建筑毕业设计外文翻译---建筑材料—混凝土与砂浆

本科生毕业设计（论文）外文翻译（2018届）译文及原稿译文题目建筑材料原稿题目Structural Materials原稿出处Civil Engineering Materials、Shan Somayaji、美国、Pearson2000年、4页2017年12月31日译文建筑材料摘要：土木工程是个庞大的学科，但最主要的是建筑，建筑无论是在中国还是在国外，都有着悠久的历史，长期的发展历程。

整个世界每天都在改变，而建筑也随科学的进步而发展。

力学的发现，材料的更新，不断有更多的科学技术引入建筑中。

以前只求一间有瓦盖顶的房屋，现在追求舒适，不同的思想，不同的科学，推动了土木工程的发展，使其更加完美。

关键词：土木工程：建筑；力学；材料混凝土与钢筋混凝土作为建筑材料在每个国家被使用着。

在很多国家，包括美国和加拿大，钢筋混凝土是建造的建筑物中主要的结构材料。

钢筋混凝土建筑物通用的特性归因于能大量得到钢筋和混凝土的组分（即碎石、砂和水泥），混凝土施工需要相对简单的技术，以及与其他形式的建筑相比钢筋混凝土的经济性。

混凝土与钢筋混凝土用于桥梁、各种房屋、地下结构、水箱、电视塔、近海石油开采和生产结构、大坝甚至船舶。

早期主要的建筑材料是木材和砌体，如砖、石、瓦以及类似的材料。

砖层之间通过砂浆、沥青（一种焦油状的物质）或其他一些粘合剂粘合在一起。

希腊人和罗马人有时用铁条或夹子来加固他们的房屋。

例如，雅典的帕台农神庙柱子中曾钻孔以便加入铁条，如今都已锈蚀殆尽。

罗马人也用称作白榴火山灰的天然水泥，它用火山灰制作，在水中会变得与石头一样坚硬。

作为现代两种最重要的建筑材料，钢材与水泥在十九世纪得到了推广。

直到那个时候，钢材才通过繁复的过程制造出来，基本上是铁合金，并含有少量的碳，因而被限制在一些特殊的用途如刀刃。

在1856年发明了贝塞麦炼钢法后，钢材才得以大量低价获得。

钢材巨大的优势即是它的抗拉强度，也就是当它在适当的拉力下不会失去强度，正如我们所看到的，该力往往能够将很多材料拉开。

Building materialsBuilding materials must have certain structural use.it physical properties. First, they must be able to bear load or weight without permanent deformation. When the load on the structural components, components will deformation, it means rope will be stretching or beam will bend. However, when the load is removed, ropes and beams will return to its original position. This kind of material properties is called elasticity. If material is not elastic, then on removing load deformation exist, repeat the loading and unloading eventually increase deformation to structural lose action.All used in building structure in the materials such as stone, brick, wood, aluminum, reinforced concrete and plastic within a certain range of load performance of flexibility. If loading beyond the scope, two things will happen: brittle and plastic. If it is the former, the material will suddenly destruction; If the latter, in certain load (yield strength) material has begun to yield flow, resulting in destruction. For example, steel, stone material is brittle present plastic. Materials by the damage occurred when the ultimate strength of stress decision.Construction materials and an important characteristic is its stiffness. This feature by elastic modulus decision. Stress (per unit of area, the force) and the strain (per unit length ratio of the deformation) is elastic modulus. Elastic modulus is characterize material under load shape-shifting abilities. For two have the same area and load of the same material. Elastic modulus big materials little deformation. Structure with steel of elastic modulus is pounds per square inch or kg per square centimeter, aluminum, concrete 3 times of ten times, wood 15 times.Masonry. Masonry from natural materials such as stone and artificial materials such as brick, concrete blocks composed. Masonry in ancient times is used. Bricks used in city of Babylon not religious buildings, stone material used in large temples of the Nile valley. The pyramids of Egypt, high 481 feet (147m), is the most spectacular masonry structure. Masonry unit initial without using any binding materials piled up, and modern masonry structure as binder materials. Water mud Modern structure material including stone, red-roast clay brick or tiles, the concrete blocks.Masonry is essentially a pressurized material, it can't sustain tension, ultimate strength concrete-block masonry depends on and mud. Last strength in 1000 to 4,000 pounds per inch (70 to 280 kg per square centimeter) range change, depends on the block and mud bonding situation.Wood. Wood is a kind of the earliest building materials and is a kind of rare tensile performance good natural material. The world find hundreds of wood, and each have different physical properties. Only some use in architectural structures as framework components. In the United States, for example, in over 600 kinds of lumber, only 20 used in structure. These are generally conifers or cork, both because rich and wood easy molding. In the United States, more common in the structure of lumber sort is the loose, spruce and annatto. These timber tensile strength in 50 to 80 pounds per square inch (350 to 5.6 kg per square meter) range. Hardwood initially used as fine wood furniture and interior decoration such as floor.Due to the wood texture characteristics, it along the intensity of transverse texture texture is greater than the intensity. Wood tensile strength,trans-monounsaturated grain compressive strength is particularly big, and it has a lot of flexural strength. These characteristics make it very suitable for structure of the column and beam. Wood, as truss tensile component is invalid, because the truss structures tensile strength depends on component between node, although has produced many USES lumber tensile strength of metal fittings, but it is difficult to design the arrange grain direction of shear strength or tensile strength little relation of components.Steel. Steel is an important structural materials. When compared to the other materials by such as weight, it has high intensity, even if it volumetric weight is lumber ten times. Its elastic modulus is very big, the results under load deformation is small. It can be rolled into many structural forms such as work fonts beam, plate. It can also cast complex style, it also can produce into ropes type used in cable suspension bridge and condole top, production into elevator rope and prestressed concrete in the rods. Steel components are many ways of link together like bolt connection, riveting and welding. Carbon steels are vulnerable to oxidation corrosiontherefore must rely on paint or inserted into the concrete to avoid contact with air. More than steel soon lose strength, so we must set a fire-proof material (usually concrete) in order to increase its refractory ability.Add like silicon or manganese such alloying elements, you'll get tensile strength of 250,000 pounds per square inch (17500 kg/cm2) of high strength steel. These steel on the structure of key parts, such as skyscrapers pillars.Aluminum. When light weight, high strength and corrosion resistance has become an important factor, aluminum became a particularly useful building materials. Because pure aluminum is extremely soft and ductility of, so, the composition of the alloy, such as mn, silicon, zinc and copper must add increase structure required strength. Structural use of aluminium alloy performance of flexibility. Their elastic modulus is steel 1/3, therefore in the same loads deformation is 3 times of steel. Each unit of aluminum alloy is weight steel 1/3. Therefore the same intensities, aluminum alloy component than steel components in weight. Aluminum alloy limit tensile strength variation in 20,000 to 60,000 pounds per square inch (14 to 4,200 kg/cm2) between.Aluminum can fashioned many shapes, it can be extrusion forming strander liang, pull string and stem, rolled into foil and plate. Aluminum component can like steel use the same method, riveting, bolt connection, low strength welded together. Besides being used for architectural framework and prefabrecated house, aluminum also widely used as an window frame and structure curtain box.Concrete. Concrete is water, sand, stone and ordinary Portland cement mixture. Gravel, artificial light stone, and shells were used in natural ShiLiaoChang. Ordinary silicate cement is contains calcium and clay mixtures. In the heating furnace, and then to a fine powder. Concrete strength comes from mixing water farinaceous ordinary Portland cement, then atherosclerosis. In an ideal mixture, concrete by 3/4 volume of sand and stone and 1/4 volume of water mud. The physical characteristics of concrete mixture composition is sensitive to changes, therefore according to strength or contraction design composition ratio to achieve special results. When concrete dump in template, it contains free water, and no need water action of water will evaporate.With concrete sclerosis, it in a certain period of releasing excess water and shrinking. As a result of shrinkage, the fine cracks. In order to minimize the shrinkage crack, concrete sclerosis must protect wet at least five days. Concrete strength increased over time, because the hydration processes will last for years, In fact, 28 days intensity is considered the standard.Concrete under load is elastic deformation. Although its elastic modulus is steel one-tenth, but distortion is same, because its strength also only steel 10. Concrete is essentially a compressive material, its tensile strength can be neglected.Reinforced concrete. Reinforced concrete by placed to undertake in reinforced concrete pulling force. These reinforced in 1/4 inch in diameter (0.64 cm) and 225 inches (5.7 cm) between, the surface has Nick to ensure binding live concrete. Although reinforced concrete in many countries have development, but its discovery should be attributed to a French gardeners, Joseph in 1868 reinforcement strengthening concrete with a cone. The operation is possible, because when a change in temperature, reinforcement and concrete are equal to expansion and contraction. If this is not the case, the temperature changes, the connection between the reinforcement and concrete is destroyed, because the two materials react differently. Reinforced concrete can be pouring into various shapes, for example liang, column, the board and arch. Therefore, it is suitable for construction of special structure. Although most merchandise concrete strength around 6,000 pounds per square inch (4.2 kg/cm2), but the reinforced concrete limit tensile strength than 10,000 pounds per square inch (700 kilograms/cm2) is possible.Plastic. Because of many varieties, high strength, endurance and lightweight, plastic quickly become important structural materials. Plastics are synthetic materials or resin, can be configured to expect any shape and use organic matter for cementing agent. Organic plastic into two categories: thermoset and thermoplastic. Thermosetting plastic when heated through chemical change is strong, once forming, these plastic can no longer be cast. Thermoplastic in high temperature is weak, strong cooling, the former must not generally used for structural plastic material. Although nylon tensile achieves 60,000 pounds per square inch, but most plastics of ultimatestrength in 7000 to 12,000 pounds per square inch (490 to 840 kg/cm2) range.建筑材料建筑材料必须有一定结构上的使用性的物理特性。

