语言文学导论
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第一章
语言的本质
一、语言的定义
1. ★What is language?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communication(Wardaugh). This definition has captured the
main attributes（属性）of
language. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather
than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection
between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. It is symbolic, because
words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely,
people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal,
because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. and finally
language is used for human communication.
二、区别性特征（Design Features）
1、任意性 Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式
The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication（复杂） and it makes it
possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.
2、双重性Duality： 语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds and meaning）
“By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the
primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has
its own principles of organization” (Lyons, 1982:20)
Meaningless sounds → words→ phrases → sentences → discourse/text
Advantage of duality: the great productive power (a large number of different units can
be formed out of a small number of elements --- tens of thousands of words out of a small set
of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language)
Animal communication systems lack duality
3、创造性Creativity：
duality and recursive nature of language;
He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught is a school which was
known for its graduates who „
Most animal communication systems are highly restricted with respect to the number
of different signals that their users can send and receive;
Information conveyed in animal communication is severely restricted.
4、移位性 Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等
Human languages enable their users to talk about objects, events and concepts which are
not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.
Human language is stimulus free and animals are under “immediate stimulus control”.
Displacement makes it possible for human beings to talk and think in abstract terms. It
benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.
Honeybees?
(limited information; genetically; not arbitrary)
5、文化传递cultural transmission While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the
ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted,
but instead have to be taught and learned. ( culturally transmitted)
Animal call systems are genetically transmitted.
The general pattern of animal communication is that the signals used are instinctive and
not learned.
三、语言的功能（Functions of Language）
1. 传达信息功能 Informative：最主要功能The main function
2. 人际功能 Interpersonal Function： 人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能
people establish and maintain their status in a society with language.
3. 行事功能 performative function：
现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses
to change the social status of persons.
4. 表情功能 Emotive Function： 表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory
expressions
a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress.
5. 寒暄功能 Phatic Communion： 应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！” 等等
To create and maintain social relationship between speakers. No factual content is involved.
6. 元语言功能 Metalingual Function：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”
to talk about language itself.
7. 娱乐功能recreational function
verbal dueling, poetry口头决斗，诗歌
四、语言学中几对基本概念的概念区分
1. 规定性研究Prescriptive与描述性研究Descriptive
Prescriptive：着重于语言中“标准Standards”认为语言中存在着一种地位最高的语言形态，如标准语法/语音等，为规定人们如何说话、写作
Descriptive：着重于语言中“事实Facts”，目的是描述人们一般是怎样说话、写作的
2. 共时研究Synchronic和历时研究Diachronic
Synchronic：以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象，如现代汉语研究、莎士比亚时代语言研究等
Diachronic：研究语言各个阶段的发展变化，研究语言的历史发展规律
3．语言Langue和言语Parole（由Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔提出）
Langue：指语言系统的整体the whole linguistic system，所有语言使用个体头脑中存储的词语-形象word-image的总和，这个整体相对比较稳定
Parole：指代某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语actual use of
language，是随时间和地点变化的一个动态的、偶然性很大的实体。
4． 语言能力competence与语言运用performance（由Noam Chomsky乔姆斯基提出）
Competence：指理想语言使用者关于语言规则的知识储备
Performance：指真实的语言使用者在实际场景中的语言使用
