the multifaceted aspects of research on the competitiveness of agricultural product exports, exploring the key determinants, challenges, and strategies for enhancing export performance.One of the primary factors influencing the competitiveness of agricultural product exports is the production efficiency and cost structure of the exporting country. Nations with advanced agricultural technologies, efficient farming practices, and effective supply chain management can often offer their products at more competitive prices in the global market. This may involve investments in modern irrigation systems, precision farming techniques, and post-harvest processing and storage facilities. Additionally, the availability of arable land, favorable climaticconditions, and access to skilled labor can contribute to enhanced productivity and lower production costs.Another crucial aspect of export competitiveness is product quality and differentiation. Consumers in international markets increasingly demand high-quality, safe, and sustainable agricultural products. Countries that can consistently deliver products that meet or exceed these expectations can often command premium prices and maintain a competitive edge. This may involve implementing rigorous quality control measures, adopting international food safety standards, and promoting the unique characteristics or certifications of their agricultural goods.The ability to adapt to changing consumer preferences and market trends is also a significant determinant of export competitiveness. Successful exporting nations closely monitor evolving consumer demands, such as the growing preference for organic, locally sourced, or environmentally-friendly agricultural products. By aligning their production and marketing strategies with these trends, countries can capitalize on emerging market opportunities and maintain a competitive position.Effective trade policies and market access agreements play a crucial role in shaping the competitiveness of agricultural product exports. Governments can implement supportive policies, such as exportpromotion programs, trade agreements that reduce tariff and non-tariff barriers, and targeted investments in infrastructure and logistics. These measures can help domestic producers gain better access to foreign markets, reduce transaction costs, and enhance the overall competitiveness of their agricultural exports.Furthermore, the ability to diversify export markets and products can contribute to the resilience and competitiveness of a country's agricultural exports. By not relying on a single dominant market or product, nations can mitigate the risks associated with market fluctuations, trade disruptions, or changes in consumer preferences. This diversification strategy can involve exploring new geographical markets, developing complementary agricultural products, or expanding the range of value-added or processed goods.In addition to these factors, research on the competitiveness of agricultural product exports must also consider the impact of external forces, such as global economic conditions, exchange rate fluctuations, and the evolving landscape of international trade agreements and regulations. Monitoring and adapting to these dynamic factors can help countries maintain a competitive edge in the global agricultural marketplace.To enhance the competitiveness of agricultural product exports, countries can implement a comprehensive strategy that addressesthe multifaceted aspects of production, quality, market adaptation, trade policies, and diversification. This may involve fostering public-private partnerships, investing in research and development, promoting sustainable agricultural practices, and strengthening the capacity of domestic producers and exporters.By continuously monitoring and addressing the key determinants of export competitiveness, countries can position their agricultural sectors for long-term success in the global market. This research-driven approach can help nations capitalize on emerging opportunities, mitigate risks, and maintain a sustainable and competitive advantage in the dynamic landscape of agricultural trade.。

本科毕业论文外文翻译外文题目：China＇s Industrial Competitiveness in the World 出处：Chinese Economy作者：Zhongxiu Zhao; Zhang, Kevin Honglin译文：中国的产业竞争力摘要：这篇文章以国际化的观点研究了中国的产业竞争力。

我们采用了联合国工业开发组织提出的工业竞争力指数，集中聚焦在推动工业发展的五种驱动力：技术，科学因素，FDI，在国外的版税和科技支出以及现代化的设施等来评价中国经济地位，分析其工业能力。