建筑材料外文翻译摘要随着全球化的加速，建筑行业的国际化程度也越来越高。

在国际化交流中，建筑材料的外文名称也成为了一个必须掌握的知识点。

本文将介绍几种常见的建筑材料的英文和法文翻译，以供读者参考。

正文水泥英文：Cement法文：Ciment水泥是建筑中非常重要的一种材料，广泛应用于各种建筑结构中。

有大量的水泥生产厂家以及品牌，因此在国际贸易中水泥的英文和法文称谓也比较统一。

钢筋英文：Reinforcement法文：Armature钢筋作为混凝土结构中的骨架，也是建筑中不可缺少的材料之一。

在国际上，钢筋的名称有些分歧，英文中一般使用“Reinforcement”这个词，而在法文中则称为“Armature”。

砖块英文：Brick法文：Brique砖块是建筑中常用的一种耐力材料，它可以用于墙体、地面、电梯井等部位。

砖块的英文名称是“Brick”，而在法文中则使用“Brique”这个词。

石材英文：Stone法文：Pierre石材作为一种自然材料，被广泛应用于建筑中。

石材的用途也非常多，有的用于室内地面，有的则用于外墙装修。

在国际交流中，石材的英文和法文翻译都比较统一，分别是“Stone”和“Pierre”。

玻璃英文：Glass法文：Verre玻璃是现代建筑中必不可少的材料之一，普遍应用于窗户、墙面和隔墙等部位。

玻璃的英文和法文翻译也比较简单，分别是“Glass”和“Verre”。

本文介绍了几种常见的建筑材料的英文和法文翻译，希望对读者在建筑材料的国际贸易中有所帮助。

建筑材料是建筑行业中不可或缺的一部分，掌握建筑材料的外文称谓，有助于提升国际化交流的效率和准确性。

混凝土工艺中英文对照外文翻译文献混凝土工艺中英文对照外文翻译文献混凝土工艺中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译) Concrete technology and developmentPortland cement concrete has clearly emerged as the material of choice for the construction of a large number and variety of structures in the world today. This is attributed mainly to low cost of materials and construction for concrete structures as well as low cost of maintenance.Therefore, it is not surprising that many advancements in concrete technology have occurred as a result of two driving forces, namely the speed of construction and the durability of concrete.During the period 1940-1970, the availability of high early strength portland cements enabled the use of high water content in concrete mixtures that were easy to handle. This approach, however, led to serious problems with durability of structures, especially those subjected to severe environmental exposures.With us lightweight concrete is a development mainly of the last twenty years.Concrete technology is the making of plentiful good concrete cheaply. It includes the correct choice of the cement and the water, and the right treatment of the aggregates. Those which are dug near by and therefore cheap, must be sized, washed free of clay or silt, and recombined in the correct proportions so as to make a cheap concrete which is workable at a low water/cement ratio, thus easily comoacted to a high density and therefore strong.It hardens with age and the process of hardening continues for a long time after the concrete has attained sufficient strength.Abrams’law, perhaps the oldest law of concrete technology, states that the strength of a concrete varies inversely with its water cement ratio. This means that the sand content (particularly the fine sand which needs much water) must be reduced so far as possible. The fact that the sand “drinks” large quantities of water can easily be established by mixing several batches of x kg of cement with y kg of stone and the same amount of water but increasing amounts of sand. However if there is no sand the concrete will be so stiff that it will be unworkable thereforw porous and weak. The same will be true if the sand is too coarse. Therefore for each set of aggregates, the correct mix must not be changed without good reason. This applied particularly to the water content.Any drinkable and many undrinkable waters can be used for making concrete, including most clear waters from the sea or rivers. It is important that clay should be kept out of the concrete. The cement if fresh can usually be chosen on the basis of the maker’s certificates of tensile or crushing tests, but these are always made with fresh cement. Where strength is important , and the cement at the site is old, it should be tested.This stress , causing breakage,will be a tension since concretes are from 9 to 11times as strong in compression as in tension, This stress, the modulus of rupture, will be roughly double the direct tensile breaking stress obtained in a tensile testing machine,so a very rough guess at the conpressive strength can be made by multiplying the modulus of rupture by 4.5. The method can be used in combination with the strength results of machine-crushed cubes or cylinders or tensile test pieces but cannot otherwise be regarded as reliable. With these comparisons,however, it is suitable for comparing concretes on the same site made from the same aggregates and cement, with beams cast and tested in the same way.Extreme care is necessary for preparation,transport,plating and finish of concrete in construction works.It is important to note that only a bit of care and supervision make a great difference between good and bad concrete.The following factors may be kept in mind in concreting works.MixingThe mixing of ingredients shall be done in a mixer as specified in the contract.Handling and ConveyingThe handling&conveying of concrete from the mixer to the place of final deposit shall be done as rapidly as practicable and without any objectionable separation or loss of ingredients.Whenever the length of haul from the mixing plant to the place of deposit is such that the concrete unduly compacts or segregates,suitable agitators shall be installed in the conveying system.Where concrete is being conveyed on chutes or on belts,the free fall or drop shall be limited to 5ft.(or 150cm.) unless otherwise permitted.The concrete shall be placed in position within 30 minutes of its removal from the mixer.Placing ConcreteNo concrete shall be placed until the place of deposit has been thoroughly inspected and approved,all reinforcement,inserts and embedded metal properly security in position and checked,and forms thoroughly wetted(expect in freezing weather)or oiled.Placing shall be continued without avoidable interruption while the section is completed or satisfactory construction joint made.Within FormsConcrete shall be systematically deposited in shallow layers and at such rate as to maintain,until the completion of the unit,a plastic surface approximately horizontal throughout.Each layer shall be thoroughly compacted before placing the succeeding layer.CompactingMethod. Concrete shall be thoroughly compacted by means of suitable tools during and immediately after depositing.The concrete shall be worked around all reinforcement,embedded fixtures,and into the comers of the forms.Every precaution shall be taken to keep the reinforcement and embedded metal in proper position and to prevent distortion.Vibrating. Wherever practicable,concrete shall be internally vibrated within the forms,or in the mass,in order to increase the plasticity as to compact effectively to improve the surface texture and appearance,and to facilitate placing of the concrete.Vibration shall be continued the entire batch melts to a uniform appearance and the surface just starts to glisten.A minute film of cement paste shall be discernible between the concrete and the form and around the reinforcement.Over vibration causing segregation,unnecessary bleeding or formation of laitance shall be avoided.The effect spent on careful grading, mixing and compaction of concrete will be largely wasted if the concrete is badly cured. Curing means keeping the concretethoroughly damp for some time, usually a week, until it has reached the desired strength. So long as concrete is kept wet it will continue to gain strength, though more slowly as it grows older.Admixtures or additives to concrete are materials arematerials which are added to it or to the cement so as to improve one or more of the properties of the concrete. The main types are:1. Accelerators of set or hardening,2. Retarders of set or hardening,3. Air-entraining agents, including frothing or foaming agents,4. Gassing agents,5. Pozzolanas, blast-furnace slag cement, pulverized coal ash,6. Inhibitors of the chemical reaction between cement and aggregate, which might cause the aggregate to expand7. Agents for damp-proofing a concrete or reducing its permeability to water,8. Workability agents, often called plasticizers,9. Grouting agents and expanding cements.Wherever possible, admixtures should be avouded, particularly those that are added on site. Small variations in the quantity added may greatly affect the concrete properties in an undesiraale way. An accelerator can often be avoided by using a rapid-hardening cement or a richer mix with ordinary cement, or for very rapid gain of strength, high-alumina cement, though this is very much more expensive, in Britain about three times as costly as ordinary Portland cement. But in twenty-four hours its strength is equal to that reached with ordinary Portland cement in thirty days.A retarder may have to be used in warm weather when a large quantity of concrete has to be cast in one piece of formwork, and it is important that the concrete cast early in the day does not set before the last concrete. This occurs with bridges when they are cast in place, and the formwork necessarily bends underthe heavy load of the wet concrete. Some retarders permanently weaken the concrete and should not be used without good technical advice.A somewhat similar