Regional industrial ecology
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al后缀名词material(材料,重要的) hospital(医院) deal(交易) goal(目标) animal(动物)individual(个人,个人的) general(将军,一般的) final(决赛,最终的) reveal(揭露)total(总数,全部的) capital(首都,资金,大写字母) annual(年刊,年度的) moral(道德,道德的) metal(金属,金属的) proposal(提议) meal(一餐饭) steal(盗窃) equal(等于,平等的)appeal(呼吁) essential(本质,必要的) rural(农村的,乡下的) total(总数) journal(报纸) funeral(葬礼) radical(基础,激进的) scandal(丑闻) coal(煤块) ritual(仪式) medal(勋章) crystal(结晶,水晶的) festival(节日) oral(口试,口头的) casual(便装,随便的) seal(密封)royal(王室的,皇家) rival(对手,竞争) heal(治愈) interval(间隔) rent(出租) -->rental(租金)al后缀组合形容词直接加alnation(国家) -->national(国家的) politic(精明的) -->political(政治的)sever(割断) -->several(几个的) person(人) -->personal(个人的) tradition(传统) -->traditional(传统的) environment(环境) -->environmental(环境的) profession(专业) -->professional(专业的) critic(批判家) -->critical(批判的的)origin(起源) -->original(原始的) norm(规范) -->normal(正常的)addition(添加) -->additional(额外的) education(教育) -->educational(教育的) emotion(情绪) -->emotional(情感的) region(地区) -->regional(地区的)typic(典型的) -->typical(典型的) liber(书籍) -->liberal(自由的)technic(技术) -->technical(工艺的) sign(符号) -->signal(信号,显著的) music(音乐) -->musical(音乐的) form(形式) -->formal(正式的) congression(会议) -->congressional(国会的)fundament(基础)-->fundamental(基本的)digit(数字) -->digital(数字的) convention(惯例) -->conventional(传统的) clinic(临床) -->clinical(临床的) chemic(化学的) -->chemical(化学制品) constitution(宪法)-->constitutional(宪法的) extern(外部) -->external(外部的) institution(制度) -->institutional(制度的) occasion(偶然) -->occasional(偶然的) ethic(论理) -->ethical(论理的) classic(名著,经典的) -->classical(古典的) mechanic(技工) -->mechanical(机械的) theoretic(理论的) -->theoretical(理论的)electric(电的) -->electrical(有关电的) coast(海岸) -->coastal(沿海的)verb(动词) -->verbal(口头的,动词的) parent(父母) -->parental(父母的) withdraw(撤退) -->withdrawal(撤退) tropic(热带) -->tropical(热带的) function(功能) -->functional(功能的) statistic(统计的) -->statistical(统计的) minim(最小的) -->minimal(最小的) development(发展) -->developmental(发展的) miner(矿工) -->mineral(矿物,矿物的) organization(组织) -->organizational(组织的) instruction(指令) -->instructional(教学的) identic(形式相同的) -->identical(同一的) ration(定量) -->rational(合理的) inform(通知) -->informal(非正式的) logic(逻辑) -->logical(合逻辑的) idea(主意) -->ideal(理想的) substantia(物质) -->substantial(本质,实质的)去e,再加alnature(自然) -->natural(自然的) brute(残忍的) -->brutal(残忍的)remove(移动) -->removal(移动,免职) vertice(顶点) -->vertical(垂直的)tribe(部落) -->tribal(部落的)structure(结构) -->structural(结构的) survive(幸存) -->survival(幸存) universe(全球) -->universal(全球的) approve(批准) -->approval(批准) culture(文化) -->cultural(文化的)arrive(到达) -->arrival(到达) agriculture(农业) -->agricultural(农业的) globe(地球,球体) -->global(全球的) crime(犯罪) -->criminal(犯罪的)fate(命运) -->fatal(致命的) principle(原理) -->principal(首要的)加ial,如有e则去掉efinance(金融) -->financial(金融的) commerce(商业) -->commercial(商业的) office(办公室) -->official(官方的) race(种族) -->racial(种族的)pratice(练习) -->praticial(实际的) judice(审判) -->judicial(公正的) artifice(诡计) -->artificial(人造的) potent(有效的) -->potential(有潜能的)part(部分) -->partial(局部的) influent(流入的) -->influential(有影响的) resident(居住的) -->residential(住宅的) president(总统) -->presidential(总统的)y变i或ic,然后再加altry(尝试) -->trial(实验的) colony(殖民地) -->colonial(殖民地的) deny(否认) -->denial(否认) industry(工业) -->industrial(工业的) history(历史) -->historical(历史的) technology(技术) -->technological(技术的) biology(生物) -->biological(生物的) ecology(生态学) -->ecological(生态的) ideology(意识形态)-->ideological(思想的) psychology(心理学) -->psychological(心理的) philosophy(哲学) -->philosophical(哲学的)theology(神学) -->theological(神学的)controversy(争论) -->controversial(有争议的)不太规则的neuter(中性的) -->neutral(中立的)navy(海军) -->naval(海军的)center(中心) -->central(中心的)physics(物理学) -->physical(物理的)sex(性) -->sexual(性的)spirit(精神) -->spiritual(精神的)intellect(智力) -->intellectual(知识分子)man(人) -->manual(手册)其他al后缀名词actual(真实的)crucial(重要的)legal(合法的)illegal(非法的)social(社会的)real(实际的,真实的)local(当地的)final(最终的)federal(联邦的,同盟的)international(国际的)especial(特别的)special(特别的)official(官方的)medical(医学的)usual(通常的)eventual最后的general(通常的)internal(内部的)initial(最初的,首字母的)unusual(不寻常的) visual(视察的) mutual(共同的) intellectual(智力的) vital(至关重要的) colonial(殖民地的) fiscal(会计的,财政的) virtual(虚拟的) vocal(歌唱的,有声的) municipal(市政的) loyal(忠诚的)。
项目背景分析ProjectBackground1.1 规划用地分析Analysis ofland use planning1。
2区位及项目背景分析Location and projectbackground1、3 场地现状分析Venues situationanalysis1。
4 项目定位Project orientation1、5 项目设计说明description of project design总图部分General Plan section2.1 总平面图general plan/layout2.2 总平面示意图totalschematic plan2。
3 功能分区与交通分析图Functional zoning andtraffic analysischart分区大样部分Largepartsofthe partition sample3、1设计手法展示Designtechniques3。
2参考意向Intention3。
3 主入口部分节点放大意向图Mainentrance node amplifyintention3、4 次入口部分节点放大意向图Parttime entrance nodeenlargement intention3.5 景观元素意向图The elements of landscape intention3。
6 植物配置分析Plant configuration analysis3。
7植物配置意向图Plantconfiguration intention儿童嬉水池Children Water Play特色凉亭/栏杆/雕塑/灯笼/景墙Typical/Feature[Pavilion/Fence/Scul pture/Lantern/Wall木质平台WoodenPlatform棋牌活动中心Board Games Area汀步Step Stone木平台Wood Deck草坪Lawn功能分区图Functional Zoning交通分析图Traffic Analysis标高分析图LevelAnalysis景观节点图Nodes Analysis剖面图Section主入口Main Entrance次入口SecondaryEntrance人行道Sidewalk车行道Driveway观景方向/视线方向DirectionOf View视线轴线View Corridor绿化缓冲带Green Buffer保安亭Guard House中心广场CentralPlaza停车场区Parking Area用地红线SiteLimits游客中心VisitorCenter图例Legend容积率coverageﻫ城市设计urban design;civicdesignﻫ区域规划regional planning步行轴ped axisﻫ总体规划general planning; master planningﻫ分区规划districtplanning近期建设规划immediate plan城市详细规划detailed planningﻫ控制性详细规划controldetailed planningﻫ修建性详细规划siteplan居住区规划residential district planningﻫ城市化urbanization城市生态urban ecology可持续发展sustainabledevelopmentﻫ历史文化名城保护规划PlanofPreservationof Historic Cities旧城改建urban redevelopment开发区developmentareaﻫ城市化水平urbanization levelﻫ城市群agglom eration城镇体系urban system卫星城satellite town城市基础设施urban infrastructureﻫ居民点settlement市municipality; city生态基础设施ecological infrastructureﻫ牧场pasture市域administrative regionofacity商业区commercial districtﻫ行政中心administrationcenter商业街commercialstreet科技园technological region校园规划campus planning城市中心区urban centerdistrict居住单元flat历史地段historydistrict民政区域civil district水警区watersguard district居住区规划residential district planningﻫ护林区ranger district工业区industrial districtﻫ林木种子公园tree seed orchardﻫ快速公路thruwayﻫ城市美学urbanestheticsﻫ游憩空间esplanadeﻫ系统工程systems engineeringﻫ城市更新理论urbanrenewaltheoryﻫﻫ绿地/绿化带greenbeltﻫ绿化覆盖率percentage of greenerycoverageﻫ绿地率ratio of greenspace工厂绿化landscapingwithin factoryﻫ广场绿化landscaping ofsquareﻫ居住区绿化landscaping of residential areaﻫ谷底植栽场improved vegetation & wildlifeﻫ公共建筑绿化landscapingaround public building室内绿化indoor gardenﻫ城市绿化urban virescence城市绿化系统urban green space systemﻫ公共绿地public green space专用绿地specifiedgreenspace防护绿地greenbufferﻫﻫ建筑空间architecture剧院showplace; theater茶楼(馆) caff;tea shopﻫ专卖店monopolisticshopﻫ博物馆museumﻫ电影院cinema;movie houseﻫ商场emporium;shopping mallﻫ体育馆palaestra青少年宫callan house; children’s palaceﻫ图书馆libraryﻫ棋牌室relaxation room健身房gymnasium书店book store客厅parlorﻫ阳台balconyﻫ浴室bathroomﻫ橱柜cabinetﻫ合院式建筑courtyard buildingﻫ餐厅dining—room; dininghallﻫ入口entranceﻫ厨房kitchen屋顶roofﻫ小孩房kid roomﻫ儿童游乐室/玩具室dollhouseﻫ起居室living roomﻫ门廊porchﻫ更衣室changeroomﻫ休息室pavilion私家花园private garden居民residentﻫ共享地带shared zone工人房servants hall比例scale元素element会议中心conferencecenter园林景观view of the gardenﻫ乔木arborﻫ灌木shrubﻫ铺石bandstoneﻫ地下车库car park bellow曲线形铺地curved paving bands庭园cartilage; Garthﻫ标志牌(sign) courtyard identification signﻫ庭院courtyard瀑布fall步道footpath园桥garden bridgeﻫ园林garden and parkﻫ草本植物herbage藤本植物liane蔓本植物liana砌石natural cutstone铺地pave亭,阁pavilionﻫ榭pavilion on terraceﻫ植被plantingﻫ花坛plantingbedsﻫ大广场plaza台platform栈道deck promenade灯柱pole lightsﻫ小水池pool雕塑sculpture小广场small squareﻫ小水景small water feature林荫树shade trees楼storied building小溪流stream行道树street treesﻫ踏石stepping stoneﻫ踏步terrace stepsﻫ木制平台timber deckﻫ草坪turf;grass园廊veranda空地void水景waterscape园墙wallingardenﻫ滨水地区waterfront茶亭tea house木亭logcabinﻫ遮阳亭shade structureﻫ水岸edgeﻫ湾bayﻫ渡口ferryﻫ挡土墙re taining wallﻫ人行道pavement卵石pebble半岛peninsula ﻫ常用得景观英文1ﻫ、主入口大门/岗亭(车行&人行) MAIN ENTRANCEGATE/GUARD HOUSE (FORVEHICLE& PEDESTRIAN )2。
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Electronics Science and Technology物理电子学 Physical Electronics电路与系统 Circuits and Systems微电子学与固体电子学 Microelectronics and Solid State Electronics电磁场与微波技术 Electromagnetic Field and Microwave Technology信息与通信工程 Information and Communication Engineering 通信与信息系统 Communication and Information Systems信号与信息处理 Signal and Information Processing控制科学与工程 Control Science and Engineering控制理论与控制工程 Control Theory and Control Engineering 检测技术与自动化装置 Detection T echnology and Automatic Equipment系统工程 Systems Engineering模式识别与智能系统 Pattern Recognition and Intelligent Systems导航、制导与控制 Navigation, Guidance and Control计算机科学与技术 Computer Science and Technology计算机软件与理论 Computer Software and Theory计算机系统结构 Computer Systems Organization计算机应用技术 Computer Applied T echnology建筑学 Architecture建筑历史与理论 Architectural History and Theory建筑设计及其理论 Architectural Design and Theory城市规划与设计(含风景园林规划与设计) Urban Planning and Design (including Landscape Planning and Design)建筑技术科学 Building Technology Science土木工程 Civil Engineering岩土工程 Geotechnical Engineering结构工程 Structural Engineering市政工程 Municipal Engineering供热、供燃气、通风及空调工程 Heating, Gas Supply, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Engineering防灾减灾工程及防护工程 Disaster Prevention and Reduction Engineering and Protective Engineering桥梁与隧道工程 Bridge and Tunnel Engineering水利工程 Hydraulic Engineering水文学及水资源 Hydrology and Water Resources水力学及河流动力学 Hydraulics and River Dynamics水工结构工程 Hydraulic Structure Engineering水利水电工程 Hydraulic and Hydro-Power Engineering港口、海岸及近海工程 Harbor, Coastal and Offshore Engineering测绘科学与技术 Surveying and Mapping大地测量学与测量工程 Geodesy and Survey Engineering摄影测量与遥感 Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing地图制图学与地理信息工程 Cartography and Geographic Information Engineering化学工程与技术 Chemical Engineering and Technology化学工程 Chemical Engineering化学工艺 Chemical Technology生物化工 Biochemical Engineering应用化学 Applied Chemistry工业催化 Industrial Catalysis地质资源与地质工程 Geological Resources and Geological Engineering矿产普查与勘探 Mineral Resource Prospecting and Exploration地球探测与信息技术 Geodetection and Information Technology地质工程 Geological Engineering矿业工程 Mineral Engineering采矿工程 Mining Engineering矿物加工工程 Mineral Processing Engineering安全技术及工程 Safety Technology and Engineering石油与天然气工程 Oil and Natural Gas Engineering油气井工程 Oil-Gas Well Engineering油气田开发工程 Oil-Gas Field Development Engineering油气储运工程 Oil-Gas Storage and Transportation Engineering纺织科学与工程 Textile Science and Engineering纺织工程 Textile Engineering纺织材料与纺织品设计 Textile Material and T extiles