我们发现中国工业竞争力的一大跳跃主要与其积极参与国际生产有关。

而其相应的劣势就是国内产品的低附加值以及只是作为出口的平台。

中国只有成功地完成产业升级和国内创新，才能成为一个全球性的工业强国。

中国目前在世界上的产业竞争力状况如何呢？也许，最清晰的印象就是从1979实行改革开放政策以来，快速增长的经济了。

然而，作为全球化时代中的一个发展中国家，中国面临着如何让工业企业变得并且保持国际竞争力的挑战。

在工业部门中，参与国际竞争的能力是经济增长的基本条件。

依靠静态禀赋为主要资源和廉价，非熟练劳动力可能是一个很好的开端，但这也是一个坏的延续方式。

那么，一个国家如何建立工业能力并在全球市场上竞争呢？一些策略方法出现了：通过国内研究和开发，或是通过外商直接投资，或者是这两者的结合来建立工业能力。

在1949年到1978年这个阶段——在基本工业能力基础上，中国采取了第一种策略，以相当大的代价取得了某些成绩。

在随后的二十年里，采用第二种方法取得了巨大的成功，但也面临着相当大的挑战。

中国的成功主要是通过引进国外技术，再加入全球价值链中，由此成为劳动密集型产品和组件的供应商，提高国内生产能力。

从2006年以来，中国已经采用了第三种策略——在国际生产网络中实行国内技术创新，来促进产业升级。

中国的目标是把对外商直接投资的依赖和强有力的产业政策联合起来，瞄准其希望进入的商务领域，提升中国的作用。

中国擅长出口的产品和原因英文作文China's Star Exports and Why They ShineHi there! My name is Li Ming and I'm a 10-year-old student from Shanghai, China. Today, I want to tell you about some of the amazing products that China is really good at making and selling to other countries around the world. Get ready to be impressed!One of China's biggest exports is clothing and textiles. Have you ever looked at the tag on your shirt or pants and seen "Made in China"? I see that all the time on my clothes! China is able to make huge amounts of clothing like t-shirts, pants, dresses, and more at low costs. This is because there are lots of big clothing factories in China with many hard-working people. The labor costs are lower than in some other countries too. Plus, China has easy access to raw materials like cotton and silk that clothing is made from. No wonder so much of the world's clothing comes from China!Another famous Chinese export is electronic gadgets and computers. China makes zillions of smartphones, tablets, laptops, TVs, and other cool electronics every year. Massive companies like Huawei, Lenovo, Xiaomi and others design and assembletheir devices right here in China. A key reason China dominates electronics manufacturing is the vast supplier networks. Companies can tap into a concentrated ecosystem of firms providing chips, displays, batteries and other specialised components. This streamlines production. Additionally, China has implemented policies to attract and nurture the electronics sector as a national priority.You've probably played with lots of toys labeled "Made in China" too! Toys are one of China's classic exports. From plastic action figures to stuffed animals to board games, Chinese factories churn out mountains of affordable toys for kids worldwide. China's Guangdong province is pretty much thetoy-making capital of the planet. Toy companies flock there due to the lower operational costs compared to placing factories elsewhere. There's also a century-old heritage of craftsmanship with products like porcelain dolls and other traditional toys.Have you noticed those ubiquitous "CHINA" markings on countless household items and machinery too? That's because China exports massive volumes of household goods and industrial products as well. Everything from furniture to plastics to auto parts to tools to appliances like washing machines and refrigerators get exported in huge numbers from China. Anincredible diversity of goods get "Made in China" stamped on them! Cheap labour combined with advanced manufacturing capability results in very competitive pricing for these products.Another surprising strength is food and agricultural exports from China. While you may associate China with rice and tea, the country is also a major exporter of fruits, vegetables, processed foods, and meat products. Apples, garlic, frozen fish fillets, and juice concentrates are just a few examples of major Chinese food exports relished globally. With huge farms, modern food processing plants, and a cheap workforce, Chinese food exports outcompete many other nations.You know what else China is amazing at making? Steel and aluminum! China produces and exports more steel and aluminum than any other country on Earth. Need materials for construction, manufacturing, or infrastructure projects? Then you'll likely use Chinese steel and aluminum. China leverages its abundant natural resources, labor, and production scale to keep costs low. In fact, China's steel exports have been so prolific that some other countries have complained it's too much!I know that was a lot of facts and information, but I hope you found it interesting learning about some of China's top exports! From clothes to computers to toys and beyond, we sure make aton of stuff that gets sold worldwide. There are a few main reasons China is such an export powerhouse:Massive labor force working in huge factories allowing for enormous production volumesLower operational costs from affordable labor, land, utilities etc.Proximity to raw materials and integrated supply chainsLarge domestic market coupled with investment in strategic industriesEvolution into an advanced, diversified manufacturing economySo the next time you see a product tag stating "Made in China", you'll know that item is part of China's export might! We'll keep working hard to make high-quality products for the whole world. Thanks for reading!。