effect,milder than that of retarders, is obtained with low-heat cement. These may be sold by the cement maker or mixed by the civil engineering contractor. They give out less heat on setting and hardening, partly because they harden more slowly, and they are used in large casts such as gravity dams, where the concrete may take years to cool down to the temperature of the surrounding air. In countries like Britain or France, where pulverized coal is burnt in the power stations, the ash, which is very fine, has been mixed with cement to reduce its production of heat and its cost without reducing its long-term strength. Up to about 20 per cent ash by weight of the cement has been successfully used, with considerable savings in cement costs.In countries where air-entraining cement cement can be bought from the cement maker, no air-entraining agent needs to be mixed in .When air-entraining agents draw into the wet cement and concrete some 3-8 percent of air in the form of very small bubbles, they plasticize the concrete, making it more easily workable and therefore enable the water |cement ratio to be reduced. They reduce the strength of the concrete slightly but so little that in the United States their use is now standard practice in road-building where heavy frost occur. They greatly improve the frost resistance of the concrete.Pozzolane is a volcanic ash found near the Italian town of Puzzuoli, which is a natural cement. The name has been given to all natural mineral cements, as well as to the ash from coal or the slag from blast furnaces, both of which may become cementswhen ground and mixed with water. Pozzolanas of either the industrial or the mineral type are important to civil engineers because they have been added to oridinary Portland cement in proportions up to about 20 percent without loss of strength in the cement and with great savings in cement cost. Their main interest is in large dams, where they may reduce the heat given out by the cement during hardening. Some pozzolanas have been known to prevent the action between cement and certain aggregates which causes the aggregate to expand, and weaken or burst the concrete.The best way of waterproof a concrete is to reduce its permeability by careful mix design and manufacture of the concrete, with correct placing and tighr compaction in strong formwork ar a low water|cement ratio. Even an air-entraining agent can be used because the minute pores are discontinuous. Slow, careful curing of the concrete improves the hydration of the cement, which helps to block the capillary passages through the concrete mass. An asphalt or other waterproofing means the waterproofing of concrete by any method concerned with the quality of the concrete but not by a waterproof skin.Workability agents, water-reducing agents and plasticizers are three names for the same thing, mentioned under air-entraining agents. Their use can sometimes be avoided by adding more cement or fine sand, or even water, but of course only with great care.The rapid growth from 1945 onwards in the prestressing of concrete shows that there was a real need for this high-quality structural material. The quality must be high because the worst conditions of loading normally occur at the beginning of the life of the member, at the transfer of stress from the steel to theconcrete. Failure is therefore more likely then than later, when the concrete has become stronger and the stress in the steel has decreased because of creep in the steel and concrete, and shrinkage of the concrete. Faulty members are therefore observed and thrown out early, before they enter the structure, or at least before it The main advantages of prestressed concrete in comparison with reinforced concrete are :①The whole concrete cross-section resists load. In reinforced concrete about half the section, the cracked area below the neutral axis, does no useful work. Working deflections are smaller.②High working stresses are possible. In reinforced concrete they are not usually possible because they result in severe cracking which is always ugly and may be dangerous if it causes rusting of the steel.③Cracking is almost completely avoided in prestressed concrete.The main disadvantage of prestressed concrete is that much more care is needed to make it than reinforced concrete and it is therefore more expensive, but because it is of higher quality less of it needs to be needs to be used. It can therefore happen that a solution of a structural problem may be cheaper in prestressed concrete than in reinforced concrete, and it does often happen that a solution is possible with prestressing but impossible without it.Prestressing of the concrete means that it is placed under compression before it carries any working load. This means that the section can be designed so that it takes no tension or very little under the full design load. It therefore has theoretically no cracks and in practice very few. The prestress is usually applied by tensioning the steel before the concrete in which it isembedded has hardened. After the concrete has hardened enough to take the stress from the steel to the concrete. In a bridge with abutments able to resist thrust, the prestress can be applied without steel in the concrete. It is applied by jacks forcing the bridge inwards from the abutments. This methods has the advantage that the jacking force, or prestress, can be varied during the life of the structure as required.In the ten years from 1950 to 1960 prestressed concrete ceased to be an experinmental material and engineers won confidence in its use. With this confidence came an increase in the use of precast prestressed concrete particularly for long-span floors or the decks of motorways. Whereever the quantity to be made was large enough, for example in a motorway bridge 500 m kong , provided that most of the spans could be made the same and not much longer than 18m, it became economical to usefactory-precast prestressed beams, at least in industrial areas near a precasting factory prestressed beams, at least in industrial areas near a precasting factory. Most of these beams are heat-cured so as to free the forms quickly for re-use.In this period also, in the United States, precast prestressed roof beams and floor beams were used in many school buildings, occasionally 32 m long or more. Such long beams over a single span could not possibly be successful in reinforced concrete unless they were cast on site because they would have to be much deeper and much heavier than prestressed concrete beams. They would certainlly be less pleasing to the eye and often more expensive than the prestressed concrete beams. These school buildings have a strong, simple architectural appeal and will be a pleasure to look at for many years.The most important parts of a precast prestressed concrete beam are the tendons and the concrete. The tendons, as the name implies, are the cables, rods or wires of steel which are under tension in the concrete.Before the concrete has hardened (before transfer of stress), the tendons are either unstressed (post-tensioned prestressing) or are stressed and held by abutments outside the concrete ( pre-tensioned prestressing). While the concrete is hardening it grips each tendon more and more tightly by bond along its full length. End anchorages consisting of plates or blocks are placed on the ends of the tendons of post-tensioned prestressed units, and such tendons are stressed up at the time of transfer, when the concrete has hardened sufficiently. In the other type of pretressing, with pre-tensioned tendons, the tendons are released from external abutments at the moment of transfer, and act on the concrete through bond or archorage or both, shortening it by compression, and themselves also shortening and losing some tension.Further shortening of the concrete (and therefore of the steel) takes place with time. The concrete is said to creep. This means that it shortens permanently under load and spreads the stresses more uniformly and thus more safely across its section. Steel also creeps, but rather less. The result of these two effects ( and of the concrete shrinking when it dries ) is that prestressed concrete beams are never more highly stressed than at the moment of transfer.The factory precasting of long prestressed concrete beams is likely to become more and more popular in the future, but one difficulty will be road transport. As the length of the beam increases, the lorry becomes less and less manoeuvrable untileventually the only suitable time for it to travel is in the middle of the night when traffic in the district and the route, whether the roads are straight or curved. Precasting at the site avoids these difficulties; it may be expensive, but it has often been used for large bridge beams.混凝土工艺及发展波特兰水泥混凝土在当今世界已成为建造数量繁多、种类复杂结构的首选材料。

