A novel framework for medium access control in ultra-wideband ad hoc networks

英语作文评论作品模板范文Title: Article Template for Commenting on a Work。

When it comes to commenting on a work, it is importantto consider various aspects of the piece in order toprovide a comprehensive and thoughtful critique. Whether it is a book, movie, artwork, or any other form of creative expression, there are certain elements that should be taken into account when offering feedback. In this article, wewill explore a template for commenting on a work andprovide a sample critique using this framework.Introduction。

The introduction sets the stage for the critique and should provide some context for the work being commented on. This may include a brief summary of the piece, thecreator's background, and any relevant information thatwill help readers understand the critique.Sample Introduction:"In this critique, we will be examining the novel 'To Kill a Mockingbird' by Harper Lee. First published in 1960, this Pulitzer Prize-winning novel has become a classic of modern American literature. Set in the 1930s in thefictional town of Maycomb, Alabama, the story follows young Scout Finch as she navigates issues of race, class, and morality. Harper Lee, a native of Alabama, drew on her own experiences growing up in the South to craft this poignant and thought-provoking tale."Plot and Structure。

A Content-Oriented Data Model forSemistructured DataTom´a ˇs Novotn´yCzech Technical University,Faculty of Electrical Engineering,Technick´a 2,16627Prague 6,Czech Republic novott2@fel.cvut.czTomáš Novotný Czech Technical University, Faculty of Electrical Engineering Technická 2, 166 27 Prague 6, Czech Republic novott2@fel.cvut.cz Abstract. There are several data models that are capable of handling semistruc-tured data. The best known are OEM, XML DOM, RDF, and the ECMAScript object model. All these models have different purpose. OEM was used by sys-tems for integration of heterogeneous data sources. XML DOM is specified as a programming interface to manipulate XML documents used as a unified me-dium for data exchange. RDF provides primarily a data model for sharing metadata. The ECMAScript object model is widely used to manipulate data in web applications. However, none of these models is intended to be used directly in an interactive way. This paper presents the CO (Content-Oriented) data model, which is designed for users to browse, annotate, and relate pieces of in-formation. It can provide change notifications hence it can be directly used in interactive applications without building an extra object model.Keywords: data entity, data aspect, informed list, informed property1 IntroductionTraditional mainstream databases save data according a schema that describes the context of the data. They usually need to specify the schema in advance. This re-quirement is for certain data very difficult or even impossible to fulfill. It is a case of irregular data or data that structure changes over time [1].Another option is to store data together with a description of its meaning. Such da-ta do not have to be structured according a schema and therefore they are referred to as semistructured data [2]. Data models for semistructured data can be easily used by knowledge management systems or systems for integration of heterogeneous informa-tion sources [3].The existing well-known data models for semistructured data are not intended to be directly used in interactive applications. Programming interfaces around these models are usually based on elaborate query languages that simplify locating and extracting of particular information from these models. However, the more advanced queries can be answered, the more complex systems have to be built to detect changes. Therefore, there is usually no unified support for events that notifies user interface controls when J.Pokorn´y ,V.Sn´a ˇs el,K.Richta (Eds.):Dateso 2007,pp.55–66,ISBN 80-7378-002-X.56Tom´aˇs Novotn´ysomething has changed hence such data models cannot be directly used in interactive applications.This paper describes the CO data model that unlike other data models for semis-tructured data is intended for interactive applications, especially applications that al-low users to browse, annotate, and relate pieces of information. It can be also used for visual manipulation with data stored in other data models or exchange formats for semistructured data like XML or JSON. It is designed to be very simple in order to keep implementation simple.The CO data model has a modular architecture. A core provides very limited func-tionality enabling basic manipulation with data. The core itself is not intended for in-teractive applications as the change notifications are not supported. Nevertheless, it may be used by scripts that are using the same data model. Other features are pro-vided by external modules called extensions. This extensible architecture allows de-velopers to choose particular configuration that will support just required features without unwanted ones. It also enables having various implementations of the same feature in order to enable direct data binding for various user interface toolkits.Other data models for semistructured data and systems for that they were built are described in the second chapter. A design the CO data model and an implementation of a framework for the CO data model are presented in the third and fourth chapters. Conclusions and a future work are given in the last chapter.Work2 RelatedWith the development and growth of the Web [4] in the last decade of the last century there arose a need to extract and integrate data that are available on the Web [5]. At the same time, there was a research project called TSIMMIS whose aim was to create a system for assisted integration of data either structured (e.g. database records), semistructured (e.g. web pages), or unstructured (e.g. plain files) from heterogeneous data sources [6].2.1 TSIMMISTSIMMIS was a joint project between Stanford and the IBM Almaden Research Cen-ter [3]. It had mediator architecture [7] [8] and it basically consisted of four types of core components: translators, mediators, constraint managers, and classi-fier/extractors. Translators were template-based wrappers [9] that converted data from various sources into a common information model. Mediators were information routers that forward queries to particular translators and merge the results [10]. Con-straint managers [11] ensured that the integrated data are consistent. Classi-fier/extractors automatically classified and extracted key properties of resources from the unstructured data sources. They were based on the Rufus system developed by the Almaden Research Center [12].Information between these components was exchanged in a self-describing object model called OEM (Object Exchange Model) [13]. OEM allowed the storing of nested objects. Each object was represented by a structure with four fields: label, type,A Content-Oriented Data Model for Semistructured Data57 value, and oid. The label was a string tag that describes what the object represents. The type was a data type of the object’s value. The value stored the actual data. The oid