Design纺织化学与染整工程 Textile Chemistry and Dyeing and Finishing Engineering服装设计与工程 Clothing Design and Engineering轻工技术与工程 The Light Industry Technology and Engineering制浆造纸工程 Pulp and Paper Engineering制糖工程 Sugar Engineering发酵工程 Fermentation Engineering皮革化学与工程 Leather Chemistry and Engineering交通运输工程 Communication and Transportation Engineering道路与铁道工程 Highway and Railway Engineering交通信息工程及控制 Traffic Information Engineering & Control 交通运输规划与管理 Transportation Planning and Management载运工具运用工程 Vehicle Operation Engineering船舶与海洋工程 Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 船舶与海洋结构物设计制造 Design and Construction of Naval Architecture and Ocean Structure轮机工程 Marine Engine Engineering水声工程 Underwater Acoustics Engineering航空宇航科学与技术 Aeronautical and Astronautical Science and Technology飞行器设计 Flight Vehicle Design航空宇航推进理论与工程 Aerospace Propulsion Theory and Engineering航空宇航器制造工程 Manufacturing Engineering of Aerospace Vehicle人机与环境工程 Man-Machine and Environmental Engineering兵器科学与技术 Armament Science and Technology武器系统与运用工程 Weapon Systems and Utilization Engineering兵器发射理论与技术 Armament Launch Theory and Technology火炮、自动武器与弹药工程 Artillery, Automatic Gun and Ammunition Engineering军事化学与烟火技术 Military Chemistry and Pyrotechnics核科学与技术 Nuclear Science and Technology核能科学与工程 Nuclear Energy Science and Engineering核燃料循环与材料 Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Materials核技术及应用 Nuclear Technology and Applications辐射防护及环境保护 Radiation and Environmental Protection 农业工程 Agricultural Engineering农业机械化工程 Agricultural Mechanization Engineering农业水土工程 Agricultural Water-Soil Engineering农业生物环境与能源工程 Agricultural Biological Environmental and Energy Engineering农业电气化与自动化 Agricultural Electrification and Automation林业工程 Forestry Engineering森林工程 Forest Engineering木材科学与技术 Wood Science and Technology林产化学加工工程 Chemical Processing Engineering of Forest Products环境科学与工程 Environmental Science and Engineering环境科学 Environmental Science环境工程 Environmental Engineering生物医学工程 Biomedical Engineering食品科学与工程 Food Science and Engineering食品科学 Food Science粮食、油脂及植物蛋白工程 Cereals, Oils and Vegetable Protein Engineering农产品加工及贮藏工程 Processing and Storage of Agriculture Products水产品加工及贮藏工程 Processing and Storage of Aquatic Products农学 Agriculture作物学 Crop Science作物栽培学与耕作学 Crop Cultivation and Farming System作物遗传育种学 Crop Genetics and Breeding园艺学 Horticulture果树学 Pomology蔬菜学 Olericulture茶学 Tea Science农业资源利用学 Utilization Science of Agricultural Resources 土壤学 Soil Science植物营养学 Plant Nutrition植物保护学 Plant Protection植物病理学 Plant Pathology农业昆虫与害虫防治 Agricultural Entomology and Pest Control 农药学 Pesticide Science畜牧学 Animal Science动物遗传育种与繁殖 Animal Genetics, Breeding and ReproductionScience动物营养与饲料科学 Animal Nutrition and Feed Science草业科学 Practaculture Science特种经济动物饲养学(含蚕、蜂等) The Rearing of Special-type EconomicAnimals (including Silkworm, Honeybees, etc.)兽医学 Veterinary Medicine基础兽医学 Basic Veterinary Medicine预防兽医学 Preventive Veterinary Medicine临床兽医学 Clinical Veterinary Medicine林学 Forestry林木遗传育种学 Forest Tree Genetics and Breeding森林培育学 Silviculture森林保护学 Forest Protection森林经理学 Forest Management野生动植物保护与利用 Wildlife Conservation and Utilization园林植物与观赏园艺 Ornamental Plants and Horticulture水土保持与荒漠化防治 Soil and Water Conservation and Desertification Combating水产学 Fisheries Science水产养殖学 Aquaculture Science捕捞学 Fishing Science渔业资源学 Science of Fisheries Resources医学 Medicine基础医学 Basic Medicine人体解剖与组织胚胎学 Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology免疫学 Immunology病原生物学 Pathogenic Organisms病理学与病理生理学 Pathology and Pathophysiology法医学 Forensic Medicine放射医学 Radiation Medicine航空航天与航海医学 Aerospace and Nautical medicine临床医学 Clinical Medicine内科学(含心血管病学、血液病学、呼吸系病学、消化系病学、内分泌与代谢病学、肾脏病学、风湿病学、传染病学) Internal medicine (including Cardiology, Hematology, Respiratory, Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nephrology, Rheuma-tology, Infectious Diseases)儿科学 Pediatrics老年医学 Geriatrics神经病学 Neurology精神病与精神卫生学 Psychiatry and Mental Health皮肤病与性病学 Dermatology and Venereology影像医学与核医学 Imaging and Nuclear Medicine临床检验诊断学 Clinical Laboratory Diagnostics护理学 Nursing外科学(含普通外科学、骨外科学、泌尿外科学、胸心血管外科学、神经外科学、整形外科学、烧伤外科学、野战外科学) Surgery(General Surgery, Orthopedics, Urology, Cardiothoracic Surgery, Neurosurgery, Plastic Surgery, Burn Surgery, Field Surgery)妇产科学 Obstetrics and Gynecology眼科学 Ophthalmic Specialty耳鼻咽喉科学 Otolaryngology肿瘤学 Oncology康复医学与理疗学 Rehabilitation Medicine & Physical Therapy 运动医学 Sports Medicine麻醉学 Anesthesiology急诊医学 Emergency Medicine口腔医学 Stomatology口腔基础医学 Basic Science of Stomatology口腔临床医学 Clinical Science of Stomatology公共卫生与预防医学 Public Health and Preventive Medicine流行病与卫生统计学 Epidemiology and Health Statistics劳动卫生与环境卫生学 Occupational and Environmental Health营养与食品卫生学 Nutrition and Food Hygiene儿少卫生与妇幼保健学 Maternal, Child and Adolescent Health 卫生毒理学 Hygiene Toxicology军事预防医学 Military Preventive Medicine中医学 Chinese Medicine中医基础理论 Basic Theories of Chinese Medicine中医临床基础 Clinical Foundation of Chinese Medicine中医医史文献 History and Literature of Chinese Medicine方剂学 Formulas of Chinese Medicine中医诊断学 Diagnostics of Chinese Medicine中医内科学 Chinese Internal Medicine中医外科学 Surgery of Chinese Medicine中医骨伤科学 Orthopedics of Chinese Medicine中医妇科学 Gynecology of Chinese Medicine中医儿科学 Pediatrics of Chinese Medicine中医五官科学 Ophthalmology and Otolaryngoloy of Chinese Medicine针灸推拿学 Acupuncture and Moxibustion and Tuina of Chinese medicine民族医学 Ethnomedicine中西医结合医学 Chinese and Western Integrative Medicine 中西医结合基础医学 Basic Discipline of Chinese and Western Integrative中西医结合临床医学 Clinical Discipline of Chinese and Western Integrative Medicine药学 Pharmaceutical Science药物化学 Medicinal Chemistry药剂学 Pharmaceutics生药学 Pharmacognosy药物分析学 Pharmaceutical Analysis微生物与生化药学 Microbial and Biochemical Pharmacy药理学 Pharmacology中药学 Science of Chinese Pharmacology军事学 Military Science军事思想学及军事历史学 Military Thought and Military History 军事思想学 Military Thought军事历史学 Military History战略学 Science of Strategy军事战略学 Military Strategy战争动员学 War Mobilization战役学 Science of Operations联合战役学 Joint Operation军种战役学(含第二炮兵战役学) Armed Service Operation (including Operation of Strategic Missile Force)战术学 Science of T actics合同战术学 Combined-Arms T actics兵种战术学 Branch T actics军队指挥学 Science of Command作战指挥学 Combat Command军事运筹学 Military Operation Research军事通信学 Military Communication军事情报学 Military Intelligence密码学 Cryptography军事教育训练学(含军事体育学) Military Education and Training (including Military Physical Training)军制学 Science of Military System军事组织编制学 Military Organizational System军队管理学 Military Management军队政治工作学 Science of Military Political Work军事后勤学与军事装备学 Science of Military Logistics and Military Equipment军事后勤学 Military Logistics后方专业勤务 Rear Special Service军事装备学 Military Equipment管理学 Management Science管理科学与工程 Management Science and Engineering工商管理学 Science of Business Administration会计学 Accounting企业管理学(含财务管理、市场营销学、人力资源管理学) CorporateManagement (including Financial Management, Marketing, and Human Resources Management)旅游管理学 Tourist Management技术经济及管理学 Technology Economy and Management农林经济管理学 Agricultural and Forestry Economics & Management农业经济管理学 Agricultural Economics & Management林业经济管理学 Forestry Economics & Management公共管理学 Science of Public Management行政管理学 Administration Management社会医学与卫生事业管理学 Social Medicine and Health Management教育经济与管理学 Educational Economy and Management社会保障学 Social Security土地资源管理学 Land Resource Management图书馆、情报与档案学 Science of Library, Information and Archival图书馆学 Library Science情报学 Information Science档案学 Archival Science。
各个学科名字的英文单词各个学科名字的英文单词每一门学科的名字都有属于它的英文单词,为此店铺为大家带来各个学科名字的英文单词。
学科名的英文单词Chinese 语文English 英语Japanese 日语history 历史mathematics 数学physical education 体育algebra 代数geometry 几何geography 地理biology 生物chemistry 化学physics 物理literature 文学psychology 心理学sociology 社会学philosophy 哲学engineering 工程学mechanical engineering 机械工程学electronics 电子学medicine 医学social science 社会学agriculture 农学astronomy 天文学economics 经济学politics 政治学biochemistry 生物化学anthropology 人类学linguistics 语言学accounting 会计学law 法学metallurgy 冶金学finance 财政学,金融学journalism 新闻学civil engineering 土木工程学architecture 建筑学business administration 工商管理学chemical engineering 化学工程学botany 植物学学科的英文例句计算机科学目前已是一门成熟的.学科。
Computer science is now a fully-fledged academic subject.他熟悉这一学科。
He is at home with this subject.她已全面掌握了这一学科。
She has a comprehensive grasp of the subject.但愿我能精通这门学科就好了。
中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称哲学Philosophy马克思主义哲学Philosophy of Marxism中国哲学Chinese Philosophy外国哲学Foreign Philosophies逻辑学Logic伦理学Ethics美学Aesthetics宗教学Science of Religion科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology经济学Economics理论经济学Theoretical Economics政治经济学Political Economy经济思想史History of Economic Thought经济史History of Economic西方经济学Western Economics世界经济World Economics人口、资源与环境经济学Population, Resources and Environmental Economics应用经济学Applied Economics国民经济学National Economics区域经济学Regional Economics财政学(含税收学)Public Finance (including Taxation)金融学(含保险学)Finance (including Insurance)产业经济学Industrial Economics国际贸易学International Trade劳动经济学Labor Economics统计学Statistics数量经济学Quantitative Economics中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称国防经济学National Defense Economics法学Law法学Science of Law法学理论Jurisprudence法律史Legal History宪法学与行政法学Constitutional Law and Administrative Law刑法学Criminal Jurisprudence民商法学(含劳动法学、社会保障法学) Civil Law and Commercial Law (including Science of Labour Law and Science of Social Security Law )诉讼法学Science of Procedure Laws经济法学Science of Economic Law环境与资源保护法学Science of Environment and Natural Resources Protection Law国际法学(含国际公法学、国际私法学、国际经济法学、) International law (including International Public law, International Private Law and International Economic Law)军事法学Science of Military Law政治学Political Science政治学理论Political Theory中外政治制度Chinese and Foreign Political Institution科学社会主义与国际共产主义运动Scientific Socialism and InternationalCommunist Movement中共党史(含党的学说与党的建设) History of the Communist Party of China(including the Doctrine of China Party and Party Building)马克思主义理论与思想政治教育Education of Marxist Theory and Education in Ideology and Politics国际政治学International Politics国际关系学International Relations外交学Diplomacy社会学Sociology人口学Demography人类学Anthropology民俗学(含中国民间文学) Folklore (including Chinese Folk Literature)民族学Ethnology马克思主义民族理论与政策Marxist Ethnic Theory and Policy中国少数民族经济Chinese Ethnic Economics中国少数民族史Chinese Ethnic History中国少数民族艺术Chinese Ethnic Art教育学Education教育学Education Science教育学原理Educational Principle课程与教学论Curriculum and Teaching Methodology教育史History of Education比较教育学Comparative Education学前教育学Pre-school Education高等教育学Higher Education成人教育学Adult Education职业技术教育学V ocational and