Concrete, Reinforced Concrete, andPrestressedConcreteConcrete is a stone like material obtained by permitting a carefully proportioned mixture of cement, sand and gravel or other aggregate, and water to harden in forms of the shape and dimensions of the desired structure. The bulk of the material consists of fine and coarse aggregate.Cement and water interact chemically to bind the aggregate particles into a solid mass. Additional water, over and above that needed for this chemical reaction, is necessary to give the mixture workability that enables it to fill the forms and surround the embedded reinforcing steel prior to hardening. Concretes with a wide range of properties can be obtained by appropriates adjustment of the proportions of the constituent materials.Special cements,special aggregates, and special curing methods permit an even wider variety of properties to be obtained.These properties depend to a very substantial degree on the proportions of the mix, on the thoroughness with which the various constituents are intermixed, and on the conditions of humidity and temperature in which the mix is maintained from the moment it is placed in the forms of humidity and hardened. The process of controlling conditions after placement is known as curing.To protect against the unintentional production of substandard concrete, a high degree of skillful control and supervision is necessary throughout the process,from the proportioning by weight of the individual components, trough mixing and placing, until the completion of curing.The factors that make concrete a universal building material are so pronounced that it has been used, in more primitive kinds and ways than at present, for thousands of years, starting with lime mortars from 12,000 to 600 B.C. in Crete, Cyprus, Greece, and the Middle East. The facility with which , while plastic, it can be deposited and made to fill forms or molds of almost any practical shape is one of these factors. Its high fire and weather resistance are evident advantages.Most of the constituent materials,with the exception of cement and additives,are usually available at low cost locally or at small distances from the construction site. Its compressive strength, like that of natural stones,is high,which makes it suitable for members primarily subject to compression, such as columns and arches. On the other hand, again as in natural stones,it is a relatively brittle material whose tensile strength is small compared with its compressive strength. This prevents its economical use in structural members that ate subject to tension either entirely or over part of their cross sections.To offset this limitation,it was found possible,in the second half of thenineteenth century,to use steel with its high tensile strength to reinforce concrete, chiefly in those places where its low tensile strength would limit the carrying capacity of the member. The reinforcement, usually round steel rods with appropriate surface deformations to provide interlocking, is places in the forms in advance of the concrete. When completely surrounded by the hardened concrete mass, it forms an integral part of the member.The resulting combination of two materials,known as reinforced concrete,combines many of the advantages of each:the relatively low cost,good weather and fire resistance, good compressive strength, and excellent formability of concrete and the high tensile strength and much greater ductility and toughness of steel.It is this combination that allows the almost unlimited range of uses and possibilities of reinforced concrete in the construction of buildings,bridges,dams, tanks, reservoirs, and a host of other structures.In more recent times, it has been found possible to produce steels, at relatively low cost, whose yield strength is 3 to 4 times and more that of ordinary reinforcing steels.Likewise,it is possible to produce concrete4to5times as strong in compression as the more ordinary concrete. These high-strength materials offer many advantages, including smaller member cross sections, reduced dead load, and longer spans. However, there are limits to the strengths of the constituent materials beyond which certain problems arise.To be sure,the strength of such a member would increase roughly in proportion to those of the materials. However, the high strains that result from the high stresses that would otherwise be permissible would lead to large deformations and consequently large deflections of such member under ordinary loading conditions.Equally important,the large strains in such high-strength reinforcing steel would induce large cracks in the surrounding low tensile strength concrete, cracks that would not only be unsightly but that could significantly reduce the durability of the structure.This limits the useful yield strength of high-strength reinforcing steel to 80 ksi according to many codes and specifications; 60 ksi steel is most commonly used.A special way has been found, however, to use steels and concrete of very high strength in combination. This type of construction is known as prestressed concrete. The steel,in the form of wires,strands,or bars, is embedded in the concrete under high tension that is held in equilibrium by compressive stresses in the concrete after hardening,Because of this precompression,the concrete in a flexural member will crack on the tension side at a much larger load than when not so precompressed. Prestressing greatly reduces both the deflections and the tensile cracks at ordinaryloads in such structures, and thereby enables these high-strength materials to be used effectively. Prestressed concrete has extended, to a very significant extent, the range of spans of structural concrete and the types of structures for which it is suited.混凝土，钢筋混凝土和预应力混凝土混凝土是一种经过水泥，沙子和砂砾或其他材料聚合得到经过细致配比的混合物，在液体变硬使材料石化后可以得到理想的形状和结构尺寸。