was a unique identifier of the object.TSIMMIS was not a fully automated system, but rather a tool to assist humans. It provided a graphical user interface component called MOBIE (MOsaic Based Infor-mation Explorer) [14] that allowed users to browse OEM objects and specify queries in an SQL-like language called OEM-QL [13].2.2 LORELORE (Lightweight Object REpository) was a database management system designed to manage semistructured data [1]. It was built on top of the O2 object database [15]. Semistructured data were stored in a modified OEM that was presented in the TSIMMIS project. That version of OEM could be represented as a labeled directed graph where the vertices were objects. There were two types of objects: complex ob-jects and atomic objects. Whereas the complex objects might have outgoing edges to other objects, the atomic objects had no outgoing edges but they contained a value from one of the atomic types (e.g. integer or string).LORE provided a query language called LOREL [16]. LOREL was defined as an extension to OQL (an SQL-like query language for the ODMG model) [17]. LOREL was also later used as a query language for TSIMMIS [8].LORE introduced a DataGuide [18]. The DataGuide was a structure summary of the OEM model that was automatically maintained. DataGuides allowed users to browse the OEM model and formulate queries. They were also used by the system to store statistics and to optimize the queries. The DataGuide itself was an OEM object so it could be stored in and managed by an OEM DBMS.Another feature of LORE was an external data manager [19]. The external data manager allowed users to integrate data from external data sources. The external data were represented by an external object. The external object was stored in the OEM database and it contained both a specification on how to fetch the external data and a cached version of the external data. The wrappers for the external data were reused from the TSIMMIS project.After the emergence of XML, developers of LORE found that data models of XML and OEM were similar. So they decided to modify LORE to serve as a data manage-ment system for XML [20]. The modifications to LORE also required changes to the data model [21].2.3 XMLXML is a markup language designed for data exchange [22]. The data are represented as documents. The XML document is a tree-like structure built from nested tagged elements. Each element can contain data stored as attributes/value pairs or as a plain text. XML also provides a mechanism to create links between elements.There are several ways to extract information from XML documents. None of them can be considered as universal but each is convenient for a particular purpose. One of58Tom´aˇs Novotn´ythe best known is SAX. SAX (Simple API for XML) provides a read-only and for-ward-only event-driven interface [23]. Another read-only interface is XmlReader (not to be confused with XMLReader, the Java interface from the SAX2 library). In con-trast to SAX, XmlReader allows developers to navigate through XML on-demand in the way that is sometimes referred to as a pull model [24]. More sophisticated naviga-tion provides XPathNavigator that enables cursor-like navigation in a XML document powered by XPath expressions [25].There is also a standardized virtual data model for XML called DOM (Document Object Model) that is specified as a programming interface and it is developed to ma-nipulate a memory representation of XML documents [26].2.4 RDFRDF (Resource Description Framework) is a set of specifications [27] that was cre-ated to provide a unified way to share metadata and it can be also used to represent data [28]. Although RDF is more complex than previous models, the data model of RDF can be represented by a collection of triples [29]. Each triple consists of a sub-ject, a predicate, and an object. Predicates are also called properties. Subjects may be URIs or blanks. Predicates are URIs. Objects can be URIs, literals, or blanks. URIs may be used both as references to existing resources and as a global identifiers. Liter-als represent values. They may be plain or typed. Blanks are local identifiers.There are various languages that extend capabilities of RDF. The best known are RDF Schema and OWL. RDF Schema allows users to describe classes and properties [30]. OWL (Web Ontology Language) enables data description using ontologies [31].2.5 ECMAScript object modelThe ECMAScript object model is widely used by web applications to manipulate data [32]. Structure of the ECMAScript is similar to LORE’s version of OEM. The difference between LORE’s OEM and the ECMAScript object model is that objects in the ECMAScript object model have no identifiers and each object can have only a single property with the same name. Multiple values can be represented by a special build-in type of object – an array. The textual representation of this model is some-times referred to as JSON [33]. JSON has similar purpose as XML. There is also a standard ‘ECMAScript for XML’ that adds native XML support to ECMAScript [34].2.6 iDMiDM is an advanced data model that is designed to represent heterogeneous data [35]. iDM is now being developed as a part of a personal information management system iMeMex [36].A Content-Oriented Data Model for Semistructured Data593 DesignAs mentioned in the introductory chapter, this paper describes the CO data model that is designed for interactive applications. This implies that except of developers, the de-sign should also take account of users. There are three elemental requirements: The first is that the data model should be simple because the simplest it would be, the ea-siest the implementation of a framework for the data model would be. The next is that the data model has to be extensible so the developers can use only that parts what they really need. The last requirement is that it should have similar concepts as existing systems for information handling that are widely used by users, so that users do not need to spend time for an extra training.The most famous and widely used system that is used by users to access informa-tion is the Web. The information on the Web is usually stored in a document called a web page. There are two basic ways to access a particular web page: users can either enter the address of the web page or navigate to a particular web page from another web page. Advanced methods include searching by entering a query into a search en-gine or navigating through tags. Tags are usually keywords that are attached to a piece of information. In fact, navigation through tags is mostly a particular form of simple page to page navigation, as tags are usually located within the page.The data model should offer thus similar ways of accessing information as the Web: The data model should allow users to navigate through the data and access the data directly from an address, enable developers to easily create tagging systems, and provide programming interfaces so that specialized search engines can be built or adapted to process search queries.3.1 Data modelThe architecture of the CO data model results from its requirements. The data model consists of items called entities. The