Technical Education特殊教育学Special Education教育技术学Education Technology心理学Psychology基础心理学Basic Psychology发展与心理学Developmental and Educational Psychology应用心理学Applied Psychology体育学Science of Physical Culture and Sports体育人文社会学Humane and Sociological Science of Sports运动人体科学Human Movement Science体育教育训练学Theory of Sports Pedagogy and Training民族传统体育学Science of Ethnic Traditional Sports文学Literature中国语言文学Chinese Literature文艺学Theory of Literature and Art语言学及应用语言学Linguistics and Applied Linguistics汉语言文字学Chinese Philology中国古典文献学Study of Chinese Classical Text中国古代文学Ancient Chinese Literature中国现当代文学Modern and Contemporary Chinese Literature中国少数民族语言文学Chinese Ethnic Language andLiterature比较文学与世界文学Comparative Literature and World Literature外国语言文学Foreign Languages and Literatures英语语言文学English Language and Literature俄语语言文学Russian Language and Literature法语语言文学French Language and Literature德语语言文学German Language and Literature日语语言文学Japanese Language and Literature印度语言文学Indian Language and Literature西班牙语语言文学Spanish Language and Literature阿拉伯语语言文学Arabic Language and Literature欧洲语言文学European Language and Literature亚非语言文学Asian-African Language and Literature外国语言学及应用语言学Linguistics and Applied Linguistics inForeign Languages新闻传播学Journalism and Communication新闻学Journalism传播学Communication艺术学Art艺术学Art Theory音乐学Music美术学Fine Arts设计艺术学Artistic Design戏剧戏曲学Theater and Chinese Traditional Opera电影学Film广播电视艺术学Radio and television Art舞蹈学Dance历史学History历史学History史学理论及史学史Historical Theories and History of Historical Science考古学及博物馆学Archaeology and Museology历史地理学Historical Geography历史文献学(含敦煌学、古文字学) Studies of Historical Literature (including Paleography and Studies of Dunhuang)专门史History of Particular Subjects中国古代史Ancient Chinese History中国近现代史Modern and Contemporary Chinese History世界史World History理学Natural Science数学Mathematics基础数学Fundamental Mathematics计算数学Computational Mathematics概率论与数理统计Probability and Mathematical Statistics应用数学Applied mathematics运筹学与控制论Operational Research and Cybernetics物理学Physics理论物理Theoretical Physics粒子物理与原子核物理Particle Physics and Nuclear Physics原子与分子物理Atomic and Molecular Physics等离子体物理Plasma Physics凝聚态物理Condensed Matter Physics声学Acoustics光学Optics无线电物理Radio Physics化学Chemistry无机化学Inorganic Chemistry分析化学Analytical Chemistry有机化学Organic Chemistry物理化学(含化学物理)Physical Chemistry (including Chemical Physics) 高分子化学与物理Chemistry and Physics of Polymers天文学Astronomy天体物理Astrophysics天体测量与天体力学Astrometry and Celestial Mechanics地理学Geography自然地理学Physical Geography人文地理学Human Geography地图学与地理信息系统Cartography and Geography Information System大气科学Atmospheric Sciences气象学Meteorology大气物理学与大气环境Atmospheric Physics and Atmospheric Environment 海洋科学Marine Sciences物理海洋学Physical Oceanography海洋化学Marine Chemistry海洋生理学Marine Biology海洋地质学Marine Geology地球物理学Geophysics固体地球物理学Solid Earth Physics空间物理学Space Physics地质学Geology矿物学、岩石学、矿床学Mineralogy, Petrology, Mineral Deposit Geology 地球化学Geochemistry古生物学与地层学(含古人类学)Paleontology and Stratigraphy (including Paleoanthropology)构造地质学Structural Geology第四纪地质学Quaternary Geology生物学Biology植物学Botany动物学Zoology生理学Physiology水生生物学Hydrobiology微生物学Microbiology神经生物学Neurobiology遗传学Genetics发育生物学Developmental Biology细胞生物学Cell Biology生物化学与分子生物学Biochemistry and Molecular Biology生物物理学Biophysics生态学Ecology系统科学Systems Science系统理论Systems Theory系统分析与集成Systems Analysis and Integration科学技术史History of Science and Technology工学Engineering力学Mechanics一般力学与力学基础General and Fundamental Mechanics固体力学Solid Mechanics流体力学Fluid Mechanics工程力学Engineering Mechanics机械工程Mechanical Engineering机械制造及其自动化Mechanical Manufacture and Automation机械电子工程Mechatronic Engineering机械设计与理论Mechanical Design and Theory车辆工程Vehicle Engineering光学工程Optical Engineering仪器科学与技术Instrument Science and Technology精密仪器及机械Precision Instrument and Machinery测试计量技术及仪器Measuring and Testing Technologies and Instruments材料科学与工程Materials Science and Engineering材料物理与化学Materials Physics and Chemistry材料学Materialogy材料加工工程Materials Processing Engineering冶金工程Metallurgical Engineering冶金物理化学Physical Chemistry of Metallurgy钢铁冶金Ferrous Metallurgy有色金属冶金Non-ferrous Metallurgy动力工程及工程热物理Power Engineering and Engineering Thermophysics工程热物理Engineering Thermophysics热能工程Thermal Power Engineering动力机械及工程Power Machinery and Engineering流体机械及工程Fluid Machinery and Engineering制冷及低温工程Refrigeration and Cryogenic Engineering化工过程机械Chemical Process Equipment电气工程Electrical Engineering电机与电器Electric Machines and Electric Apparatus电力系统及其自动化Power System and its Automation高电压与绝缘技术High V oltage and Insulation Technology电力电子与电力传动Power Electronics and Power Drives电工理论与新技术Theory and New Technology of Electrical Engineering电子科学与技术Electronics Science and Technology物理电子学Physical Electronics电路与系统Circuits and Systems微电子学与固体电子学Microelectronics and Solid State Electronics电磁场与微波技术Electromagnetic Field and Microwave Technology信息与通信工程Information and Communication Engineering通信与信息系统Communication and Information Systems信号与信息处理Signal and Information Processing控制科学与工程Control Science and Engineering控制理论与控制工程Control Theory and Control Engineering检测技术与自动化装置Detection Technology and Automatic Equipment系统工程Systems Engineering模式识别与智能系统Pattern Recognition and Intelligent Systems导航、制导与控制Navigation, Guidance and Control计算机科学与技术Computer Science and Technology计算机软件与理论Computer Software and Theory计算机系统结构Computer Systems Organization计算机应用技术Computer Applied Technology建筑学Architecture建筑历史与理论Architectural History and Theory建筑设计及其理论Architectural Design and Theory城市规划与设计(含风景园林规划与设计)Urban Planning and Design (including Landscape Planning and Design)建筑技术科学Building Technology Science土木工程Civil Engineering岩土工程Geotechnical Engineering结构工程Structural Engineering市政工程Municipal Engineering供热、供燃气、通风及空调工程Heating, Gas Supply, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Engineering防灾减灾工程及防护工程Disaster Prevention and Reduction Engineering and ProtectiveEngineering桥梁与隧道工程Bridge and Tunnel Engineering水利工程Hydraulic Engineering水文学及水资源Hydrology and Water Resources水力学及河流动力学Hydraulics and River Dynamics水工结构工程Hydraulic Structure Engineering水利水电工程Hydraulic and Hydro-Power Engineering港口、海岸及近海工程Harbor, Coastal and Offshore Engineering测绘科学与技术Surveying and Mapping大地测量学与测量工程Geodesy and Survey Engineering摄影测量与遥感Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing地图制图学与地理信息工程Cartography and Geographic Information Engineering 化学工程与技术Chemical Engineering and Technology化学工程Chemical Engineering化学工艺Chemical Technology生物化工Biochemical Engineering应用化学Applied Chemistry工业催化Industrial Catalysis地质资源与地质工程Geological Resources and Geological Engineering矿产普查与勘探Mineral Resource Prospecting and Exploration地球探测与信息技术Geodetection and Information Technology地质工程Geological Engineering矿业工程Mineral Engineering采矿工程Mining Engineering矿物加工工程Mineral Processing Engineering安全技术及工程Safety Technology and Engineering石油与天然气工程Oil and Natural Gas Engineering油气井工程Oil-Gas Well Engineering油气田开发工程Oil-Gas Field Development Engineering油气储运工程Oil-Gas Storage and Transportation Engineering纺织科学与工程Textile Science and Engineering纺织工程Textile Engineering纺织材料与纺织品设计Textile Material and Textiles Design纺织化学与染整工程Textile Chemistry and Dyeing and Finishing Engineering服装设计与工程Clothing Design and Engineering轻工技术与工程The Light Industry Technology and Engineering制浆造纸工程Pulp and Paper Engineering制糖工程Sugar Engineering发酵工程Fermentation Engineering皮革化学与工程Leather Chemistry and Engineering交通运输工程Communication and Transportation Engineering道路与铁道工程Highway and Railway Engineering交通信息工程及控制Traffic Information Engineering & Control交通运输规划与管理Transportation Planning and Management载运工具运用工程Vehicle Operation Engineering船舶与海洋工程Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering船舶与海洋结构物设计制造Design and Construction of Naval Architecture and Ocean Structure轮机工程Marine Engine Engineering水声工程Underwater Acoustics Engineering航空宇航科学与技术Aeronautical and Astronautical Science and Technology飞行器设计Flight Vehicle Design航空宇航推进理论与工程Aerospace Propulsion Theory and Engineering航空宇航器制造工程Manufacturing Engineering of Aerospace Vehicle人机与环境工程Man-Machine and Environmental Engineering兵器科学与技术Armament Science and Technology武器系统与运用工程Weapon Systems and Utilization Engineering兵器发射理论与技术Armament Launch Theory and Technology火炮、自动武器与弹药工程Artillery, Automatic Gun and Ammunition Engineering军事化学与烟火技术Military Chemistry and Pyrotechnics核科学与技术Nuclear Science and Technology核能科学与工程Nuclear Energy Science and Engineering核燃料循环与材料Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Materials核技术及应用Nuclear Technology and Applications辐射防护及环境保护Radiation and Environmental Protection农业工程Agricultural Engineering农业机械化工程Agricultural Mechanization Engineering农业水土工程Agricultural Water-Soil Engineering农业生物环境与能源工程Agricultural Biological Environmental and Energy Engineering农业电气化与自动化Agricultural Electrification and Automation林业工程Forestry Engineering森林工程Forest Engineering木材科学与技术Wood Science and Technology林产化学加工工程Chemical Processing Engineering of Forest Products环境科学与工程Environmental Science and Engineering环境科学Environmental Science环境工程Environmental Engineering生物医学工程Biomedical Engineering食品科学与工程Food Science and Engineering食品科学Food Science粮食、油脂及植物蛋白工程Cereals, Oils and Vegetable Protein Engineering农产品加工及贮藏工程Processing and Storage of Agriculture Products水产品加工及贮藏工程Processing and Storage of Aquatic Products农学Agriculture作物学Crop Science作物栽培学与耕作学Crop Cultivation and Farming System作物遗传育种学Crop Genetics and Breeding园艺学Horticulture果树学Pomology蔬菜学Olericulture茶学Tea Science农业资源利用学Utilization Science of Agricultural Resources土壤学Soil Science植物营养学Plant Nutrition植物保护学Plant Protection植物病理学Plant Pathology农业昆虫与害虫防治Agricultural Entomology and Pest Control农药学Pesticide Science畜牧学Animal Science动物遗传育种与繁殖Animal Genetics, Breeding and ReproductionScience动物营养与饲料科学Animal Nutrition and Feed Science草业科学Practaculture Science特种经济动物饲养学(含蚕、蜂等)The Rearing of Special-type EconomicAnimals (including Silkworm, Honeybees, etc.)