- -浙江万里学院商学院国际经济与贸易专业，2009级3班 陈丽静国际商务系2009010694张岚 学生姓名 专业班级 指导教师 系 别 学生学号 毕业论文外文文献译文外文文献译文标题：为什么中国如此有竞争力？资料来源：论文搜索网作者: F. Gerard Adams,B y r o n G a n g n e sYochanan Shachmurove在过去的十年中，中国经济的出口表现已经非常显着。

关于中国的竞争力的问题，扩大范围到一个地区性的问题：“为什么是中国与其他东亚出口的竞争力吗？”世界性的问题：“为什么中国商品在世界市场上的竞争力。

一些观察家已经表示关注，世界制造业生产越来越集中的在东亚，特别是在中国。

在影响制造业的问题上一个大的部分是在美国，欧洲和日本的就业人数和工资，中国的出口在哪里，有还一直担心的通货紧缩影响的先进国家，例如中国的廉价出口，近期日本的评论：“有一种情况，主要是没有先例的其他国家在工业化，因此，那里一直在中国展开工资上涨的长期经济增长，而不从大量盈余的劳动力腹地，这种情况可能会持续一个十年左右，如果是这样，从中国对全球经济的通缩压力将继续。

“（小岛，2002年，第22页。

）在美国，中国的交换率和其意义的竞争已经成为一个政治问题，美国贸易赤字与中国已上升超过100亿美元。

在东亚地区，中国的竞争力是被负责生产的转变和外国投资的国家。

中国的出口表现我们首先提问：中国是否确实在追求国际市场上已经成功。

近年来，中国出口的记录已经蔚为壮观，虽然周期性的。

一些年中国的出口增长在20％至30％。

东亚其他国家已经也显示出口快速增长，尽管大幅贬值的情况下。

但是，近年来，许多东亚其他国家已经落后于背后，2002年，中国占$326十亿的出口，对世界出口总额的5％。

最近中国的出口增长异常迅速，由2002年的22.3％，显然，在2003年以更快的速度。

注定尤其是中国出口美国，1992年的15.6％增长到2001年中国出口增长的同时，欧洲联盟速度较慢;出口到日本的增长也十分迅速，在2092至01年期间每年10.6%自1994年以来，中国的进口增长迅速，中国的贸易余额已约达10％，中国的贸易基本上是积极的。