entity is a wrapper for data. The data contained in the entity will be referred to as content. In addition to the content, each entity has a type and optionally has references to other entities.The content of an entity can be anything. Entities can store numbers, text docu-ments, multimedia files, an array of objects or other entities, or any other pieces of in-formation. Entities do not need to contain data directly, but they can contain special objects that refer to external data stored in local files, databases, or even remote web sites.The entities’ types have a similar purpose as the labels in TSIMMIS’s version of OEM or the tags in XML, with the difference that labels in OEM and tags in XML are strings but entities’ types are represented by another or, in special cases, the same en-tity. This architecture allows saving common metadata to the entity that represents the type. Metadata can contain both information for humans, such as documentation, and information for machines, for instance specifications of constraints or processing in-structions for manipulation of external data that are referred in the content. The fact that the type of entity A has is entity B can be expressed in RDF by a triple <en-tity:A> <rdf:type> <entity:B>.60Tom´aˇs Novotn´yEntity reference is consists of a key and a value. It is a simplified version of the properties in RDF. Both the key and value of a reference are entities. In contrast to RDF, the value of a reference cannot be a literal. As with the ECMAScript object model, entity can have at most one reference with the same key. As the reference key is an entity, the entity can store metadata that can provide information such as seman-tic meaning, usage constraints, or human-readable documentation. Fig. 1 shows the data model of the entity.Fig. 1. The data model of the entity.Entities can be directly accessed by URIs. However, URIs are not mandatory for enti-ties. An entity without a URI can be accessed by searching or by local navigation.This part described the core part the CO data model. Additional features can be provided as extensions. Following part describes representation of several basic data structures.3.2 Data structuresUnlike RDF or the ECMAScript object model, the CO data model has no direct sup-port for collections. As collections are the most common data structures, this part sketches how to form collections in the CO data model.There are basically two ways to build a collection. The first way is to create a spe-cial data type that represents a collection, so the collection will be stored in the con-tent of an entity. This method allows the storing of any type of collection. It is espe-cially useful for vectors or matrices and it can be likened to containers in RDF or arrays in the ECMAScript object model.The second method uses references to group items in a collection. There are two types of collection that can be formed. The first type includes collections whose entity directly refers to multiple items. Basic examples of such collections are simple or hi-erarchical dictionaries.The other type of collection points directly to just one item. One of the simplest examples is a singly linked list. The singly linked list is usually formed by adding to each item a reference that points to the following item. There can be also a special ob-ject that represents a whole collection. This object has a reference to the first item in the collection. In this scenario, items of a collection do not know in what collection they are contained without an additional reference and they can be usually contained in a single collection.A Content-Oriented Data Model for Semistructured Data61The CO data model enables the creation of specialized singly linked lists where each item can be contained in multiple collections and each item knows what collec-tions it is contained in without additional references. Such linked lists will be referred to as informed lists. The architecture of an informed list is as follows.The entity that represents a collection remains unchanged – it has a reference to the first item. Items also contain references to the next item. However these references are not identified by a general next entity but by the entity of the collection. As each col-lection is represented by a different entity, items have references with different keys and hence they can be contained in multiple collections. Items also know the collec-tions where they are included because this information is stored in the keys of the ref-erences to the next items. Fig. 2 shows an example of an informed list.Fig. 2. Example of an informed list. The list is represented by entity “a list”. It contains three items: “item 1”, “item 2”, and “item 3”. Entity “first” represents a known entity that is used as key that refers to the first item and “none” is another known entity needed to store ref-erence to the owning list in the last item. Entities are represented by boxes, references are ren-dered as solid arrows, and keys of the references are pointed by dashed lines.One possible application for informed lists is a tagging system where each tag is represented by a collection of entities that are tagged by this tag. A tagging system can list all tags for a resource in a constant time without any additional indexes. It can also immediately retrieve an additional resource for each tag. This feature can be use-ful to provide a simple and fast tag-based ‘see also’.Several informed lists can form a multilevel hierarchical structure where descen-dants know their ancestors. One of the possible applications is a system for hierarchi-cal categorization.The idea of informed lists can be also used to construct properties that can have multiple values and that know what objects refer to them. Such properties will be called informed properties. This construct can be conceived as a fusion of informed lists. Each list contains values for a particular property. And the key of the reference to the first value in each list is replaced by a key that will identify the property. An example of informed property is in Fig. 3.62Tom´aˇs Novotn´yFig. 3. Example of informed properties. Entity “an object” has two informed properties: “property A” and “property B”. Property “property A” has two values “value A1” and “value A2” and property “property B” with one value “value B1”.4 ImplementationThis chapter is divided into two parts. The first part outlines the general architecture of a framework that implements the CO data model. The second part describes a pro-totypical implementation to evaluate the CO data model.4.1 ArchitectureAll frameworks for the CO data model should implement the core of the data model. The core was described in the Architecture part of the Design chapter. A core frame-work should provide programming interfaces to access entities and to get and set a type, references, and content. There are no methods to create or delete entities be-cause each URI refers to an existing entity. The consequence is that there is an infinite number of entities. However, only a finite number of entities contain non-default in-formation hence the framework should store only the entities with non-default