兽医学Veterinary Medicine基础兽医学Basic Veterinary Medicine预防兽医学Preventive Veterinary Medicine临床兽医学Clinical Veterinary Medicine林学Forestry林木遗传育种学Forest Tree Genetics and Breeding森林培育学Silviculture森林保护学Forest Protection森林经理学Forest Management野生动植物保护与利用Wildlife Conservation and Utilization园林植物与观赏园艺Ornamental Plants and Horticulture水土保持与荒漠化防治Soil and Water Conservation and Desertification Combating水产学Fisheries Science水产养殖学Aquaculture Science捕捞学Fishing Science渔业资源学Science of Fisheries Resources医学Medicine基础医学Basic Medicine人体解剖与组织胚胎学Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology免疫学Immunology病原生物学Pathogenic Organisms病理学与病理生理学Pathology and Pathophysiology法医学Forensic Medicine放射医学Radiation Medicine航空航天与航海医学Aerospace and Nautical medicine临床医学Clinical Medicine内科学(含心血管病学、血液病学、呼吸系病学、消化系病学、内分泌与代谢病学、肾脏病学、风湿病学、传染病学)Internal medicine (including Cardiology, Hematology, Respiratory, Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nephrology, Rheuma-tology, Infectious Diseases)儿科学Pediatrics老年医学Geriatrics神经病学Neurology精神病与精神卫生学Psychiatry and Mental Health皮肤病与性病学Dermatology and Venereology影像医学与核医学Imaging and Nuclear Medicine临床检验诊断学Clinical Laboratory Diagnostics护理学Nursing外科学(含普通外科学、骨外科学、泌尿外科学、胸心血管外科学、神经外科学、整形外科学、烧伤外科学、野战外科学)Surgery (General Surgery, Orthopedics, Urology, Cardiothoracic Surgery, Neurosurgery, Plastic Surgery, Burn Surgery, Field Surgery)妇产科学Obstetrics and Gynecology眼科学Ophthalmic Specialty耳鼻咽喉科学Otolaryngology肿瘤学Oncology康复医学与理疗学Rehabilitation Medicine & Physical Therapy运动医学Sports Medicine麻醉学Anesthesiology急诊医学Emergency Medicine口腔医学Stomatology口腔基础医学Basic Science of Stomatology口腔临床医学Clinical Science of Stomatology公共卫生与预防医学Public Health and Preventive Medicine流行病与卫生统计学Epidemiology and Health Statistics劳动卫生与环境卫生学Occupational and Environmental Health营养与食品卫生学Nutrition and Food Hygiene儿少卫生与妇幼保健学Maternal, Child and Adolescent Health卫生毒理学Hygiene Toxicology军事预防医学Military Preventive Medicine中医学Chinese Medicine中医基础理论Basic Theories of Chinese Medicine中医临床基础Clinical Foundation of Chinese Medicine中医医史文献History and Literature of Chinese Medicine方剂学Formulas of Chinese Medicine中医诊断学Diagnostics of Chinese Medicine中医内科学Chinese Internal Medicine中医外科学Surgery of Chinese Medicine中医骨伤科学Orthopedics of Chinese Medicine中医妇科学Gynecology of Chinese Medicine中医儿科学Pediatrics of Chinese Medicine中医五官科学Ophthalmology and Otolaryngoloy of Chinese Medicine针灸推拿学Acupuncture and Moxibustion and Tuina of Chinese medicine民族医学Ethnomedicine中西医结合医学Chinese and Western Integrative Medicine中西医结合基础医学Basic Discipline of Chinese and Western Integrative中西医结合临床医学Clinical Discipline of Chinese and Western Integrative Medicine药学Pharmaceutical Science药物化学Medicinal Chemistry药剂学Pharmaceutics生药学Pharmacognosy药物分析学Pharmaceutical Analysis微生物与生化药学Microbial and Biochemical Pharmacy药理学Pharmacology中药学Science of Chinese Pharmacology军事学Military Science军事思想学及军事历史学Military Thought and Military History军事思想学Military Thought军事历史学Military History战略学Science of Strategy军事战略学Military Strategy战争动员学War Mobilization战役学Science of Operations联合战役学Joint Operation军种战役学(含第二炮兵战役学)Armed Service Operation (including Operation of Strategic Missile Force)战术学Science of Tactics合同战术学Combined-Arms Tactics兵种战术学Branch Tactics军队指挥学Science of Command作战指挥学Combat Command军事运筹学Military Operation Research军事通信学Military Communication军事情报学Military Intelligence密码学Cryptography军事教育训练学(含军事体育学)Military Education and Training (including Military Physical Training)军制学Science of Military System军事组织编制学Military Organizational System军队管理学Military Management军队政治工作学Science of Military Political Work军事后勤学与军事装备学Science of Military Logistics and Military Equipment军事后勤学Military Logistics后方专业勤务Rear Special Service军事装备学Military Equipment管理学Management Science管理科学与工程Management Science and Engineering工商管理学Science of Business Administration会计学Accounting企业管理学(含财务管理、市场营销学、人力资源管理学)Corporate Management (including Financial Management, Marketing, and Human Resources Management)旅游管理学Tourist Management技术经济及管理学Technology Economy and Management农林经济管理学Agricultural and Forestry Economics & Management农业经济管理学Agricultural Economics & Management林业经济管理学Forestry Economics & Management公共管理学Science of Public Management行政管理学Administration Management社会医学与卫生事业管理学Social Medicine and Health Management教育经济与管理学Educational Economy and Management社会保障学Social Security土地资源管理学Land Resource Management图书馆、情报与档案学Science of Library, Information and Archival图书馆学Library Science情报学Information Science档案学Archival Science。
最新各个学科的英文单词中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称哲学Philosophy哲学Philosophy马克思主义哲学Philosophy of Marxism 中国哲学Chinese Philosophy外国哲学Foreign Philosophies逻辑学Logic伦理学Ethics美学Aesthetics宗教学Science of Religion科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology西方经济学Western Economics世界经济World Economics人口、资源与环境经济学Population, Resources and Environmental Economics应用经济学Applied Economics国民经济学National Economics经济学Economics理论经济学Theoretical Economics政治经济学Political Economy经济思想史History of Economic Thought经济史History of Economic区域经济学Regional Economics财政学(含税收学) Public Finance (including Taxation) 金融学(含保险学) Finance (including Insurance)产业经济学Industrial Economics国际贸易学International Trade劳动经济学Labor Economics统计学Statistics数量经济学Quantitative Economics中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称国防经济学National Defense Economics法学Law法学Science of Law法学理论Jurisprudence法律史Legal History宪法学与行政法学Constitutional Law and Administrative Law刑法学Criminal Jurisprudence民商法学(含劳动法学、社会保障法学) Civil Law and Commercial Law (including Science of Labour Law and Science of Social Security Law )诉讼法学Science of Procedure Laws经济法学Science of Economic Law环境与资源保护法学Science of Environment and NaturalResources Protection Law国际法学(含国际公法学、国际私法学、国际经济法学、) International law (including International Public law, International Private Law and International Economic Law)军事法学Science of Military Law政治学Political Science政治学理论Political Theory中外政治制度Chinese and Foreign Political Institution科学社会主义与国际共产主义运动Scientific Socialism and InternationalCommunist Movement中共党史(含党的学说与党的建设) History of the Communist Party of China(including the Doctrine of China Party and Party Building)马克思主义理论与思想政治教育Education of Marxist Theory and Education in Ideology and Politics国际政治学International Politics国际关系学International Relations外交学Diplomacy社会学Sociology社会学Sociology人口学Demography人类学Anthropology民俗学(含中国民间文学) Folklore (including Chinese Folk Literature)民族学Ethnology民族学Ethnology马克思主义民族理论与政策Marxist Ethnic Theory and Policy中国少数民族经济Chinese Ethnic Economics中国少数民族史Chinese Ethnic History中国少数民族艺术Chinese Ethnic Art教育学Education教育学Education Science教育学原理Educational Principle课程与教学论Curriculum and Teaching Methodology教育史History of Education比较教育学Comparative Education学前教育学Pre-school Education高等教育学Higher Education成人教育学Adult Education职业技术教育学Vocational and Technical Education特殊教育学Special Education教育技术学Education Technology心理学Psychology基础心理学Basic Psychology发展与心理学Developmental and Educational Psychology 应用心理学Applied Psychology体育学Science of Physical Culture and Sports体育人文社会学Humane and Sociological Science of Sports运动人体科学Human Movement Science体育教育训练学Theory of Sports Pedagogy and Training民族传统体育学Science of Ethnic Traditional Sports文学Literature中国语言文学Chinese Literature文艺学Theory of Literature and Art语言学及应用语言学Linguistics and Applied Linguistics汉语言文字学Chinese Philology中国古典文献学Study of Chinese Classical Text中国古代文学Ancient Chinese Literature中国现当代文学Modern and Contemporary Chinese Literature中国少数民族语言文学Chinese Ethnic Language andLiterature比较文学与世界文学Comparative Literature and World Literature外国语言文学Foreign Languages and Literatures英语语言文学English Language and Literature俄语语言文学Russian Language and Literature法语语言文学French Language and Literature德语语言文学German Language and Literature日语语言文学Japanese Language and Literature印度语言文学Indian Language and Literature西班牙语语言文学Spanish Language and Literature阿拉伯语语言文学Arabic Language and Literature欧洲语言文学European Language and Literature亚非语言文学Asian-African Language and Literature外国语言学及应用语言学Linguistics and Applied Linguistics inForeign Languages新闻传播学Journalism and Communication新闻学Journalism传播学Communication艺术学Art艺术学Art Theory音乐学Music美术学Fine Arts设计艺术学Artistic Design戏剧戏曲学Theater and Chinese Traditional Opera 电影学Film广播电视艺术学Radio and television Art舞蹈学Dance历史学History历史学History史学理论及史学史Historical Theories and History of Historical Science考古学及博物馆学Archaeology and Museology历史地理学Historical Geography历史文献学(含敦煌学、古文字学) Studies of Historical Literature (includingPaleography and Studies of Dunhuang)专门史History of Particular Subjects中国古代史Ancient Chinese History中国近现代史Modern and Contemporary Chinese History世界史World History理学Natural Science数学Mathematics基础数学Fundamental Mathematics计算数学Computational Mathematics概率论与数理统计Probability and Mathematical Statistics 应用数学Applied mathematics运筹学与控制论Operational Research and Cybernetics物理学Physics理论物理Theoretical Physics粒子物理与原子核物理Particle Physics and Nuclear Physics 原子与分子物理Atomic and Molecular Physics等离子体物理Plasma Physics凝聚态物理Condensed Matter Physics声学Acoustics光学Optics无线电物理Radio Physics化学Chemistry无机化学Inorganic Chemistry分析化学Analytical Chemistry有机化学Organic Chemistry物理化学(含化学物理) Physical Chemistry (including Chemical Physics)高分子化学与物理Chemistry and Physics of Polymers天文学Astronomy天体物理Astrophysics天体测量与天体力学Astrometry and Celestial Mechanics地理学Geography自然地理学Physical Geography人文地理学Human Geography地图学与地理信息系统Cartography and Geography Information System大气科学Atmospheric Sciences气象学Meteorology大气物理学与大气环境Atmospheric Physics andAtmospheric Environment海洋科学Marine Sciences物理海洋学Physical Oceanography海洋化学Marine Chemistry海洋生理学Marine Biology海洋地质学Marine Geology地球物理学Geophysics固体地球物理学Solid Earth Physics空间物理学Space Physics地质学Geology矿物学、岩石学、矿床学Mineralogy, Petrology, Mineral Deposit Geology地球化学Geochemistry古生物学与地层学(含古人类学) Paleontology and Stratigraphy (includingPaleoanthropology)构造地质学Structural Geology第四纪地质学Quaternary Geology生物学Biology植物学Botany动物学Zoology生理学Physiology水生生物学Hydrobiology微生物学Microbiology神经生物学Neurobiology遗传学Genetics发育生物学Developmental Biology细胞生物学Cell Biology生物化学与分子生物学Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 生物物理学Biophysics生态学Ecology系统科学Systems Science系统理论Systems Theory系统分析与集成Systems Analysis and Integration科学技术史History of Science and Technology工学Engineering力学Mechanics一般力学与力学基础General and Fundamental Mechanics固体力学Solid Mechanics流体力学Fluid Mechanics工程力学Engineering Mechanics机械工程Mechanical Engineering机械制造及其自动化Mechanical Manufacture and Automation机械电子工程Mechatronic Engineering机械设计与理论Mechanical Design and Theory车辆工程Vehicle Engineering光学工程Optical Engineering仪器科学与技术Instrument Science and Technology精密仪器及机械Precision Instrument and Machinery测试计量技术及仪器Measuring and Testing Technologies and Instruments材料科学与工程Materials Science and Engineering材料物理与化学Materials Physics and Chemistry材料学Materialogy材料加工工程Materials Processing Engineering冶金工程Metallurgical Engineering冶金物理化学Physical Chemistry of Metallurgy钢铁冶金Ferrous Metallurgy有色金属冶金Non-ferrous Metallurgy动力工程及工程热物理Power Engineering and Engineering Thermophysics工程热物理Engineering Thermophysics热能工程Thermal Power Engineering动力机械及工程Power Machinery and Engineering流体机械及工程Fluid Machinery and Engineering制冷及低温工程Refrigeration and Cryogenic Engineering化工过程机械Chemical Process Equipment电气工程Electrical Engineering电机与电器Electric Machines and Electric Apparatus电力系统及其自动化Power System and its Automation高电压与绝缘技术High Voltage and