中英文资料对照外文翻译目录1 中文翻译 (1)1.1钢筋混凝土 (1)1.2土方工程 (2)1.3结构的安全度 (3)2 外文翻译 (6)2.1 Reinforced Concrete (6)2.2 Earthwork (7)2.3 Safety of Structures (9)1 中文翻译1.1钢筋混凝土素混凝土是由水泥、水、细骨料、粗骨料（碎石或；卵石）、空气，通常还有其他外加剂等经过凝固硬化而成。

将可塑的混凝土拌合物注入到模板内，并将其捣实，然后进行养护，以加速水泥与水的水化反应，最后获得硬化的混凝土。

其最终制成品具有较高的抗压强度和较低的抗拉强度。

其抗拉强度约为抗压强度的十分之一。

因此，截面的受拉区必须配置抗拉钢筋和抗剪钢筋以增加钢筋混凝土构件中较弱的受拉区的强度。

由于钢筋混凝土截面在均质性上与标准的木材或钢的截面存在着差异，因此，需要对结构设计的基本原理进行修改。

将钢筋混凝土这种非均质截面的两种组成部分按一定比例适当布置，可以最好的利用这两种材料。

这一要求是可以达到的。

因混凝土由配料搅拌成湿拌合物，经过振捣并凝固硬化，可以做成任何一种需要的形状。

如果拌制混凝土的各种材料配合比恰当，则混凝土制成品的强度较高，经久耐用，配置钢筋后，可以作为任何结构体系的主要构件。

浇筑混凝土所需要的技术取决于即将浇筑的构件类型，诸如：柱、梁、墙、板、基础，大体积混凝土水坝或者继续延长已浇筑完毕并且已经凝固的混凝土等。

对于梁、柱、墙等构件，当模板清理干净后应该在其上涂油，钢筋表面的锈及其他有害物质也应该被清除干净。

浇筑基础前，应将坑底土夯实并用水浸湿6英寸，以免土壤从新浇的混凝土中吸收水分。

一般情况下，除使用混凝土泵浇筑外，混凝土都应在水平方向分层浇筑，并使用插入式或表面式高频电动振捣器捣实。

必须记住，过分的振捣将导致骨料离析和混凝土泌浆等现象，因而是有害的。

水泥的水化作用发生在有水分存在，而且气温在50°F以上的条件下。

土木工程专业毕业设计外文文献翻译2篇XXXXXXXXX学院学士学位毕业设计（论文）英语翻译课题名称英语翻译学号学生专业、年级所在院系指导教师选题时间Fundamental Assumptions for Reinforced ConcreteBehaviorThe chief task of the structural engineer is the design of structures. Design is the determination of the general shape and all specific dimensions of a particular structure so that it will perform the function for which it is created and will safely withstand the influences that will act on it throughout useful life. These influences are primarily the loads and other forces to which it will be subjected, as well as other detrimental agents, such as temperature fluctuations, foundation settlements, and corrosive influences, Structural mechanics is one of the main tools in this process of design. As here understood, it is the body of scientific knowledge that permits one to predict with a good degree of certainly how a structure of give shape and dimensions will behave when acted upon by known forces or other mechanical influences. The chief items of behavior that are of practical interest are (1) the strength of the structure, i. e. , that magnitude of loads of a give distribution which will cause the structure to fail, and (2) the deformations, such as deflections and extent of cracking, that the structure will undergo when loaded underservice condition.The fundamental propositions on which the mechanics of reinforced concrete is based are as follows:1.The internal forces, such as bending moments, shear forces, and normal andshear stresses, at any section of a member are in equilibrium with the effect of the external loads at that section. This proposition is not an assumption but a fact, because any body or any portion thereof can be at rest only if all forces acting on it are in equilibrium.2.The strain in an embedded reinforcing bar is the same as that of thesurrounding concrete. Expressed differently, it is assumed that perfect bonding exists between concrete and steel at the interface, so that no slip can occur between the two materials. Hence, as the one deforms, so must the other. With modern deformed bars, a high degree of mechanical interlocking is provided in addition to the natural surface adhesion, so this assumption is very close to correct.3.Cross sections that were plane prior to loading continue to be plan in themember under load. Accurate measurements have shown that when a reinforced concrete member is loaded close to failure, this assumption is not absolutely accurate. However, the deviations are usually minor.4.In view of the fact the tensile strength of concrete is only a small fraction ofits compressive strength; the concrete in that part of a member which is in tension is usually cracked. While these cracks, in well-designed members, are generally so sorrow as to behardly visible, they evidently render the cracked concrete incapable of resisting tension stress whatever. This assumption is evidently a simplification of the actual situation because, in fact, concrete prior to cracking, as well as the concrete located between cracks, does resist tension stresses of small magnitude. Later in discussions of the resistance of reinforced concrete beams to shear, it will become apparent that under certain conditions this particular assumption is dispensed with and advantage is taken of the modest tensile strength that concrete can develop.5.The theory is based on the actual stress-strain relation ships and strengthproperties of the two constituent materials or some reasonable equivalent simplifications thereof. The fact that novelistic behavior is reflected in modern theory, that concrete is assumed to be ineffective in tension, and that the joint action of the two materials is taken into consideration results in analytical methods which are considerably more complex and also more challenging, than those that are adequate for members made of a single, substantially elastic material.These five assumptions permit one to predict by calculation the performance of reinforced concrete members only for some simple situations. Actually, the joint action of two materials as dissimilar and complicated as concrete and steel is so complex that it has not yet lent itself to purely analytical treatment. For this reason, methods of design and analysis, while using these assumptions, are very largely based on the results of extensive and continuing experimental research. They are modified and improved as additional test evidence becomes available.钢筋混凝土的基本假设作为结构工程师的主要任务是结构设计。