infor-mation. The entities with default information are called implicit entities and the other entities are called explicit entities. The implicit entities have null content, no refer-ences, and a default type.The minimal framework may implement only a volatile data model. Such a frame-work can be useful, for instance, in applications that use existing web services to store data.Other features are optional and they are not part of the core. They are provided by extensions. There are several types of extensions. One type of the extension is a data aspect. The data aspect is a component that simplifies manipulation with a complex data structure, such as the informed list. The data aspect for the informed list can pro-vide methods to add, remove, or search items. It can enhance the performance by cached backward links or a cached index array for immediate random access.Another type of extension is a data store provider. The data store provider allows loading and saving data to data storages either local (e.g. files, databases) or remoteA Content-Oriented Data Model for Semistructured Data63 (e.g. web services). They can also serve as data adapters between the CO data model and internal object models of other applications.Moreover, interactive applications require knowing when something has changed. This implies enhanced implementation of the core that raises an event if a change oc-curs. The system for event notification may be developed for a certain user interface toolkit so the application developers can directly bind controls to the data model.4.2 PrototypeCurrently, there is a prototype of a framework for the CO data model. It is written in C# [37] and runs on the .NET 3.0 Framework [38] [39]. The data model is imple-mented as .NET Component Model [40]. It was specially developed for the Windows Presentation Foundation [41]. It implements a data aspect for the informed list that caches backward links and an index array to provide faster random access. The data aspect also provides collection-change notifications so it can be bound to standard controls that display collections.The framework supports simple transactions that delays commit and provides roll-back of changed data. There are four data store providers: file system provider, SQL provider, [42] provider, and Berkeley DB [43] provider.4.3 EvaluationThe architecture of the data model allows simple implementation of the data model as .NET Component Model with change notifications. Therefore, application developers can directly bind data to user interface controls. Two-way data binding [44] let them develop applications where users can interactively manipulate data while the develop-ers do not have to build an extra object model and write a glue code to transfer data between data stores and user interface controls.5 ConclusionThe extensible architecture of the CO data model has some advantages and draw-backs. The main advantage is that complex features can be later replaced with a better implementation. However, it can result in several implementations of the same feature and developers have to choose one that best fits their needs, so they may spend extra time analyzing various implementations. This can be avoided, of course, by maintain-ing a list of various implementations with comparisons and use cases.As is mentioned in the introduction, in contrast to OEM, XML, and RDF, the CO data model is intended to be directly manipulated by users through user interface con-trols. Therefore, before a development of other extensions is undertaken, this model must prove that it is really useful and that future work on this model will not be a waste of time. Such proof may be done by building small applications that will help users to organize information from various aspects, such as a system to store personal thoughts or to manage personal data from other applications.64Tom´aˇs Novotn´yIf the data model will be successful, it can be later enhanced by other extensions demanded by users. Some possible extensions might be a change log to enable full undo functionality or allowing users to share their information on a peer-to-peer net-work and letting them specify particular access rights for particular users on a particu-lar set of their information.Acknowledgments. I would like to express many thanks to Christoph Quix, who has taught me to write a paper and with whom I was consulting the content of this paper, and Roger Hughes, who made a deep language correction of the draft. References1. J. McHugh, S. Abiteboul, R. Goldman, D. Quass, J. Widom. Lore: A database managementsystem for semistructured data. SIGMOD Record, 26(3), pages 54-66, 1997.2. P. Buneman. Semistructured data. In Proc. of the 16th ACM SIGACT-SIGMOD-SIGARTSymposium on Principles of Database Systems, pages 117-121, 1997.3. S. Chawathe, H. Garcia-Molina, J. Hammer, K. Ireland, Y. Papakonstantinou, J. Ullman, J.Widom. The TSIMMIS Project: Integration of Heterogeneous Information Sources. In Proc. of IPSJ Conference, pages 7-18, 1994.4. T. Berners-Lee, R. Cailliau, J. Groff. The World-Wide Web. Computer Networks and ISDNSystemts, 25, pages 454-459, 1992.5. O. Etzioni. The World-Wide Web: quagmire or gold mine? Communications of the ACM.Volume 39, Issue 11, 1996.6. J. Hammer, J. McHugh, H. Garcia-Molina, Semistructured Data: The TSIMMIS Experi-ence, In Proc. ADBIS'97, St. Petersburg, Russia, 1997.7. G. Wiederhold. Mediators in the Architecture of Future Information Systems. Computer 25,1992.8. H. Garcia-Molina, Y. Papakonstantinou, D. Quass, A. Rajamaran, Y. Sagiv, J. Ullman, V.Vassalos and J. Widom, The TSIMMIS approach to Mediation: Data Models and Lan-guages, Journal of Intelligent Information Systems, 8(2) pages 117-132, 1997.9. J. Hammer, H. Garcia-Molina, S. Nestorov, R. Yerneni, M. Breunig, and V. Vassalos.Template-based wrappers in the TSIMMIS system. In Proc. ACM SIGMOD International Conference on Management of Data (SIGMOD '97), pages 532-535, 1997.10. Y. Papakonstantinou, S. Abiteboul, and H. GarciaMolina. Object fusion in mediator sys-tems. In Proc 22nd. VLDB conference, 1996.11. S. Chawathe, H. Garcia-Molina, J. Widom. Constraint Management in Loosely CoupledDistributed Databases. Technical report, Computer Science Department, Stanford Univer-sity, 1993.12. K. Shoens, A. Luniewski, P. Schwarz, J. Stamos, and J. Thomas. The RUFUS System: In-formation Organization for Semi-Structured Data. Proceedings of the International Confer-ence on Very Large Databases,pages 97-107, Dublin, Ireland, 1993.13. Y. Papakonstantinou, H. Garcia-Molina, J. Widom. Object Exchange Across Heterogene-ous Information Sources. In Proc. of 11th International Conference on Data Engineering (ICDE'95), pages 251-260, Taiwan, 1995.14. J. Hammer, H. Garcia-Molina, K. Ireland, Y. Papakonstantinou, J. Ullman, J. Widom, In-formation translation, mediation, and mosaic-based browsing in the TSIMMIS system. 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Standard ECMA-334 4th Edition, 2006.38. .NET Framework 3.0 Technologies, MSDN/en-us/netframework/aa663323.aspx39. .NET Framework 3.0 Community/40. ponentModel Namespace, .NET Framework Class Library, MSDN/en-us/ponentmodel(vs.80).aspx。