北京联合大学毕业论文外文原文及译文题目：福建省茶叶出口现状及对策研究专业：国际经济与贸易指导教师：学院：学号：班级：姓名：一、外文原文Current status and future development of global tea production and tea productsAlastair HicksFAO Regional Office for Asia and the PacificTea is globally one of the most popular and lowest cost beverages, next only to water. Tea is consumed by a wide range of age groups in all levels of society. More than three billion cups of tea are consumed daily worldwide. Tea is considered to be a part of the huge beverage market, not to be seen in isolation ju st as a ‘commodity’. Tea active ingredients are of interest to functional foods markets. Africa, South America, the Near East and especially the Asian region produces a varied range of teas, this, together with a reputation in the international markets for high quality, has resulted in Asia enjoying a share of every importing market in the world. Huge populations in Asia, Middle East, Africa, UK, EU, and countries of the CIS consume tea regularly and throughout the day. The main tea producing countries globally are: in Africa: Burundi, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe and others. In South America: Argentina, Brazil and others; In Near East: Iran and Turkey. In Asia: Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Viet Nam and others. In addition, the Russian Federation and CIS countries produce quantities of tea. Numerous types of teas are produced in the countries listed above. In China, for example, the country with the largest planting of tea and second in output, green tea is around half of the total export, black tea around one third and other teas one fifth. Depending on the manufacturing technique it may be described as green, black, oolong, white, yellow and even compressed tea. The Intergovernmental Group on Tea monitors market conditions and provides an update of potential market prospects for tea over the medium term. which examines the current situation and medium term prospects for production, consumption and trade of tea, and its impact on the world tea market.In summary, tea is considered as having a share of the global beverage market, ahighly competitive field. A wide range of tea products continue to be developed, through product and process development for added-value, as market shares become more sophisticated and competitive. The tea industry must rise to these challenges, facing the future with confidence.IntroductionThe Asian region produces a varied range of teas and this, together with a reputation in the international markets for high quality, has resulted in Asia enjoying a share of every importing market in the world. Africa, South America and the Near East also produce quantities of tea. Huge populations of Asia, UK, EU, Middle East, Africa and countries of the CIS consume tea regularly and throughout the day .The common tea plant is the evergreen shrub, Camellia sinensis. There are several varieties of this species of plant, a well known one being the Indian Assam tea (C. sinensis var. assamica Kitamura). Traditionally, tea is prepared from its dried young leaves and leaf buds, made into a beverage by steeping the leaves in boiling water. China is credited with introducing tea to the world, though the evergreen tea plant is in fact native to Southern China, North India, Myanmar and Cambodia .Although there are a growing number of countries that produce teas in a multiplicity of blends, there are essentially three main types of Camellia tea, which are Green, ‘Oolong’ and Black. The difference lies in the ‘fermentation’, which actually refers to oxidative and enzymatic changes within the tea leaves, during processing. Green tea is essentially unfermented, Oolong tea is partially fermented and Black tea is fully fermented. Black tea, which represents the majority of international trade, yields an amber coloured, full-flavour liquid without bitterness .For example, both Orange Pekoe and Pekoe are black teas. refers to the silver-tipped Assam teas. Orange Pekoe is made from the very young top leaves and traditionally comes from India or Sri Lanka. Pekoe tea comes from India, Indonesia or Sri Lanka and is made from leaves even smaller than those characteristically used for Orange Pekoe.In addition to these conventional teas, many countries of Asia have a number of herbal teas, made from brewing plant leaves, or other plant parts including flowers. For example, Gymnema sylvestre, a member of the botanical family Asclepiadaceae, found mainly in India, has been used as a healthy and nutritive herbal tea which claims to have a number of medicinal properties. Numerous other herbal teas are gaining more popularity recently .Current SituationThe global tea production growth rate in 2006 was more than 3% to reach an estimated 3.6 million t.. The expansion was mainly due to record crops in China, Viet Nam and India. Production in China increased 9.5% over the record in 2005, to 1.05 million t. in 2006, through Government policies to increase rural household incomes. Expansion of 28 percent in Viet Nam gave an output of 133,000t as tea bushes reached optimum yields. India had a 3% increase in harvest output of 945,000t for the year. This growth offset other major countries, Kenya and Sri Lanka, where output declined by 6 and 1.6%, respectively.ExportsExports in 2006 reached 1.55 million t. compared to 1.53 million t. in 2005 (Table 2).Increased shipments from Sri Lanka, India and Viet Nam offset major declines in Kenya and Indonesia, down by 12.4 and 7%. Tea exports from Sri Lanka reached 314,900 in 2006, a gain of 5.4%, while exports from Viet Nam and India expanded by 24 and 14%. The increase was due to expansion in trade to the Near East, with their growth and strength of the economies in the region. Significant growth was also achieved by Rwanda, and Tanzania, while shipments from China were relatively unchanged. Decline in exports from Kenya were affected by political uncertainty in Pakistan, its major market. Pakistan’s uncertainty also affected shipments from Indonesia and Bangladesh where exports declined, and structural problems plague the industry (FAO 2008).ImportsWorld net imports of tea declined by 1.7% to 1.57 million t. in 2006 (Table 3), reflecting reduced tea imports by Pakistan, the Russian Federation, and the Netherlands. Increased imports by traditional markets such as the United Kingdom, United States, Egypt and Germany, did not offset these declines. Imports by Pakistan declined by 3%, Russian Federation by 2%, and Netherlands by 25%, imports increasing by 7% in United Kingdom, United States, and Egypt. In Germany a 9 percent increase was recorded.ConsumptionWorld tea consumption grew by 1% in 2006, reaching 3.64 million t., but less than the annual average of 2.7% over the previous decade (Table 4). The biggest influence has been the growth in agricultural products consumption, tea included, in China and India, as their economies expanded dramatically. In 2006, China recorded a spectacular annual increase of 13.6% in total consumption, which reached 776,900 t., whilst annual growth in tea consumption in India was less, it was higher than the previous decade. Income gains in二、译文世界茶叶产业现状和未来发展茶是全球最受欢迎和最低成本的饮料之一,仅次于纯净水。