Insulation Technology电力电子与电力传动Power Electronics and Power Drives电工理论与新技术Theory and New Technology of Electrical Engineering电子科学与技术Electronics Science and Technology物理电子学Physical Electronics电路与系统Circuits and Systems微电子学与固体电子学Microelectronics and Solid State Electronics电磁场与微波技术Electromagnetic Field and MicrowaveTechnology信息与通信工程Information and Communication Engineering通信与信息系统Communication and Information Systems信号与信息处理Signal and Information Processing控制科学与工程Control Science and Engineering控制理论与控制工程Control Theory and Control Engineering检测技术与自动化装置Detection Technology and Automatic Equipment系统工程Systems Engineering模式识别与智能系统Pattern Recognition and Intelligent Systems导航、制导与控制Navigation, Guidance and Control计算机科学与技术Computer Science and Technology计算机软件与理论Computer Software and Theory计算机系统结构Computer Systems Organization计算机应用技术Computer Applied Technology建筑学Architecture建筑历史与理论Architectural History and Theory建筑设计及其理论Architectural Design and Theory城市规划与设计(含风景园林规划与设计) Urban Planning and Design (including Landscape Planning and Design)建筑技术科学Building Technology Science土木工程Civil Engineering岩土工程Geotechnical Engineering结构工程Structural Engineering市政工程Municipal Engineering供热、供燃气、通风及空调工程Heating, Gas Supply, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Engineering防灾减灾工程及防护工程Disaster Prevention and Reduction Engineering and Protective Engineering桥梁与隧道工程Bridge and Tunnel Engineering水利工程Hydraulic Engineering水文学及水资源Hydrology and Water Resources水力学及河流动力学Hydraulics and River Dynamics水工结构工程Hydraulic Structure Engineering水利水电工程Hydraulic and Hydro-Power Engineering港口、海岸及近海工程Harbor, Coastal and Offshore Engineering测绘科学与技术Surveying and Mapping大地测量学与测量工程Geodesy and Survey Engineering摄影测量与遥感Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing地图制图学与地理信息工程Cartography and Geographic Information Engineering化学工程与技术Chemical Engineering and Technology化学工程Chemical Engineering化学工艺Chemical Technology生物化工Biochemical Engineering应用化学Applied Chemistry工业催化Industrial Catalysis地质资源与地质工程Geological Resources and Geological Engineering矿产普查与勘探Mineral Resource Prospecting and Exploration地球探测与信息技术Geodetection and Information Technology地质工程Geological Engineering矿业工程Mineral Engineering采矿工程Mining Engineering矿物加工工程Mineral Processing Engineering安全技术及工程Safety Technology and Engineering石油与天然气工程Oil and Natural Gas Engineering油气井工程Oil-Gas Well Engineering油气田开发工程Oil-Gas Field Development Engineering油气储运工程Oil-Gas Storage and Transportation Engineering纺织科学与工程Textile Science and Engineering纺织工程Textile Engineering纺织材料与纺织品设计Textile Material and Textiles Design纺织化学与染整工程Textile Chemistry and Dyeing and Finishing Engineering服装设计与工程Clothing Design and Engineering轻工技术与工程The Light Industry Technology andEngineering制浆造纸工程Pulp and Paper Engineering制糖工程Sugar Engineering发酵工程Fermentation Engineering皮革化学与工程Leather Chemistry and Engineering交通运输工程Communication and Transportation Engineering道路与铁道工程Highway and Railway Engineering交通信息工程及控制Traffic Information Engineering & Control交通运输规划与管理Transportation Planning and Management载运工具运用工程Vehicle Operation Engineering船舶与海洋工程Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering船舶与海洋结构物设计制造Design and Construction of Naval Architecture and Ocean Structure轮机工程Marine Engine Engineering水声工程Underwater Acoustics Engineering航空宇航科学与技术Aeronautical and Astronautical Science and Technology飞行器设计Flight Vehicle Design航空宇航推进理论与工程Aerospace Propulsion Theory and Engineering航空宇航器制造工程Manufacturing Engineering of Aerospace Vehicle人机与环境工程Man-Machine and EnvironmentalEngineering兵器科学与技术Armament Science and Technology武器系统与运用工程Weapon Systems and Utilization Engineering兵器发射理论与技术Armament Launch Theory and Technology火炮、自动武器与弹药工程Artillery, Automatic Gun and Ammunition Engineering军事化学与烟火技术Military Chemistry and Pyrotechnics核科学与技术Nuclear Science and Technology核能科学与工程Nuclear Energy Science and Engineering核燃料循环与材料Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Materials核技术及应用Nuclear Technology and Applications辐射防护及环境保护Radiation and Environmental Protection农业工程Agricultural Engineering农业机械化工程Agricultural Mechanization Engineering农业水土工程Agricultural Water-Soil Engineering农业生物环境与能源工程Agricultural Biological Environmental and Energy Engineering农业电气化与自动化Agricultural Electrification and Automation林业工程Forestry Engineering森林工程Forest Engineering木材科学与技术Wood Science and Technology林产化学加工工程Chemical Processing Engineering of Forest 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Chinese Medicine 方剂学Formulas of Chinese Medicine中医诊断学Diagnostics of Chinese Medicine中医内科学Chinese Internal Medicine中医外科学Surgery of Chinese Medicine中医骨伤科学Orthopedics of Chinese Medicine中医妇科学Gynecology of Chinese Medicine中医儿科学Pediatrics of Chinese Medicine中医五官科学Ophthalmology and Otolaryngoloy of Chinese Medicine针灸推拿学Acupuncture and Moxibustion and Tuina of Chinese medicine民族医学Ethnomedicine中西医结合医学Chinese and Western Integrative Medicine中西医结合基础医学Basic Discipline of Chinese and Western Integrative中西医结合临床医学Clinical Discipline of Chinese and Western Integrative Medicine药学Pharmaceutical Science药物化学Medicinal Chemistry药剂学Pharmaceutics生药学Pharmacognosy药物分析学Pharmaceutical Analysis微生物与生化药学Microbial and Biochemical Pharmacy药理学Pharmacology中药学Science of Chinese Pharmacology军事学Military Science军事思想学及军事历史学Military Thought and Military History军事思想学Military Thought军事历史学Military History战略学Science of Strategy军事战略学Military Strategy战争动员学War Mobilization战役学Science of Operations联合战役学Joint Operation军种战役学(含第二炮兵战役学) Armed Service Operation (including Operation of Strategic Missile Force)战术学Science of Tactics合同战术学Combined-Arms Tactics兵种战术学Branch T actics军队指挥学Science of Command作战指挥学Combat Command军事运筹学Military Operation Research军事通信学Military Communication军事情报学Military Intelligence密码学Cryptography军事教育训练学(含军事体育学) Military Education and Training (including Military Physical Training)军制学Science of Military System军事组织编制学Military Organizational System军队管理学Military Management军队政治工作学Science of Military Political Work军事后勤学与军事装备学Science of Military Logistics and Military Equipment军事后勤学Military Logistics后方专业勤务Rear Special Service军事装备学Military Equipment管理学Management Science管理科学与工程Management Science and Engineering工商管理学Science of Business Administration会计学Accounting企业管理学(含财务管理、市场营销学、人力资源管理学) Corporate Management (including Financial Management, Marketing, and Human Resources Management)旅游管理学Tourist Management技术经济及管理学Technology Economy and Management农林经济管理学Agricultural and Forestry Economics & Management农业经济管理学Agricultural Economics & Management林业经济管理学Forestry Economics & Management公共管理学Science of Public Management行政管理学Administration Management社会医学与卫生事业管理学Social Medicine and Health Management教育经济与管理学Educational Economy and Management社会保障学Social Security土地资源管理学Land Resource Management图书馆、情报与档案学Science of Library, Information and Archival图书馆学Library Science情报学Information Science 档案学Archival Science。
匹兹堡大学关键词:大学公立研究性院校简介匹兹堡大学(UniversityofPittsburgh)成立于1787年,是美国宾夕法尼亚州享誉国际、历史悠久之综合性的公立大学。
学校位于宾夕法尼亚州的传统钢铁城市匹兹堡。
早在1787年匹兹堡大学的创校人,美国宾夕法尼亚州最高法院大法官,同时也是美国著名作家的休亨利布瑞肯里奇(HughHenryBrackenridge)先生预言匹兹堡优越的地理位置和丰富的自然资源,必将使得它成为美国未来重要的中心城市,因此必须及早建立高等教育的根基。
在他的努力下,成立了匹兹堡大学的前身---匹兹堡研究院(PittsburghAcademy),并由他担任首任校长。
匹兹堡大学是美国最古老的高等学府之一。
到了19世纪,匹兹堡成为美国工业革命的中心,匹大也因此得到很大的发展,培养了一大批工业革命时代的发明者和创新者。
CathedralofLearningCathedralofLearning经过二百余年的发展,匹兹堡大学已成为涵盖医学院、商学院、法学院、工学院、文理学院、公共与国际事务学院、信息学院等学院与科系的综合性大学。
截止2012年,学校拥有教员4,938人;学生28,766人,其中大学部18,427人,研究生院10,339人。
截至2008年匹大获得的捐款基金达23.3亿美元,全美排名29位,公立大学中居第8位。
2006年匹大获得的美国联邦政府科研经费位居全美第10位。
2008年匹大从美国国家健康协会(NationalInstitutesofHealth,美国主管医学研发基金的国家机构)获得的科研经费排名跃居全美第5。
庞大的经费支持,使得匹兹堡大学2010年度财政预算达到17.2亿美元之巨。
匹大最负盛名的是医学,生物技术,以及哲学的相关学科领域。
在美国国家研究委员会(NRC,NationalResearchCouncil)对美国各大学评估中,匹大哲学系(DepartmentofPhilosophy)排名全美第二;科学史与科学哲学系(DeparmtnetofHistoryandPhilosophyofScience)排名全美第五。
各个学科的英文单词各个学科的英文单词中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称哲学 Philosophy哲学 Philosophy马克思主义哲学 Philosophy of Marxism中国哲学 Chinese Philosophy外国哲学 Foreign Philosophies逻辑学 Logic伦理学 Ethics美学 Aesthetics宗教学 Science of Religion科学技术哲学 Philosophy of Science and Technology西方经济学 Western Economics世界经济 World Economics人口、资源与环境经济学 Population, Resources and Environmental Econo mics应用经济学 Applied Economics国民经济学 National Economics经济学 Economics理论经济学 Theoretical Economics政治经济学 Political Economy经济思想史 History of Economic Thought经济史 History of Economic区域经济学 Regional Economics财政学(含税收学) Public Finance (including Taxation)金融学(含保险学) Finance (including Insurance)产业经济学 Industrial Economics国际贸易学 International Trade劳动经济学 Labor Economics统计学 Statistics数量经济学 Quantitative Economics中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称国防经济学 National Defense Economics法学 Law法学 Science of Law法学理论 Jurisprudence法律史 Legal History宪法学与行政法学 Constitutional Law and Administrative Law刑法学 Criminal Jurisprudence民商法学(含劳动法学、社会保障法学) Civil Law and Commercial Law (inc luding Science of Labour Law and Science of Social Security Law )诉讼法学 Science of Procedure Laws经济法学 Science of Economic Law环境与资源保护法学 Science of Environment and Natural Resources Prot ection Law国际法学(含国际公法学、国际私法学、国际经济法学、) International law (including International Public law, International Private Law and Inter national Economic Law)军事法学 Science of Military Law政治学 Political Science政治学理论 Political Theory中外政治制度 Chinese and Foreign Political Institution科学社会主义与国际共产主义运动 Scientific Socialism and Internationa lCommunist Movement中共党史(含党的学说与党的建设) History of the Communist Party of Chi na(including the Doctrine of China Party and Party Building)马克思主义理论与思想政治教育 Education of Marxist Theory and Educati on in Ideology and Politics国际政治学 International Politics国际关系学 International Relations外交学 Diplomacy社会学 Sociology社会学 Sociology人口学 Demography人类学 Anthropology民俗学(含中国民间文学) Folklore (including Chinese Folk Literature)民族学 Ethnology民族学 Ethnology马克思主义民族理论与政策 Marxist Ethnic Theory and Policy中国少数民族经济 Chinese Ethnic Economics中国少数民族史 Chinese Ethnic History中国少数民族艺术 Chinese Ethnic Art教育学 Education教育学 Education Science教育学原理 Educational Principle课程与教学论 Curriculum and Teaching Methodology教育史 History of Education比较教育学 Comparative Education学前教育学 Pre-school Education高等教育学 Higher Education成人教育学 Adult Education职业技术教育学 Vocational and Technical Education特殊教育学 Special Education教育技术学 Education Technology心理学 Psychology基础心理学 Basic Psychology发展与心理学 Developmental and Educational Psychology应用心理学 Applied Psychology体育学 Science of Physical Culture and Sports体育人文社会学 Humane and Sociological Science of Sports 运动人体科学 Human Movement Science体育教育训练学 Theory of Sports Pedagogy and Training民族传统体育学 Science of Ethnic Traditional Sports文学 Literature中国语言文学 Chinese