新视野大学英语读写教程3网络答案（最全）Unit 4Passage AV ocabulary Task 11 inspected2 assembled3 exaggerated4 versions5 universal6 approved7 recruit8 evolved9 dedicated10 solemn11 contracts12 independence13 reputation 14 destructionV ocabulary Task 21 worked on2 approve of3 went ahead4 for sale5 come up with6 refashioned into7 rise to fame8 captures my attention9 evolved from10 named after 11 posing for 12 go againstBanked Cloze1 consistently2 fashionable3 trends4 represent5 dimensions6 intended7 exaggerated8 regarding9 negative10 competitorsClose1 a2 c3 b4 d5 b 6d 7 a 8 c 9 a 10 B11 a 12 c 13 A 14 C 15c 16 a 17 d 18 d 19 a 20 dTranslation Task 11. Everything considered, this city is the world's most exciting city.2.Though with no approval from his parents, he went ahead with his plan to study abroad.3. The bridge was named after the hero who gave his life for the cause of people.4. It is said that the painter used his mother as the model in the painting whose face represented suffering yet strength.5. The writer instantly rose to fame in 1950 with the publication of a novel inspired by his experience with a girl on a farm.6. One story says that "US" was short for "Uncle Sam" whose real name was Sam Wilson, who had once worked with a man who had signed a contract with the government to provide meat to the US Army.Translation Task 21. 这幅画上一个神色严肃的男子，身旁站着一位女子，身后是所农舍。