中国产品出口竞争力分析白平【摘要】Economic globalization has become an international phenomenon in market competition. According to the multidimen-sional structure framework, measure and compare products industry specialization of Chinese 255 HS codes, the export growth rate and relative industry scale of the industry to analyze product of China ’s export competitiveness during 2008-2011. In order to help policy makers, industry association and other export competitiveness assessment guide the allocation of the scarce resources to the needs of departments so as to promote industry export competitiveness.%经济全球化使市场竞争成为一种国际现象。

运用产品出口竞争力多维结构框架，测量中国2008-2011年期间255个HS编码产品产业专业化、行业的出口增长率和相对产业规模指标，可揭示中国的产品出口竞争力，以帮助决策者、行业协会等评估相关领域产品的出口竞争力，引导稀缺资源配置向最需要的部门，促进行业出口竞争力提升。

【期刊名称】《陕西行政学院学报》【年(卷),期】2015(000)002【总页数】4页(P99-102)【关键词】中国产品;产品出口;出口竞争力【作者】白平【作者单位】西安石油大学经济管理学院，西安 710065【正文语种】中文【中图分类】F038.2经济全球化使得世界范围内的国际竞争逐步渗透进每一个国家的市场经济，各国的国内市场成为国际市场的一个组成部分，从而使市场竞争成为一种国际现象。