Literature文艺学 Theory of Literature and Art语言学及应用语言学 Linguistics and Applied Linguistics汉语言文字学 Chinese Philology中国古典文献学 Study of Chinese Classical Text中国古代文学 Ancient Chinese Literature中国现当代文学 Modern and Contemporary Chinese Literature 中国少数民族语言文学 Chinese Ethnic Language and Literature比较文学与世界文学 Comparative 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History of Particular Subjects中国古代史 Ancient Chinese History中国近现代史 Modern and Contemporary Chinese History世界史 World History理学 Natural Science数学 Mathematics基础数学 Fundamental Mathematics计算数学 Computational Mathematics概率论与数理统计 Probability and Mathematical Statistics应用数学 Applied mathematics运筹学与控制论 Operational Research and Cybernetics物理学 Physics理论物理 Theoretical Physics粒子物理与原子核物理 Particle Physics and Nuclear Physics原子与分子物理 Atomic and Molecular Physics等离子体物理 Plasma Physics凝聚态物理 Condensed Matter Physics声学 Acoustics光学 Optics无线电物理 Radio Physics化学 Chemistry无机化学 Inorganic Chemistry分析化学 Analytical Chemistry有机化学 Organic Chemistry物理化学(含化学物理) Physical Chemistry (including Chemical Physics) 高分子化学与物理 Chemistry and Physics of Polymers天文学 Astronomy天体物理 Astrophysics天体测量与天体力学 Astrometry and Celestial Mechanics地理学 Geography自然地理学 Physical Geography人文地理学 Human Geography地图学与地理信息系统 Cartography and Geography Information System大气科学 Atmospheric Sciences气象学 Meteorology大气物理学与大气环境 Atmospheric Physics and Atmospheric 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Journal of Environmental Management(2001)63,367–375doi:10.1006/jema.2001.0477,available online at onRegional industrial ecology:examples from regional economic systems of forest industry and energy supply in FinlandJouni KorhonenUniversity of Joensuu,Department of Economics,P.O.Box111,80101Joensuu,Finland Received27June2000;accepted25May2001Industrial ecology(IE)promotes the development of industrial systems based on recycling of matter and cascading of energy through cooperation.In this paper,the local/regional industrial ecosystem approach is reflected in two examples from Finland.The local forest industry system is based on renewable resources,waste materials and energy utilisation between forestry companies,a saw-mill,a pulp mill,a paper mill and a forest industry power plant.Waste energy from electricity production is used for production of heat and process steam.Regional city energy supply systems in Finland are also to a large extent arranged around power plants that utilise waste energy.The potential of combining the forest industry system with the energy supply systems of cities is considered and the conditions for success in the Finnish case are discussed.©2001Academic PressKeywords:industrial ecology,regional industrial ecosystem,local forest industry systems,regional energy supply of cities.IntroductionThis paper focuses on the emerging practice of industrial ecology(IE),a concept introduced in 1989in a Scientific American article by Frosch and Gallopoulos(1989).IE is derived from industrial environmental management,and is based on a provocative ecosystem analogy of roundput or recycling systems.In ecosystems,waste equals food and energy is cascaded in the food chain,while the only input to the system is solar energy.Therefore, the purpose of IE is to consider the potential of facilitating the emergence of industrial systems, where the actors involved cooperate by using each other’s waste material and waste(residual)energy flows.The few case studies that exist have been in a regional context.A local/regional network of com-panies can in theory provide the IE concept with a fruitful testing ground.Also public organisations Email:Jouni.Korhonen@joensuu.fiand consumers could be studied as parts of such a network.The aim is to keep as much as possible of the product’s life cycle within regional bound-aries,to reduce the consumption of energy and improve the capacity of the actors to monitor and manage it.In this paper,experiences from Finland are illustrated with case studies from forest indus-try and the household energy supply of a Finnish city.The paper concludes with a scenario for future development of IE and considers some conditions of success in the Finnish example,or the extent to which these examples can be considered successful. Regional industrial ecosystemsThe most frequently cited working model of an industrial ecosystem is in Kalundborg,Denmark (Ehrenfeld and Gertler,1997),where,according to many researchers,the industrial actors have cre-ated an economic-environment win-win situation (for discussion on win-win,see Porter and van der0301–4797/01/120367C09$35.00/0©2001Academic Press368J.KorhonenLinde,1996;Walley and Whitehead,1996)by util-ising each other’s waste material and energyflows. The vision of the local/regional industrial ecosys-tem analogy is presented in Figure1.A group of industrial actors are located in close physical prox-imity to each other.Corresponding to a local ecosys-tem,the system’s operation and sustainability is based on waste material and waste energy util-isation(recycling of matter,cascading of energy) between the actors.When successful,the environ-mental‘win’arises through reducing the system’s material and energy input as well as the waste and emission output.In theory,recycling can reduce both.The economic‘win’arises from reduction of raw material and energy costs,or costs that result from the implementation of measures required by environmental legislation.The‘image costs’and waste management costs can also be reduced and the potential for green marketing can also be realised in this scenario.The regional industrial ecosystem thesis is still in its initial stages and the definitions vary.Accord-ing to Ayres and Ayres(1996),‘The industrial analog of an ecosystem is an industrial park(or some larger region)which captures and recy-cles all physical materials internally,consuming only energy from outside the system,and pro-ducing only non-material services for sale to con-sumers.This vision is highly idealised,of course.’A regional industrial ecosystem can be defined as an eco-industrial park.Cote(1998)describes an eco-industrial park as a‘community of manufac-turing and service companies seeking enhanced environmental and economic performance through collaboration in managing environmental and resource issues including energy,water,and materials...Through collaboration,this commu-nity of companies becomes an industrial ecosystem’(Research Triangle Institute and Indigo Develop-ment,1996;Cote,1998:9–11;Baas,1998).The United States President’s Council on Sustainable Development considered an eco-industrial park to be‘an industrial system of planned materi-als and energy exchanges that seeks to minimise energy and raw materials use,minimise waste,and build sustainable economic,ecological and social relationships.’(President’s Council on Sustainable Development,1996).The local/regional context suits the ecosystem analogy.Here the actors involved may have the necessary motivation for cooperation.Mutual and common interests may emerge regarding the eco-nomic and environmental issues of the region. As noted above,in an ideal situation,regional industrial ecology can benefit the local economy. Reduction of transportation,the benefits of co-operation and the exchange of information,tacit knowledge and the opportunities for innovation in regional systems wherefirms are situated close to one another are issues that have been frequently discussed in the literature on regional economics. Cooperation may be easier in a regional or localEnvironmental win:- reducing the wasteand emission outputEconomic win:- reduced wastemanagement costs- reduced costs fromenvironmental legislation- image andgreen markets potential Environmental win:- reducing the virginmaterial and energyinput (substituted withwastes)Economic win:- reduced raw materialcosts- reduced costs fromenvironmental legislation- image andgreen markets potentialwaste material andenergyFigure1.The basic local/regional industrial ecosystem analogy.Industrial systems are encouraged to move towards an interactive local system based on the system model of ecosystems,i.e.a roundput system.Through co-operative waste material and waste energy utilization between the local industrial actors A,B,C and D,the virgin material and energy input as well as the waste and emission output of the system are reduced(virgin resources are substituted with wastes derived from within the system).By reducing the waste management costs,raw material and energy costs,costs resulting from environmental legislation and by improving the environmental image as well as the green markets potential of the system,economic gains are possible.The benefits of successful regional IE may also include new economic opportunities that arise through increasing cooperation that this approach can create.Regional industrial ecology369context than in a larger one,because the actors are in close proximity to each other.In the follow-ing section,we examine two examples of regional industrial ecology in Finland;a local forest indus-try system and the energy supply of the city of Jyv¨askyl¨a.Regional forest industry systems in FinlandIn Finland,about two thirds of the land area is covered by forests.The forest industry(and forestry)is the cornerstone of the Finnish economy, providing approximately30%of the total exports in1997.About90%of its main product,paper, is exported,e.g.to Germany and Central Europe. Paper production is very energy intensive.The forest industry consumes approximately25%of all the energy used in Finland and40%of the total electricity(Verkasalo,1993).The industry has in general a good reputation in environmental issues as the annual cuttings are lower than the annual growth of the forests(Kauppi et al.,1992).However, because of high export rates and energy intensive production,it can be argued that the application of the principles of industrial ecology still has some way to go in the industry.The forest industry is organised to a large extent as a series of local/regional industrial systems. There are11in all in Finland.In Figure2,a typ-ical forest industry system is described,illustrating cooperative waste material and residual energy utilisation between actors located in close phys-ical proximity to each other.We consider how they can reduce the environmental burden of the eco-nomic system as a whole through cooperative waste utilisation.The actors include forestry companies (or harvesting departments