高三英语政治和经济词汇单选题40题1. The government has decided to ______ a new economic policy to boost domestic consumption.A. implementB. complementC. supplementD. experiment答案解析：A。

本题考查动词的用法。

implement意为实施、执行，在这里表示政府实施新的经济政策，是符合语境的。

complement表示补充、补足，通常用于表示事物之间相互补充完善；supplement表示补充、增补，更多侧重于数量上的补充；experiment是实验，与实施政策语境不符。

2. In international trade, the ______ rate between two currencies can greatly affect the export and import business.A. exchangeB. changeC. varyD. convert答案解析：A。

exchange rate是固定搭配，表示汇率。

change作名词时主要表示改变、变化；vary是动词，表示变化、不同；convert 虽然也有转换的意思，但不用于表示汇率这个概念。

3. The ______ of a country should be based on the well - being of itspeople.A. prosperityB. propertyC. popularityD. possibility答案解析：A。

prosperity表示繁荣，一个国家的繁荣建立在人民的幸福之上是合理的。

property表示财产、地产；popularity表示流行、人气；possibility表示可能性，都不符合语境。

4. The political ______ in this region has been stable for years, which is conducive to economic development.A. situationB. conditionC. stateD. status答案解析：A。

美国文学习题集（含答案）12012-10-15 19:10点击次数：141 Basic Literary KnowledgeⅠ. Fill in the blanks1. iambic foot, stressed2. repetition3. symbol4. couplet, heroic couplet5. trochaic1. The _____is the most commonly used foot in English poetry, in which an unstressed syllable comes first, followed by a ______syllable.2. Rhyme is the _____of sounds in two or more words or phrases that usually appear close to each other in a poem. For example: we/thee, man/can, and gold/hold.3. A _____is a sign that suggests more than its literal meaning.4. The two-line stanza form is called the _____, the best-known being the _____which is written in iambic pentameter with an end rhyme.5. The _____foot, which is the reverse of the iambic foot, also consists of one stressed and one unstressed syllables, but with the stressed one coming first.6. unstressed7. Washington Irving8. Edgar Allan Poe9. Bret Hart6. An anapestic foot is made up of two _____and one stressed syllables, with the two unstressed in front.7. American achievements in the short story have demanded international respect and admiration for more from ______in the early 19th century.poetics of the short stories.9. There were two other American writers who had made significant contributions to the literary form of short story: ______, with his stories of early life in California, started a vogue of local color stories and made the short story seem completely at home in the US, and Henry James, brought to the form a careful writing that made his stories models.10. In the 20th century, there have been many who have won fame abroad as well as in the US for their stories: ______, _______, _______, ________, and dozens of others.11. As you read from writer to writer, f rom ______‟s Rip Van Winkle to ______‟s A Good Man is Hard to Find, you will see the coming of a short story age, growing from an entertaining tale into a store which probes deep into human souls.12. Modern literary fiction has been dominated by two forms: _______13. Washing Irving, the father of American literature, developed the _____as a genre in American literature.14. ______is usually acknowledged as the originator of detective stories. He is also credited with developing many of the standardfeatures of detective fiction. His detective M August Dupin of Murders in the Rue Morgue and The Purloined Letter is the forerunner of a long line of fictional detectives who are eccentric and brilliant.16. stressed, unstressed17. stanza18. final consonant16. A dactylic foot is made up of one ______ and two _______syllables, with the stressed in front.17. The _____is a structured division of a poem, consisting of a series of verse lines which usually comprise a recurring pattern of meter and rhyme. In traditional English poetry, there are various forms containing two, there, four, five, six, seven, eight or nine lines.18. Consonance is the repetition of _____but with different preceding vowels e.g. heart/light, flag/plug. Unlike alliteration and assonance, consonance can serve as end rhythm.1-5 BDCBDⅡ. Multiple Choices1. Edgar Allan Poe wrote poems which are marvels of beauty and craftsmanship such as ________.A. I Hear America SingingB. The RavenC. To a WaterfowlD. The Fall of the House of Usher2. Which writer is not a poet?A. Michael WigglesworthB. Anne BradstreetC. Edward TaylorD. Thomas Hooker.3. The common thread throughout American literature has been the emphasis on the _______A. RevolutionismB. ReasonC. IndividualismD. Rationalism4. In American literature, the 18th century was the age of Enlightenment, ______was the dominant spirit.A. HumanismB. RationalismC. RevolutionD. Evolution5. Who was considered as the“poet of American revolution”?A. Michael WigglesworthB. Edward TaylorC. Anne BradstreetD. Philip Freneau6-10 BCADB6. Thomas Jefferson‟s attitude, that is, a firm belief in progress, and the pur suit of happiness, is typical of the period we now call _______.A. Age of EvolutionB. Age of ReasonC. Age of RomanticismD. Age of Regionalism7. Howells defined realism as “nothing more and nothing less than the truthful treatment of material”, and he best exemplified his theories in three novels: The Modern Instance, The Rise of Silas Laphan, and ______.A. White FangB. The last of the MohicansC. A Hazard of New FortunesD. The Prince and the Pauper8．Mark twain created, in ______, a masterpiece of American realism that is also one of the great books of world literature.A. Huckleberry FinnB. Tom SawyerC. The Man That Corrupted HadleyburyD. The Gilded Age9. The pessimism and deterministic ideas of naturalism pervaded the works of such American writers as ______.A. Mark TwainB. Francis Scott FitzgeraldC. Wait WhitmanD. Stephen Crane10. Although realism and naturalism were products of the 19th century, their final triumph came in the 20th century, with the popular and critical successes of such writers as Edwin Arlington, Willa Cather, Robert Frost, William Faulkner, and _____A. Edgar Allan PoeB. Sherwood AndersonC. Washington IrvingD. Ralph Ellison11-15 CAACA11. American literature produced only one female poet during the 19th century. She was ______.A. Anne BradstreetB. Jane AustenC. Emily DickensonD. Harriet Beecher12. Choose the well-known short stories written by William Sidney Porter.A. The Gift of the MagiB. Self-RelianceC. The Red Badge of CourageD. The Minister‟s Black Veil13. In 1900, Jack London published his first collection of short stories, named _____A. The Son of the WolfB. The Sea WolfC. The Law of LifeD. White Fang14. With Howells, James, and Mark Twain active on the scene, _______become the major trend in the seventies and eighties of the 19th century.A. sentimentalismB. romanticismC. realismD. naturalism15. Choose from the following writers a staunch advocate of 19th century American realism.A. Mark TwainB. Washington IrvingC. Stephen CraneD. Jack London16-20 DDECC16. Which writer has naturalist tendency?A. Frank NorrisB. William Dean HowellsC. Theodore DreiserD. Both A and B17. Early in the 20th century, ______published works that would change the nature of American poetry.A. Ezra PoundB. T. S. EliotC. Robert FrostD. Both A and B18. The American “Thirties” lasted from the Crash, though the ensuing Great Depression, until the outbreak of the Second Worl d WAR 1939. THIS WAS a period of “_______”A. PovertyB. BleaknessC. Important social movementsD.A new social consciousness19. The imagist writers followed three principles. They respectively are direct treatment, economy of expression and _______.A. local colorB. ironyC. clear rhythmD. blank verse20. “The apparition of these faces in the crowd; Petals on a wet, black bough.” This is the shortest written by ______.A. T. S. EliotB. Robert FrostC. Ezra PoundD. E .E. Cummings21-25 CEEDB21. Richard Cory and Miniver Cheevy are good examples of Arlington Robinson‟s_______ attitude.A. romanticB. fantasticC. realismD. materialistic22. Frost is famous for his lyric poems. Which of the following lyric poems was not written by Frost?A. BirchesB. Stopping by Woods on a Snowy EveningC. After Apple-PickingD. The Road Not TakenE. Richard Cory23. As a poet, Sandburg was associated