毕业论文外文翻译-建筑施工混凝土开裂预防加工Prevention and Treatment of Concrete Cracks in Building ConstructionAbstract：Concrete is widely used in building construction because of its advantages such as durability, strength and low maintenance cost. However, concrete cracks can not only affect the aesthetic appearance of buildings, but also have negative impact on structural integrity and durability. This paper focuses on the prevention and treatment of concrete cracks in building construction. Firstly, the causes of concrete cracking are analyzed, including shrinkage, thermal stress, structural design, material quality and construction quality. Then, preventive measures in design and construction are proposed, such as proper reinforcement arrangement, control of concrete mix proportions, proper curing and protection after pouring, etc. Treatment measures for existing concrete cracks include surface treatment, filling and injection, and reinforcement. Finally, some new techniques are briefly introduced, such as fiber-reinforced concrete, self-healing concrete and material testing technology. This paper provides a comprehensive understanding of the prevention and treatment of concrete cracks in building construction, and proposes practical solutions to improve the quality of concrete structures.Key words: concrete cracks; building construction; prevention; treatmentIntroduction：Concrete is a popular building material due to its properties such as durability, strength and low maintenance cost. However, concrete cracking is a common problem in building construction, which can not only affect the aesthetic appearance of buildings, but also have negative impact on structural integrity and durability. Therefore, preventing and treating concrete cracks are crucial to ensure the long-term performance of buildings. This paper analyzes the causes of concrete cracking in building construction, and proposes preventive and treatment measures based on practical experience and research.1. Causes of Concrete Cracking：1.1 ShrinkageShrinkage is the most common cause of concrete cracking, which is due to the decrease in volume of concrete as it dries and hardens. Shrinkage can be classified into autogenous shrinkage, plastic shrinkage and drying shrinkage.Autogenous shrinkage is caused by the chemical reaction between water and cement, and it can lead to micro-cracks. Plastic shrinkage is caused by the evaporation of water from the surface of fresh concrete, which can cause cracks in the surface layer. Drying shrinkage is caused by the loss of moisture from the hardened concrete, which can lead to cracks in the bulk of the structure.1.2 Thermal StressThermal stress is another cause of concrete cracking, which is due to the temperature difference between the interior and exterior of concrete. When the temperature change is rapid or large, thermal stress can exceed the tensile strength of concrete and cause cracking.1.3 Structural DesignPoor structural design can also cause concrete cracking. For example, inadequate reinforcement or improper placement of reinforcement can lead to excessive stress concentration and cracking. In addition, insufficient structural support or improper joint design can also cause concrete cracking.1.4 Material QualityThe quality of concrete materials such as cement, aggregates and water can also affect concrete cracking. Poor quality materials can result in uneven shrinkage, low strength, and high water permeability, which can cause cracking.1.5 Construction QualityConstruction quality is an important factor in the prevention of concrete cracking. Improper placement, compaction and curing of concrete can lead to poor quality, which can cause cracking. In addition, inadequate protection measures such as insufficient cover or damage to the surface layer can also cause cracking.2. Prevention of Concrete Cracking：2.1 Reinforcement ArrangementProper reinforcement arrangement is essential to prevent concrete cracking. The size, spacing and distribution of reinforcement should be designed according to the structural requirements and the characteristics of concrete. In addition, the use of fiber reinforcement can improve the crack resistance of concrete.2.2 Control of Concrete Mix ProportionsThe control of concrete mix proportions is critical to the prevention of concrete cracking. The ratio of water to cement, the type and quality of aggregates, and the use of admixtures should be carefully considered to ensure proper workability and strength of concrete.2.3 Proper Curing and ProtectionProper curing and protection measures can effectively prevent concrete cracking. Adequate moist curing can reduce evaporation and shrinkage, and increase strength and durability. In addition, proper protection measures such as sufficient cover and protective coatings can protect the surface layer of concrete from damage.3. Treatment of Concrete Cracks：3.1 Surface TreatmentSurface treatment is a common method to repair concrete cracks. The damaged concrete is removed, and the surface is cleaned and roughened. Then, a bonding agent is applied and a new layer of concrete is poured to fill the crack.3.2 Filling and InjectionFilling and injection is another effective method to repair concrete cracks. The crack is filled with cementitious material, such as epoxy or polymer, to restore theintegrity of the structure. Injection is also used to repair cracks in reinforced concrete structures, where the material is injected under pressure to fill the voids and cracks.3.3 ReinforcementReinforcement is used when the crack is severe and structural integrity is compromised. Steel bars or plates are installed into the crack and bonded to the surrounding concrete to restore the strength and load-carrying capacity of the structure.4. New Techniques：4.1 Fiber-Reinforced ConcreteFiber-reinforced concrete is a new type of concrete that contains short fibers, such as glass, steel or synthetic fibers, which can improve the crack resistance and toughness of concrete.4.2 Self-Healing ConcreteSelf-healing concrete is a novel material that can repair micro-cracks by itself through the chemical reaction between water and the embedded capsules.4.3 Material Testing TechnologyMaterial testing technology such as acoustic emission and electrical resistance can effectively detect and monitor the formation and propagation of cracks in concrete structures, and provide early warning for potential failures.Conclusion：Concrete cracking is a common problem in building construction, which can affect the aesthetic appearance, structural integrity and durability of buildings. This paper analyzes the causes of concrete cracking, and proposes practical preventive and treatment measures to improve the quality of concrete structures. In addition, some new techniques such as fiber-reinforced concrete, self-healing concrete andmaterial testing technology are briefly introduced. With proper design, construction and maintenance, the occurrence and impact of concrete cracking can be effectively reduced, and the long-term performance of concrete structures can be ensured.。