and their subcontrac-tors),a saw-mill,pulp mill,paper mill,and a forest industry power plant.Forest resources are located nearby.The round-wood input originates from forests and the system relies on this renewable resource. As noted above,the annual cuttings are lower than the annual growth of forests in Finland(Kauppi et al.,1992).Wood wastes from saw-mills are used in pulp production and in energy production.Wood wastes from pulping as well as black liquor(waste product of a pulp manufacturing process)are used as fuels in the energy production in the power plant.Waste chemicals produced by using pulping wastes as fuels are also recovered and re-used in the production of pulp.Paper mills provide waste heat,which can help to fulfil the heating requirement in pulping.Recovery rates of paper are relatively high in Finland(61%)and also in this respect the use of wastes is important for theFigure2.Recycling of matter and cascading of energy in a local/regional forest industry system in Finland.370J.Korhonenindustry.Fibre sludges from paper mills,de-inking sludges from recovery and recycling of used paper and incineration ash from forest industry power plants are used to substitute for natural clay for landfill building and cover layer materials,when old landfills are closed(Niutanen and Korhonen, 2001).Forest residues from cuttings are used as fuel in energy production.Until recently,theflows of base cations(BC)of Ca2C,Mg2C,K C,Na C embedded in wood based products(or in fuels)have moved through the industry and through its consumption processes and ended up at landfills or as wastes that cannot be used,i.e.theflow has been one of throughput starting from the forests and ending up as wastes.However,recent studies have shown it is possible to recover the nutrients from the waste ash of power plants(from burning wood wastes as fuels)and return them to the forest ecosystem as fertiliser(Ranta et al.,1996;Korhonen et al.,2000). The forest industry power plants are combined heating and power(CHP)plants,i.e.co-production method of heat and electricity(see Cogen,1997, 2000;Lehtil¨a et al.,1997).In this production method,the waste energy from electricity produc-tion is used in the production of heat and industrial process steam.About70%of the fuels used in the Finnish forest industry CHP plants are based on industrial wood wastes or waste liquors.About94% of the fuels used are used in CHP plants.(Korho-nen,2000).The saw-mill wastes,wastes from mechanical products such as furniture mill wood wastes as well as pulp mill wood wastes and black liquor and forest residues provide the fuel basis for the CHP plant,in which a relatively heterogeneous fuel input is possible.The technique offluidized bed burning is now commonly pared to more traditional pulverized coal burning,it enables the use of non-homogeneous fuels.A regional CHP plant produces heat and electricity to be used in pulp and paper mills as well as in saw mills. Finally,the IE roundput-type operation also plays a role in the natural cycle of carbon.The annual binding of CO2in the Finnish forest ecosystem exceeds the amount of carbon released through the forest industry cuttings and by natural drain(Kauppi et al.,1992).Through harvesting, carbon is released and transferred in wooden products or burnt during the industrial processes resulting in CO2emissions to the atmosphere.The used products decay at landfills and emit landfill gas,which contains methane(CH4).Methane will oxidate to CO2in the atmosphere.The natural forest ecosystem binds CO2into the forests;in1997, it served as a carbon sink of6mill.t.C1(million tons of carbon).The sink reduces the atmospheric CO2concentration and so limits the greenhouse effect.(Korhonen et al.,2001a;Kauppi et al.,1992). Because of recycling of matter,nutrients and carbon as well as waste energy utilisation in energy production,significant amounts of virgin resources are saved.Less than2%of the harvested round-wood ends up as wastes that are not used,e.g. to landfills and to waste waters(Korhonen,2000). Theoretically,it would be possible to return almost all of the wood-waste based ash from the wastes of power production back to the forest ecosystem to serve as fertilizer.This would equal about60% of the base cation nutrients that are removed from the forest nutrient cycle through harvesting. This is important if the amount of fuels derived from forest residues are increased.Forest residues substitute for imported fossil fuels.On the other hand,one faces a risk of problem displacement in the removal of the nutrients from the ecosystem. Forest residues constitute a very nutrient-rich part of the trees,e.g.bark,twists,needles,and branches.In addition,the cadmium or heavy metal content of the waste ash may disturb the natural nutrient cycle in the ecosystem.Regional supply of electricity and district heating in FinlandIn Finland,the regional‘non-industry’energy supply for residential areas and cities has been arranged around the co-production method of heat and electricity.In CHP,the waste heat energy from electricity production can be used productively, rather than simply releasing it to the atmosphere or into the local water system.It can be used for domestic,district and office heating.The waste heat can also be cascaded to satisfy the heat requirements of local industrial process steam. Figure3provides a representation of the regional energy supply system of the Jyv¨askyl¨a region in Finland.This is based on our previous work(Korho-nen et al.,1999;Korhonen,2001b).Jyv¨askyl¨a is a city of approximately80000inhabitants located in southern Finland.The energy supply of the area is based on two features that wouldfit the IE philoso-phy:CHP and industrial waste utilisation.In other words,cascading of energy and recycling of matter are important features.In Jyv¨askyl¨a,CHP creates a total fuel efficiency of85–90%,i.e.the amount of energy embedded in fuels that can be used(Korho-nen,2001a;Korhonen et al.,1999).In a normal condensing power plant,where only electricity isRegional industrial ecology371Figure3.Jyv¨askyl¨a industrial ecosystem(Korhonen et al.,1999).produced,this efficiency is around40–45%and the rest is dumped to the environment as wastes,e.g. as waste water.The Rauhalahti CHP plant,which together with the regional power company is a publicly owned body,is the basis of the Jyv¨askyl¨a energy supply system.It produces electricity for all households, services and industry in the city.The waste energy is used for district heating.The Kangas paper mill gets industrial steam.In turn,it provides the local horticultural centre Greenlandia with waste water.The fourth level of energy quality(after electricity,industrial steam,supply of Greenlandia and district heating)is used for heating the streets of Jyv¨askyl¨a city during the coldest part of winter, reducing the formation of ice.The plywood mill in the S¨ayn¨atsalo suburb provides the Rauhalahti plant with wood wastes to be used as fuels and receives electricity in return.The mill also utilises the wood wastes locally in a nearby boiler plant and provides the local households with heat.The regional saw-mills and forestry companies provide the Jyv¨askyl¨a energy supply system with wood wastes and forest residues from cuttings to be used as fuels.The energy supply here is not connected to a specific regional forest industry system as described in the previous part of this paper.Also,the waste incineration ash of the Rauhalahti plant is used in a local gardening (and land building)project near to the plant. Developments are on the way to further improve the plant’s waste fuel utilisation.The technique of fluidized bed burning enables a relatively diverse source of low grade fuels such as industrial wastes to be used.The use of REF(recycled fuel) from households and industries is currently being considered.The combined effect of using CHP and indus-trial wastes is to reduce the external consumption of fuels,largely of imported coal and oil,by40% (Korhonen et al.,1999).Peat is used as a local resource in Jyv¨askyl¨a.Peat has been defined as a slowly renewable resource in Finland(Selin, 1999;Savolainen et al.,1994;Lappalainen and H¨anninen,1993)and in general,reserves are abun-dant.One third of the land area in Finland is covered by peat and the annual use is lower than the annual growth,if aggregated over all peat-covered lands of the country.However,peat has not been widely accepted as a CO2neutral fuel in inter-national forums.Also,when peat is harvested from a specific area,it can take a few thousand years for it to regenerate.In the Jyv¨askyl¨a city energy supply system,peat provides approximately70% of the fuel and its use should and can be reduced, ideally by substitution with local wood wastes.SO2emissions are over50%lower and the CO2 emissions over30%lower than without CHP and372J.Korhonenuse of waste fuel.Arguably,if CHP could be applied to the regional energy supply systems of other industrial countries,to the extents that it is in Finland,The Netherlands and Denmark,the impli-cations for the UN climate change negotiations and the Kyoto protocol could be significant.The con-tribution of CHP to EU electricity production is under10%at the moment,while it is50%in Den-mark,40%in The Netherlands and35%in Finland (Cogen,1997,2000;Korhonen,2001a).The EU target for increasing CHP is to reach12%in2010. EU has a policy for CHP,but no actual Directive to implement it,because the situational factors in different member states are so different from each other.It has been argued that the potential for CHP in the EU could be four times greater than the9%share it had in1994,and could amount to 40%of all electricity generated.The effective doubling of the contribution of CHP by2010could mean that CO2emissions would be reduced by4%in the EU(Jankaustas and Streimikiene,2001).In every region and in every country,there are unique regional conditions and industrial history and structure,and many bar-riers to using green technology remain.However, regional energy supply systems based on IE initia-tives could be important as energy supply can draw many actors together,because of the potential to use waste fuels both from industry and from con-sumers,and because energy is used and consumed practically everywhere.In this respect,energy sup-ply systems arranged around CHP and waste fuel use could perhaps serve as‘anchor