with the Imagists and wrote well=known Imagist poems such as _______.A. FogB. LostC. MonotoneD. The HarborE. all of the above24. Sandburg had also taken interest in folk songs which he tried to collect and sing during his travels. These folk songs appeared eventually in print in his well-known _______.A. Good Morning, AmericaB. The People, YesC. In Rechless EcstasyD. The American Songbag25. ______, one of the essays in The Sacred Wood, is the earliest statement of T. S. Eliot‟s aesthetics, which provided a useful instrument for modern criticism.A. Sweeny AgonistesB. Tradition and the Individual TalentC. A Primer of Modern HeresyD. Gerontion26-30 AADCE26. T. S. Eliot‟s used a form, that is, the orc hestration of related themes in successive movements, in such works as ________.A. The Waste LandB. A Rose for EmilyC. The Scarlet LetterD. The Egg27. Eliot‟s first major poem (1917) _______ has been called the first m asterpiece of modernism in English.A. The Love Song of J. Alfred PrufrockB. The Waste LandC. Four QuartetsD. Preludes28. Choose the collections of short stories written by Fitzgerald.A. Flappers and PhilosophersB. Tales of the Jazz AgeC. All the Sad Yong MenD. All of the above29. The three poets Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot and ______opened the way to Modern poetry.A. O. HenryB. Henry David ThoreauC. E. E. CummingsD. Robert Frost30. In Paris, Hemingway, along with _______, accomplished a revolution in literary style and language.A. Gertrude SteinB. Ezra PoundC. T. S. EliotD. James Joyce31. In 1954, _______ was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature for his “mastery of the art of modern narration”.A. T. S. EliotB. Earnest HemingwayC. John SteinbeckD. William Faulkner31-33 BAE32. William Faulkner is one of the most important southern writer in the United States. ______, As I Lay Dying, Light in August, and Absalom, Absalom are works that ambitious critics tend to admire.A. The Sound and the FuryB. The Invisible ManC. A Good Man Is Hard to FindD. The Wrath of the Grapes33. Most of the important 20th American poets were related with Imagist movement, including _______.A. Ezra PoundB. Wallace StevensC. E. E. CummingsD. Carl SandburgE. all of the aboveⅢ. IdentificationⅢ. Identification.1. the American Crisis2. Thomas Paine3. Philip Freneau4. To a Caty-Did5. According to Freneau‟s note, a Caty-Did is a well-known insect. When full grown, it is about two inches in length, and of the exact color of a green leaf. It can sing such a song as Caty-Did in the evening toward autumn.6. Song of Myself7. Walt Whitman8. free verse9. Emily Dickinson 10. C11. C 12. Sister Carries13. Theodore DreiserPassage 1These are the times that try men‟s souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, i n this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman. Tyranny, like hell, is not easily conquered; yet we have this consolation with us, that the harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph. What we obtain toocheap, we esteem too lightly; it is dearness only that gives every thing its value. Heaven knows how to put a proper price upon its goods; and it would be strange indeed if so celestial an article as FREEDOM should not be highly rated. Britain, with an army to enforce her tyranny, has declared that she has a right (not only to TAX) but” to BIND us in ALL CASES WHATSOEVER,” and if being bound in that manner, is not slavery, then is there not such a thing as slavery upon earth. Even the expression is impious; for so unlimited a power can belong only to God.Questions:1. Which book is this passage taken from?2. Who is the author of the book?1. the American Crisis2. Thomas PainePassage 2But you would have uttered moreHad you known of nature‟s power;From the world when you retreat,And a leaf‟s your winding sheet,Long before your spirit fled,Who can tell but nature said,Live again, my Caty-did!Live, and chatter Caty-did.Questions:3. Who is the writer of these verses?4. What is the title of this lyrical poem?5. What is Caty-did?3. Philip Freneau4. To a Caty-Did5. According to Freneau‟s note, a Caty-Did is a well-known insect. When full grown, it is about two inches in length, and of the exact color of a green leaf. It can sing such a song as Caty-Did in the evening toward autumn.Passage 3I celebrate myself, and sing myself,And what I assume you shall assume,For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you.I loafe and invite my soul,I lean and loafe at my ease observing a spear of summer grass.My tongue, every atom of my blood, form‟d from this soil, this air,Born here of parents born here from parents the same, and their parents the same,I, now thirty-seven years old in perfect health begin,Hoping to cease not till death.Creeds and schools in abeyance,Retiring back a while sufficed at what they are, but never forgotten,I harbor for good or bad, I permit to speak at every hazard,Nature without check with original energy.Questions:6. This is the first two stanzas in the first section of a long poem entitled______.7. The name of the poet is _____.8. What is the verse structure?6. Song of Myself7. Walt Whitman8. free versePassage 4Because I could not stop for death,He kindly stopped for me;The carriage held but just ourselvesAnd immortality.We slowly drove, he knew no haste,And I had put awayMy labor and my leisure too,For his civility.We passed the school where children played,Their lessons scarcely done;We passed the fields of gazing grain,We passed the setting sun.We paused before a house that seemedA swelling of the ground;The roof was scarcely visible,The cornice but a mound.Since then ‟t is centuries; but eachFeels shorter than the dayI first surmised the hors es‟ headsWere toward eternity.Questions:9. Who is the writer of the lines?10. In which category would you place this poem?A. narrativeB. dramaticC. lyric9. Emily Dickinson 10. C11. The poet is noted for her uses of _____to achieve special effects.A. perfect rhymeB. exact rhymeC. slant rhymePassage 5When a girl leaves her home at eighteen, she does one of two things. Either she falls into saving hands and becomes better worse. Of an intermediate balance, under the circumstances, there is no possibility. The city has its cunning wiles, no less than the infinitely smaller and more human tempter. There are large forces which allure with all the soulfulness of expression possible in the most cultured human.The gleam of a thousand lights is often as effective as the persuasive light in a wooing and fascinating eye. Half the undoing of the unsophisticated and natural mind is accomplished by forces wholly superhuman. A blare of sound, a roar of life, vast array of human hives, appeal to the astonished senses in equivocal terms. Without a counselor at hand to whisper cautious interpretations, what falsehoods may not these things breathe into the unguarded ear! Unrecognized for what they are, their beauty, like music, too often relaxes, then weakens, then perverts the simpler human perceptions.Questions:12. From which novel is this paragraph taken?13. Who is the author of the novel?12. Sister Carries13. Theodore DreiserⅣ. Literary Terms1. Satire 12. Irony2. short story 13. Plot3. Stanza 14. Nonfiction4. Subtext 15. Narration5. tall story/tall tale 16. Imagery6. Verse 17. Simile and metaphor7. Rhythm 18. Character8. Foot 19. Surrealism9. Meter 20. Theatre of Absurdity10. Sonnet 21. Deconstructionism11. LyricⅤ. Questions and Answers1. How do you understand Mark Twain‟s use of Local Color in his writing?2. Discuss the reflection of realistic and naturalistic tendencies on the American 19th-century novels.3. Discuss the concept of Wasteland in relation to he works of those writers in the 20th century American literature.