中小银行竞争力分析中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)What drives the persistent competitiveness of small banks?Abstract：Several trends in the financial industry could have weakened the competitiveness of small banks in recent years including consolidation and improved financial strength of large banks, competition from nonbank financial firms, and a decline in the real value of deposit insurance. Despite those challenges, small banks have grown more rapidly than larger banks over the period from 1985 to 2001, and their profitability has been sustained at high levels. However, small banks have needed to increase the interest rates offered on deposit accounts in order to attract progressively more deposit funding. In this paper, we provide empirical evidence that this increased interest cost primarily reflects the higher rate of return that small banks were able to earn on their assets. Moreover, we show with an arbitrage model that the decline in the real value of deposit insurance has only a small effect on deposit rates as long as bank failure rates are in the low range of recent years.The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation’s (FDIC) proposal for the modernization ofdeposit insurance has recently been the focus of considerable attention (FDIC 2000). As part of its proposal, the FDIC would raise the current $100,000 ceiling on coverage in order to account for the erosion of its real value by inflation since it was set in 1980 (Chart 1). The decline in the real value of deposit insurance would tend to raise the cost of funding assets with deposits, and thus could adversely affect banks that tend to rely heavily on deposits. Large banks, which fund themselves relatively more in the uninsured wholesale markets, could be less affected than small banks.The decline in the real value of deposit insurance, however, is only one of several trends in the financial industry that could have weakened the competitiveness of small banks in recent years. Among these other developments have been the return to health of large banks, numerous mergers that have increased the size and scope of large banks, and the continued increase in competition from mutual funds and other nonbank financial companies.Mergers and acquisitions have reduced the number of banks in the United States from more than 14,000 in 1985 to about 8,300 at the end of 2000, and during this time the share of domestic banking assets held by the largest 100 banks rose from about half to almost three-fourths (Chart2). Studies of consolidation in the banking industry and of its impact on small bank competitiveness have reached differing conclusions. However, consolidation interacts with the decline in the real value of deposit insurance to create another potentially adverse impact on the competitiveness of small banks. The creation of “mega-banks” increases the possibility that depositors would consider these larger banks to be “too big to fail” (TBTF), which would implicitly confer a greater level of deposit insurance upon large bank customers than those of small banks. Smaller banks contend that an increase in the nominal value of deposit insurance is needed to help offset this perception of a TBTF policy (Independent Community Bankers Association [2000]).The evolution of large, complex banking organizations has led federal bank regulators to warn that these institutions create the potential for unusually large systemic risks to the national and international economies should they fail (Greenspan [1999]). However, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Improvement A ct of 1991 (FDICIA) circumscribed regulators’ ability to invoke TBTF. It required that the FDIC pursue the resolution method that poses the least cost to its insurance fund when dealing with a failed bank, and stipulated that exceptions to the “leastcost” method must garner the approval of super majorities of both the Federal Reserve and FDICboards plus that of the Secretary of the Treasury in consultation with the President of the United States. Angbazo and Saunders [1997] found the cost of funds to large banks increased after FDICIA was implemented, suggesting that bank creditors believed that FDICIA reduced the likelihood of a large bank benefiting from a TBTF policy. Moreover, bank regulatory agencies maintain that no bank is too large for shareholders and nondeposit liability holders to face complete loss, and for uninsured depositors to be subject to less than 100 percent reimbursement, should the decline in bank asset values be large enough (Greenspan [2001]).In addition to the consolidation of the banking system, the continued growth of nonbank financial institutions may have weakened the competitive situation of small relative to large banks in recent years (D'Arista and Schlesinger [1993]). Although savings and loan associations, credit unions, mutual funds and finance companies compete with banks of all sizes, they likely pose a greater competitive challenge to smaller banks. In addition to being more dependent on deposit funding than the larger banks, small banks also tend to be more concentrated than large banks in the types of loans extended by finance companies (Dynan, Johnson, and Slowinski [2002]). Over the period studied, however, an outright decline in thrift industry assets offset the added competition from other types of nonbank financial companies, particularly money market mutual funds.In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the competitive position of small banks likely was boosted as a result of the more severe deterioration in asset quality at large banks, and the wider gap at large banks between actual capital levels and those being demanded by markets and the new Basle accord (Chart 3). However, the subsequent economic recovery and brisk expansion of the second half of the 1990s caused delinquency rates to drop dramatically, particularly at large banks. At the same time, the gap between the leverage ratios small banks and large banks also narrowed noticeably, as large banks boosted their capital following the implementation of the Basle Accords in 1991.Despite the aforementioned headwinds affecting small banks’ competitiveness, Bassett and Brady [2001] found that small banks have grown more rapidly than larger banks over the period from 1985 to 2000. Moreover, they showed that small banks have largely maintained or even increased their levels of profitability throughout much of the period studied, despite paying increasingly large premiums on their deposits relative to large banks in order to fund their morerapid asset expansion. The purpose of this study is to extend this research by more formally examining the differential impact of the influences mentioned above on the competitive performance of small banks over the period from the mid-1980s to 2001.First, we employ an arbitrage model to examine the relationship between relative average interest rates on deposits at small and large banks, the level of deposit insurance, bank failure rates, and perceptions about TBTF. The model demonstrates that the sensitivity of relative deposit rates to the level of deposit insurance or views about the importance of TBTF is quite low when bank failure rates are low, as they have been in recent years. We then present econometric evidence suggesting that the rising relative cost of deposits at small banks vis-à-vis large banks over the past decade larg ely reflects small banks’ need to attract funding to sustain