附录外文翻译MIX DESIGN & PROPORTIONING（一）MIX DESIGNThe concrete mix design (CMD) for QC/QA superstructure concrete must produce a workable concrete mixture having properties that will not exceed the maximum and/or minimum values defined in the special provision. Workability in concrete defines its capacity to be placed, consolidated, and finished without harmful segregation or bleeding. Workability is affected by aggregate gradation, particle shape, proportioning of aggregate, amount and qualities of cementitious materials, presence of entrained air, amount and quality of high range water reducer, and consistency of mixture.Consistency of the concrete mixture is its relative mobility and is measured in terms of slump. The higher the slump the more mobile the concrete, affecting the ease with which the concrete will flow during placement. Consistency is not synonymous with workability. Two different mix designs may have the same slump; however, their workability may be different.Selection of target parameters by the contractor for any mix design must consider the influence of the following:1. material availability and economics2. variability of each material throughout period of usage3. control capability of production plant4. ambient conditions expected at the time(s) of concrete placement5. logistics of concrete production, delivery, and placement6. variability in testing concrete propertiesof heat in large structural elements and differential in thermal gradientThe qualities of the cementitious paste provide a primary influence on the properties of concrete. Proper selection of the cementitious content and water/cementitious ratio is dependent on the experience of the concrete producer and becomes a very important first step in preparing a design. For workable concrete, ahigher water cementitious ratio is typically required when aggregate becomes more angular and rough textured. The presence of air, certain pozzolans, and aggregate proportioning will work to lower the water cementitious ratio; however the most significant reduction in water demand comes through the use of a high range water reducing chemical admixture.Water/cementitious ratio is determined from the net, per unit, quantity of water and total cementitious materials. The net water content excludes water that is absorbed by the aggregates. For a given set of materials and conditions, as water/cementitious ratio increases, strength and unit weight will decrease. Compressive strength is a concrete parameter used in combination with unit weight and air content to evaluate the durability of the superstructure concrete's exposure to freeze / thaw action, and exposure to deicing salts. It is important to note that the designer of the bridge structure does not recognize the benefit of increased compressive strength. The slab still relies on a minimum design compressive strength (f'c) of 4000 psi at 28-days.Proportioning of aggregates is defined by the volume of fine aggregate to the volume of coarse aggregate, as a percent. The lower percentage of fine to total aggregate provides an increase in compressive strength at the expense of workability. The gradation, particle shape and texture of the coarse aggregate along with fineness modulus of the fine aggregate will determine how low the fine to total aggregate percentage can be for a given workability requirement.（二）MIXING PROPORTIONINGOnce the cement content, pozzolan content, water/cementitious ratio, and fine to total aggregate percentage are defined for the concrete's intended use in the superstructure, proportioning of the mix in terms of design batch weights can begin. Specific gravities must be accurately defined for each material being utilized in order to proportion the mix properly by the absolute volume method. Cement is typically accepted as having a specific gravity of . Pozzolans will typically vary between and . Pozzolan suppliers should readily be able to provide current values for their material. Approximate specific gravities are identified for each source on the Department's Approved/Prequalified Materials list; however, they should not be considered the most current.Bulk specific gravity, in the saturated surface dry condition, must be used toproportion the fine and coarse aggregate. Accurate testing of one or more samples of fine and coarse aggregate must be accomplished by the Contractor as part of any proportioning for a mix design. Subsequent shifts in benching at the aggregate source may cause significant shifts in bulk specific gravity and absorption. These are important aggregate properties to monitor as part of concrete quality control.Proportioning concrete by the absolute volume method involves calculating the volume of each ingredient and its contribution to making one y d3or 27 f t3of concrete. V olumes are subsequently converted to design weights, which then become the basis for actual production of concrete from the plant. For cementitious materials and water, the weight to volume conversion is accomplished by dividing the weight (lbs) by the specific gravity of the material and again dividing by the density of water. Converting from volume to weight is accomplished simply by taking the known volume of the ingredient and multiplying by the specific gravity of the ingredient and again multiplying by the density of water. V olume to weight conversions for aggregates are accomplished by the same series of computations; however, bulk specific gravity (SSD) must be used. The target air content is established at % by the special provision, which converts to a volume of f t3within a cubic yard of concrete.（三）LINEAR EQUATION OF UNIT WEIGHT vs. AIR CONTENTIt is known that the unit weight of plastic concrete is inversely proportional to air content. That is to say, as air content increases unit weight decreases. This relationship becomes a very useful tool when evaluating plastic concrete. Unit weight and air content are properties of plastic concrete that can be easily and quickly measured in the field. A unit weight measurement, at a known air content, that deviates excessively from the linear relationship provides information as to the possible deficiencies in the mix and potential effects on properties such as workability, durability, and strength.The linear equation to predict unit weight based on a given air content is presented below in directional form:UW = m (Air) + bWhere: m is the slope of lineAir is the plastic concrete air content (independent variable, xcoordinateor abscissa of point)b is the y-interceptUW is the plastic concrete unit weight (dependent variable, ycoordinate,or ordinate of point)If all points (Air, UW) associated with the solution set of this linear equation were plotted on a graph, there would be a straight line as illustrated by Figure . This linear relationship can be determined for any concrete mix design.（四）THRESHOLD FOR MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE W ATER / CEMENTITIOUS RATIOJust as concrete unit weight is affected by changes in air content, it is also affected by the amount of water that is available to react with cementitious materials. As the amount of water increases the water/cementitious ratio also increases, producing concrete of inferior quality. This serves to lower the concrete unit weight at any given air content. Since the maximum allowable water/cementitious ratio for QC/QA superstructure concrete is , a threshold line or limit can be determined. This threshold line would be parallel to the linear equation for the mix design; however, the unit weight would be lower. The threshold limit has relevancy to results from quality control as well as Acceptance sampling and testing. Should the measured unit weight at any given air content be at or lower than the threshold, it could indicate that the maximum allowable water cementitious ratio was exceeded. It is important to understand that quality control works to center production about the linear equation for the mix design.There are several ways in which additional water could enter a concrete mix. The methodology presented in this chapter assumes that the increase in water/cementitious ratio is due soley to excessive batch water. This provides a simple and accuratedetermination of the threshold limit equation. The methodology begins with the linear equation already established for the mix design. By establishing a single point below the linear equation, representing concrete with excessive water, the equation for threshold limit can be determined. The easiest point to select is at the y-intercept, where the concrete has no entrapped nor entrained air. This point is defined as Point 3, having coordinates (x3, y3). The line for the threshold equation should be parallel to the linear equation for the mix design, which results in the same slope. Knowing the slope and y-intercept the threshold limit equation can then be written.（五）Mix Design & Proportioning WorksheetsIf at least two points are known to be a solution to the equation, algebra can be utilized to solve for the two unknown variables (. slope and y-intercept). The form in Appendix D (under tab 11) entitled "WORKSHEET FOR CMD LINEAR EQUATION" provides the format in which two points can be defined and the equation determined.The Cartesian coordinates of one solution point is already available from the mix design. We can define this as Point 2 with coordinates (x2, y2). The value of x2is the target air content of the mix design (. x2= %). The value of y2is the unit weight of the concrete stated in the mix design. This is determined by obtaining the summation of the design batch weights and dividing by the summation of designabsolute volumes which will always be ft3. The following example calculations for the worksheet are based on the mix design and proportioning values presented earlier in this chapter.Example: x2 = %= Σ Design Batch Weights ÷ ft3y2= 3871 lbs ÷ ft3y2y= lbs/f ft3(rounded to the first decimal place)2A plot of the coordinates for Point 2 (x2= , y2= ) is illustrated in Figure . It is important to note that the unit weight for Point 2 is calculated to the nearest lbs/ ft3 Point 1, representing the y-intercept having coordinates (x1, y1), must now be determined. This is accomplished by theoretically removing all the entrapped and entrained air from the mixture and calculating the concrete unit weight. The value ofx1is % air content. The value of y1is determined by again obtaining the summation of the design batch weights and divide by the summation of design absolute volumes except for entrapped or entrained air. This volume will always be ft3 – ft3= ft3. The following example illustrates how the worksheet calculates the coordinates for Point 1.Example: x1= %y1= Σ Design Batch Weights ÷ ft3y1= 3871 lbs ÷ ft3y1= lbs/ ft3(rounded to the first decimal place)The Cartesian coordinates of Point 1, (x1= ,y1= ), is graphed along with Point 2 in Figure , to illustrate the example. Again note that the unit weight is calculated to the nearest lbs/ ft3It is important to remember that as air is removed from concrete the individual weights of cementitious materials, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and water no longer represent amounts relative to yd3of concrete. Concrete without the % target air content ( ft3) would only yield yd3of concrete. The actual cement and water contents per yd3concrete would increase as a result of the under yielding. If air content increases over the % target, the actual cement and water contents per yd3 would be less as a result of the over yielding. However, in either case the water cementitious ratio and fine to total aggregate ratio remain unchanged.From the x and y coordinates of Points 1 & 2, there is now enough information to solve for the variables of slope and y-intercept in the linear equation. The worksheet calculation for slope, also known as "rise / run", is exemplified as follows: Example:slope = m = ( y2 - y1) / (x2 - x1)m = ( – ) / ( – )m = (⎯ ) / ()m = ⎯(negative value, rounded to second decimal place)It is important to note that slope will always be negative since unit weight is inversely proportional to air content.The y-intercept value (b) is simply the ordinate of Point 1, which has already been determined. In the example problem, the worksheet would show the solution b as follows:Example:y-intercept = b = y1b = lbs/ ft3The calculated and rounded values for slope and y-intercept can now be inserted in the linear equation for the variables m and b, respectively. The linear equation can now be written for the concrete mix design. The numbers from the example result in the following:Example:Predicted Unit Weight = m (Air) + bPredicted Unit Weight = ⎯ (Air) +（六）DEPARTMENT CONCURRENCE OF MIX DESIGNIt is the responsibility of the Department's Project Engineer / Project Supervisor to conduct a complete and thorough review of every mix design and proportioning for QC/QA Superstructure Concrete. There is a substantial amount of work that is based on the targets established by the CMD, not the least of which is the linear equation forthe threshold limit that represents the maximum allowable water/cementitious ratio. This threshold limit is of critical importance in determining whether additional cylinders are to be cast as part of an acceptance sample for testing per AASHTO T 277 and subsequent action, which may involve a failed material investigation.The first step in proper review of a CMD is to verify that the materials are from current approved sources. The list of Approved and/or Prequalified Materials is to be used to verify approved sources of cement, fly ash, GGBFS, silica fume, chemical admixtures and air entraining agents. The fine and coarse aggregate ingredients of the concrete mix must be materials from an approved Certified Aggregate Producer. The gradation and quality requirement for the aggregates must also be verified, particularly if stay-in-place metal deck forms are used to facilitate construction of the deck. If AP Quality coarse aggregate is required in the superstructure, the PE/PS will substantiate the quality status. This would include the nature of the mining operations that produce aggregates of the desired quality. The PE/PS should contact the District Materials & Tests Engineer or the District Geologist for confirmation.In addition to the aggregates gradations the PE/PS must verify the bulk specific gravity (SSD) and absorption for the fine and coarse aggregate as being reasonable for the source. If the Contractor's value for absorption differs by more than the multi labortory precision defined within the appropriate test method, the discrepancy will be investigated.The bulk specific gravity and absorption for aggregates are measured by the Department as part of the annual "Summary of Production Quality Results", and periodic Point-Of-Use samples. This data provides the correct basis for comparison of absorption and specific gravity. Figures and graphs of bulk specific gravity (ssd) vs. absorption for a fine and coarse aggregate and are presented as examples of what historical data might look like for specific products at an aggregate source.Usually sources will demonstrate a trend of bulk specific gravity (SSD) being inversely proportional to absorption; however, such may not always be the case. Figure represents data from the INDOT Summary of Production Quality Results for a specific source of #8 coarse aggregate. The AP quality stone comes from ledges 1803, 1804, 19, & 20 processed as one working bench. These four ledges have thicknesses of ft, ft, ft, and ft, respectively. Since these ledges range in absorption from 2 % to 4 %, the consistency of bulk specific gravity and absorption depends on the aggregate source's ability to process the bench in a uniform manner. The District Geologist is the best source for obtaining historical data from "Summary of Production Quality Results" and "Point-of-Use" samples obtained from the aggregate source. They will assist the PE/PS in the proper review of contractor testresults for aggregates.It is important to understand that INDOT historical records for bulk specific gravity (dry or SSD) from coarse aggregate sources are based on procedure of AASHTO T 85. The Contractor must therefore test the coarse aggregate according to the same procedure even though the result is typically not appropriate for concrete mix design. If the mix design is submitted with enough advance notice, it becomes preferable for the Department to obtain a Point-Of-Use sample of the coarse aggregate and test for bulk specific gravity (SSD) by procedure of AASHTO T 85, which is appropriate for concrete mix design. Splitting a sample between the Contractor and the Department to compare test results would be even better.The air entraining and chemical admixtures that are approved for use are as stated in the special provision and the Approved/Prequalified Materials List referenced therein. It is important to recognize the limitations of Type F admixtures or HRWR Admixture Systems. These chemical admixtures have no retarding capability and would not be appropriate for superstructure concrete that is placed in conditions where concrete and ambient temperatures are above 65°F, and where dead load deflections are of concern.After verifying the materials as being approved for the concrete, the initial parameters for the Mix Design must be checked against the specification requirements. The remainder of the PE/PS check involves checking the math for proportioning, and the linear equations for the CMD and threshold limit. Use of the forms and worksheets by the contractor will provide the quickest and most complete review by the Department and therefore help eliminate unnecessary delays by recognizing problems early on.混合物配合比设计（一）混合物设计混凝土配合比设计混凝土质量保证上层建筑（CMD）用于QC /QA必须出示有一个和易性好的混凝土混合物的性能，将不会超过最大和/或最低的特别规定定义的值。