tenants’(Cher-tow,1998),i.e.as the drivers and support systems of regional IE extending waste utilisation methods beyond the production of energy.Extending regional industrial ecologyThe two examples discussed above appear to apply some industrial ecosystem principles.Both of the systems rely to a large extent on waste material and waste energy utilisation as well as on the use of local renewable natural resources.The forest industry regional system is a system,where the heavy industrial plants and processes have engaged in cooperation with each other,while in Jyv¨askyl¨a,households and end-consumers in residential areas are involved.In Figure4,a scenario for a regional indus-trial ecosystem is presented based on these two examples.The picture of the regional forest indus-try system is extended to cover also the regionalFigure4.A vision for a regional industrial ecosystem with integrated production and end-consumption systems.Regional industrial ecology373energy supply of a local city and residential area, households,other buildings,services and other industrial activities(e.g.chemical industry,food industry).In other words,the forest industry regional system would be connected to the local residential and household energy supply system of the city,and hence integration of producers and end-consumers would be achieved.In Jyv¨askyl¨a, the regional power company is a publicly owned body serving to meet residential energy demand.It does not operate as a part of a regional forest indus-try system,although locally derived forest residues and wood wastes from saw-mills and from plywood mills are used as fuels.Finland presents many opportunities to connect the two models in this way.There are11forest industry combines in the country and all of the major regional residential energy supply systems are based on CHP.Because the forest industry is so important in Finland,many forest industry systems are located near cities,towns or residential concentrations.Ideally,an integrated system of manufacturers and households would be based on a forest industry system,where the saw-mill wastes, pulp and paper mill wasteflows,forest residues and waste energy(heat)are utilised between a regional CHP power plant,a saw-mill,a pulp mill,a paper mill and the forestry companies.Furthermore,the nutrients from the CHP plant waste ash would be returned back to nature to serve as fertiliser.The entire system would be based on the sustainable use of resources from the local forest ecosystem. The scenario is based on the forest industry CHP plant providing the local industrial companies as well as the local households and residential areas with electricity and heat.The limiting factor here is of course the proximity between the plants and the residential areas.Heat can only be transferred over a short distance(e.g.10–20km).While there is scope for the industry to increase the amount of energy produced in order to be able to sell the waste heats,the different ownership structures of city power companies and those of forest industry can make the establishment of cooperative relations difficult.The integration of the two systems can create several advantages in terms of waste utilisation. The waste heat of the forest industry can be used more efficiently when it is used also in district heating networks.While the wood wastes can be used in the production of heat and electricity for the city district heating networks.In turn,municipal and household wastes can be used to help generate energy for forest industry.Waste ash of the power plants can be used for building or cover layers for old municipal landfills.In order to minimise energy use and improve capacity to monitor and manage the life cycles of different products,integration of the systems of both industry and end-users is important.The role of CHP is very important in that it can use heterogeneous fuels such as biomass,industrial as well as household wastes, even agricultural wastes or biogas(methane,CH4) from landfills and farms.A CHP plant can also produce electricity,and in addition,waste derived products such as district heat and industrial steam or heat for agriculture,horticulture,even heat for fish farms.Conclusion and discussionIf we look at the case-studies we see that many different factors need to be involved to produce IE-type systems.Although only isolated examples exist,many of the described features of waste utilisation are already in place;CHP,fluidized bed burning,industrial,household and agricultural waste utilisation,biogas treatment and use.The conditions of waste utilisation,diversity of the actors involved and interdependency in their cooperative relations as well as local arrangements of resource use and consumption can be seen as some of the criteria pertaining to IE-type development(Korhonen,2001c,d).Both of the systems presented rely on the use of local waste material and residual energyflows.However, recycling can also create difficulties from the environmental perspective.For example,the use of forest residues to substitute for fossil fuels removes important nutrients from the forest ecosystem. Both of the systems demonstrate a diverse range of actors.In Jyv¨askyl¨a,a power plant,a paper mill,a plywood mill,a horticultural centre and local saw mills cooperate in waste utilisation. Diversity,however,can lead also to difficulties. Diversity of actors can mean conflicting interests and difficulties in organisation and management of the network system.Both of the systems rely on interdependency. The CHP plants depend on the supply of local waste fuels in order to reduce the costs of imported fuels.The local actors get electricity and heat in return.Also cooperation and interdependency can be difficult,because of lack of mutual trust or because of lack of information management tools. At times,unhealthy dependencies might occur.For instance,a CHP plant can stay in operation for a long time,is relatively capital intensive and374J.Korhonenrequires long pay back periods.This might be a disincentive for the local actors to adopt new and possibly greener technologies,and alternative waste treatment or recycling methods.However,in general,inter-organisational business strategy and cooperation seem to be the precondition of IE-type system development.The key feature in IE is the local arrangement of the system for reducing the use of energy and for monitoring and managing the life cycle of different products.In this sense,it is problematic that90% of the paper produced in Finland is exported. Exports consume energy and make it more difficult to control the life cycle of the products.In fact, the rapidly increasing paper recovery rates in Germany(because of reduced landfill capacity) have produced ackward side-effects.De-inking sludges and incineration ash have a cadmium and heavy metal content which can be difficult to handle and manage.In the case of energyflows,however, it seems that the locality principle is achieved in a quite advanced way in both of the systems.Major proportions of the fuels used are locally-derived renewables or waste fuels,and energy is produced either for local industrial actors or end-consumers in the district heating network of the city.The barriers to introducing IE have been dis-cussed elsewhere(Korhonen,2001a).These are often related to local and regional economic,tech-nical,social and ecological factors.The Finnish conditions of success that have contributed to the development of industrial ecology-type systems could be divided into three broad categories.First, there are considerable renewable natural resources in the country,as well as industrial activities that produce lots of waste suitable for use as raw mate-rial and as fuel.In other words,the supply of resources and wastes is relatively high.Second, the demand for such resources exists because for-est industry as the main industry of the country is very energy intensive.In a cold country,there is a continual demand for heating.Third,it has made economic sense to satisfy the demand for energy and raw materials with local resources and with wastes.The market price of round-wood has been a motivational factor for the development of material cycles in the forest industry.Reduction of costs of imported fossil coal and oil have made the energy supply systems of cities and residential concentra-tions,as well as the forest industry power plants, more economic.Between1975and1990,the use of oil in the forest industry was reduced from37%to 5%(Verkasalo,1993).There are examples of city energy supply systems in which the use of fossil fuels is practically non-existent,because local peat reserves and waste fuels are used.For example, Joensuu,a city in eastern Finland with55000 inhabitants and some industry,relies entirely on local renewables and on local wastes:50%peat fuel, 40%forest residues and10%local plywood mill wastes(Korhonen,Niemel¨ainen and Pulliainen,in prep.;City of Joensuu,2000).The purpose of this paper has been to focus on successful features of the two systems and consider a scenario for the future integration of such systems into a production-consumption industrial ecosys-tem.It can be important to draw from successful experiences when trying to build an industrial ecosystem,or planning a desirable outcome of envi-ronmental management and policy.There are still only a few documented case studies on industrial ecology.Before more clear management,policy or design principles can be defined,further experi-ences of successful practical examples must be gathered.The approach in this kind of research is to ally theory with comparative case studies,which should be conducted not only in different regions but in different countries,as the situational fac-tors are so important for IE.Industrial ecosystem theory building mightfind examples in regional economics literature that could help us understand what the conditions are that lead to systems of companies located near to each other cooperating in various ways.ReferencesAyres,R.U.and Ayres,L.U.(1996).Industrial Ecology–Towards Closing the Materials Cycle.Chel-tenham:Edward Elgar,pp.278–279.Baas,L.(1998).Cleaner production and industrial ecosystems,a Dutch experience.Journal of Cleaner Production6,189–197.Chertow,M.(1998).Eco-industrial park model reconsid-ered.Industrial Ecology2(3),8–10.City of Joensuu(Paavo Ristola Engineering).(2000). 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