their aggressive and profitable asset expansion. The share of uninsured deposits, which has risen as the real value of deposit insurance has declined, and a marked improvement in the balance sheet health of large banks during the 1990s played somewhat smaller roles in boosting deposit rates at small banks.The next section describes the data used in the article and identifies some key balance sheet differences between large and small banks. Section III illustrates that small banks have been able to grow faster than large banks by offering better deposit rates and that the premium they pay has been rising over time. Section IV presents an arbitrage model of deposit pricing at large and small banks that incorporates deposit insurance and “T oo Big To Fail” effects. Section V presents regression estimates from a reduced form model of deposit rate determination at large and small banks. Conclusions are presented in section VI.II. Data and Summary StatisticsExcept where otherwise indicated, data in this paper are from the quarterly Reports of Condition and Income (Call Reports) for the domestic offices of insured domestically chartered commercial banks and nondeposit trust companies (hereafter, banks). In this article, large banks are those ranked 1 through 100 based on assets at the start of each quarter. Small banks are those ranked outside of the largest 1,000. At the start of the fourth quarter of 2000, large banks had assets of at least $6.94 billion, while all small banks had assets of less than $331 million.A. Key balance sheet differences between small and large banks.Small banks rely considerably more on deposits than do large banks. In particular, small timedeposits (those issued in amounts of less than $100,000) funded almost 30 percent of loans and other assets at small banks in 2000, while at large banks the share was 10 percent (Table 1). The share of small banks' assets funded with large time deposits, 13 percent, also exceeds that at large banks, 8 percent. Other interest-bearing deposits, which consist of savings and transactions accounts, also were somewhat more important funding vehicles at small banks, while noninterest-bearing deposits funded comparable shares of small and large banks' assets in 2000.Large banks funded about one-third of their assets with "other" nondeposit liabilities in 2000,whereas at small banks the share was just 3 percent. Small banks availed themselves somewhat more of FHLB advances, although these represent a fairly small share of liabilities at both groups of banks. Equity also funded a larger share of assets at small than at large banks, 10.3 percent and 8 percent respectively.Reliance on deposits changed little between 1987 and 1992, but both bank groups shifted toward nondeposit liabilities and capital as sources of funding during the 1990s. Between 1992 and 2000, deposits as a share of assets fell about 4 percentage points at small banks and 10 percentage points at large banks. For both bank groups, "other interest-bearing deposits" was the deposit category that fell most in the 1990s, although at large banks “non-interest-bearing deposits” declined almost as much. Small time deposits (which are fully insured) declined by similar amounts at both bank groups, a drop probably reflecting the increased popularity of alternative household investment vehicles such as mutual funds. However, the share of assets funded by large time deposits actually increased at both bank groups, with a larger increase posted at small banks.At small banks, the type and average size of large deposit accounts (all those of at least $100,000) are notably different from those at large banks (table 1, memo). At large banks, only about 30 percent of such balances were held as large time deposits in 2000; the remaining 70 percent were in transaction and savings accounts. At small banks, large balances are split about evenly between large time and other deposits. The average size of large deposits at large banks in 2000 was $425,000, and at small banks it was $229,000; however, over the 1990s the average size declined at large banks and rose at about the rate of inflation at small banks.B. Growth patterns for large and small banks.As noted, the mergers that have been the vehicle of consolidation typically have involved theacquisition of smaller banks by much larger banks. This, of course, boosts measured growth of large banks and diminishes that of small banks. To account for this in examining the balance sheet growth and profitability of small vis-à-vis large banks, we merger-adjust data from the quarterly Reports of Condition and Income, filed by all federally insured commercial banks.Balance sheet data adjusted for mergers show that small banks generally have grown faster than either medium-sized or large banks over the past fifteen years (chart 4, top panel). Indeed, in every year, the growth of assets has been significantly faster at small banks than at large banks. Of course, banks securitize and sell a significant portion of the consumer and real estate loans that they originate and thereby move them off their balance sheets. But data available since 1997 indicate that restoring securitized credit card loans to large banks' balance sheets would not narrow the difference in growth rates significantly. Of course, adding securitized assets to the balance sheet for purposes of comparison presumes that the securitizing bank still would have chosen to originate the loans even if the opportunity to securitize was not available.In addition, an average of about 350 new, or "de novo," banks were formed each year during the 1997-2000 period, compared with about 150 per year during the preceding four years. Although de novo banks tend to grow rapidly, the growth rate of all small banks is not significantly affected if de novo banks are excluded from the calculation. Moreover, the accelerated pace of entry into a fast growing sector provides substantial evidence of the attractiveness of small banks to investors.As suggested by the relative rates of merger-adjusted asset growth, the expansion of total deposits at small banks has also exceeded the growth rate at large banks in every year since 1985, after adjusting for mergers (chart 4, middle panel). Uninsured deposits also grew significantly faster at small banks than at large banks (chart 4, bottom panel). Furthermore, the growth rate of uninsured deposits at small banks has been high and steadily increasing during the second half of the past decade, whereas at larger banks the growth of these liabilities shows no trend. However, the growth of assets tended to exceed that of deposits, as the use of nondeposit liabilities grew for all bank size groups.III. How Have Small Banks Expanded Deposits Faster Than Large Banks?Chart 5 examines the connection between relative rates paid on deposits at small and large banks and relative deposit growth rates, for various definitions of deposits. The solid line in all fourpanels is the difference, expressed in basis points, between the average interest rates paid for deposits by small and large banks. Similarly, the dotted line depicts the growth rate of deposits at small banks less the growth rate at large banks, expressed in percentage points.Growth of total interest-bearing deposits at small banks consistently exceeded that at large banks between 1985 and 2000 by amounts that tended to reflect movements in the spread between deposit rates paid at small relative to large banks (Chart 5, upper left)。