建筑材料的英文作文Building Materials。

Building materials are the materials used in the construction of buildings, structures, and other infrastructure. They can range from simple materials like clay and mud to more complex materials like glass and steel. The choice of building materials depends on a variety of factors including the type of structure being built, the climate of the area, and the availability of materials.One of the most common building materials is concrete. Concrete is a mixture of cement, water, and aggregates like sand and gravel. It is used in the construction of everything from roads and bridges to buildings and homes. Concrete is strong, durable, and relatively inexpensive, making it a popular choice for construction projects.Another popular building material is wood. Wood is used in the construction of homes, furniture, and otherstructures. It is a renewable resource and is relatively easy to work with. However, wood is susceptible to rot, insects, and fire, so it must be treated and maintained to ensure its longevity.Steel is another common building material. It is usedin the construction of skyscrapers, bridges, and other structures that require strength and durability. Steel is strong, lightweight, and resistant to corrosion, making it an ideal choice for many construction projects.Glass is also a popular building material. It is usedin the construction of windows, doors, and other architectural features. Glass is transparent, allowing natural light into buildings, and can be tinted or coated to reduce heat gain and glare.In addition to these traditional building materials, there are also many new and innovative materials being developed. These include materials like bamboo, which is strong and sustainable, and recycled materials like plastic and rubber.The choice of building materials is an important decision for any construction project. It can affect the cost, durability, and environmental impact of the structure. By choosing the right materials, builders can create structures that are both functional and beautiful, while also being sustainable and environmentally friendly.。