Ⅵ. Analysis of Literary WorksRip Van WinkleAt the foot of these fairy mountains, the voyager may have descried the light smoke curling up from a village, whose shingle-roofs gleam among the trees, just where the blue tints of the upland melt away into the fresh green of the nearer landscape. It is a little of great antiquity, having been founded by some of the Dutch colonists, in the early times of the province, just about the beginning ofthe government of the good Peter Stuyvesant, (may he rest in peace!) and there were some of the house of the original settlers standing within a few years, built of small yellow bricks brought from Holland, having latticed windows and gable fronts, surmounted with weather-cocks.In that same village, and in one of these very houses (which, to tell the precise truth, was sadly time-worn and weather-beaten), there lived many years since, while the country was yet a province of Great Britain, a simple good-natured fellow of the name of Rip Van Winkle. He was a descendant of the Van Winkles who figured so gallantly in the chivalrous days of Peter Stuyvesant, and accompanied him to the siege of Fort Christina. He inherited, however, but little of the martial character of his ancestors. I have observed that he was a simple good-natured man; he was, moreover, a kind neighbor, and an obedient hen-natured husband. Indeed, to the latter circumstance might be owing that meekness of spirit which gained him such universal popularity; for those men are most apt to be obsequious and conciliating abroad, who are under the discipline of shrews at home. Their tempers, doubtless, are rendered pliant and malleable in the fiery furnace of domestic tribulation; and a curtain lecture is worth all the sermons in the world for teaching the virtues of patience and long-suffering. A termagant wife may, therefore, in some respects, be considered a tolerable blessing; and if so, Rip Van Winkle was thrice blessed.Questions:1.Try to explain the setting by making reference to the above passage selected from Rip Van Winkle.1. By the setting of a story we mean its time and place-its geography, era, reason, and society. Most writers invoke particular places and particular times, and their stories establish these settings precisely. Precise setting helps to establish the truth of the story, to persuade the reader of the validity of the take. In “Rip Van Winkle”, by a detailed description of a remove, isolated “little village of great antiquity”, Irving creates a quiet, tranquil, ante-bellum social aura, which may betray his personal dislike of change, revolution and war; on the other hand, this setting prepares readers for the following exotic experience of Rip.Setting can give us information vital to plot and theme. Often, setting and character will reveal each other. At the start of A Rose for Emily, Faulkner depicts Emily Grierson‟s house, once handsome but now “an eyesore among eyesores” surrounded by a gas station. Still standing refusing to yield its old-time horse-and-buggy splendor to the age of the automobile, the house in “its stubborn and coquettish decay” embodies the character of its owner.In some stories, a writer will see to draw a setting mainly to evoke atmosphere. The atmosphere is the aura or mood, or the general pervasive feeling aroused by the work which shares the reader‟s attitudes and expectations. Gothic fiction and Edgar Allan Poe‟s horror stories abound with settings of this kind.2.Daisy MillerWinterbourne, who had returned to Geneva the day after his excursion to Chillon, went to Rome toward the end of January. His aunt had been established there for several weeks, and he had received a couple of letters from her.” Those people you were s o devoted to last summer at Vesey have turned up here, courier and all,” she wrote.” They seem to have made several acquaintances, but the courier continues to be the most in time. The young lady, however, is also very intimate with some third-rate Italians, with whom she packets about in a way that makes much talk. Bring of that pretty novel of Cherbuliez‟s---Paule-- Mere-and don‟t come later than the 23rd.”In the natural course of events, Winterbourne, on arriving in Rome, would presently have ascertained Mrs. Miller‟s address at the Am erican banker‟s and have gone to pay his compliments to Miss Daisy.” After what happened at Vevey, I think I May certainly call upon them,” he said to Mrs. Costello.“If, after what happens---at Vevey--- and everywhere-you desire to keep up the acquaintance, you are very welcome. Of course aman may know everyone. Men are welcome to the privilege!”“Pray what is it that happens-here, for instance?” Winterbourne demanded.”The girl goes about alone with her foreigners. As to what happens further, you must apply elsewhere for information .She has picked up half a dozen of the regular Roman fortune hunters, and she takes them about to people‟s houses. When she comes to a party she brings with her a gentleman with a good deal of manner and a wonderful mustache.”“And where is the mother?”“I haven‟t the least idea. They are very dreadful people.”Winterbourne meditated a moment.” They are very ignorant-very innocent only. Depend upon it they are not bad.”“They are hopelessly vulgar,” said Mrs. Costello. “Whether or on being hopelessly vulgar is being …bad‟ is a question for the metaphysicians. They are bad enough to dislike, at any rate; and for this short life that is quite enough.”The news that Dairy Miller was surrounded by half a dozen wonderful mustache s checked Winterbourne‟s impulse to in straightway to see her. He had, perhaps, not definitely flattered himself that he had made an ineffaceable impression upon her heart, but he was annoyed at hearing of a state of affairs so little in harmony with an image that had lately flitted in and out of his own meditations” the image of a very pretty girl looking out of an old Roman window and asking herself urgently when Mr. Winterbourne would arrive. If, however, he determined to wait a little before reminding Miss Miller of his claims to her consideration, he went very soon to call upon two or three other friends. One of these friends was an American lady who had spent several winters at Geneva, where she had placed her children at school. She was a very accomplished woman, and she lived in the Via Gregoriana. Winterbourne found her in a little crimson drawing room on a third floor; the room was filled with southern sunshine. He had not been there ten minutes when the servant came in, announcing” Madame Mila!” Th is announcement was presently followed by the entrance of little Randolph Miller, who stopped in the middle of the room and stood staring at Winterbourne. An instant later his pretty sister crossed the threshold; and then, after a considerable interval, Mrs. Miller slowly advanced.Questions:2. In his whole writing career James is concerned with “point of view”, which is at the centre of his aesthetic of the novel. Comment on the “point of view” in this story.2. The method of “point of view” as James term ed means observing events and people through the consciousness of his characters. In Daisy Miller Winterbourne is the objective spectator, through whose eyes James reveals the conflicts between Mrs. Walker and Dairy, through whose mind James illustrates the situation and characters clearly.3. Daisy defies European conventions and falls a victim to her own innocence. Discuss the character of Daisy.3. She is fresh, pure, brave, honest, and enthusiastic. She represents American independent spirit. She likes freedom and dares to challenge old European convention and tradition. But somehow she is not well-cultured or well-refined.4. In his story Winterbourne shows contradictory attitudes toward Daisy. He tries to decide whether she is a flirt or a native girl. Illustrate his attitude by citing some examples from the reading.4. “They‟re very ignorant-very innocent only, and utterly uncivilized. Depend on it they‟re not bad.” “The poor girl‟s only fault is her complete lack of education.”5. In this selected reading, when Daisy is taking a walk with Winterbourne and Giovanelli, Mrs. Walker gets there and tries to “rescue” her from her indiscretions. But Daisy refuses her. As an American Living in Europe, what do you think Mrs. Walker represents?5. She represents European conventional opinions. As an American living too long in Europe, she is overwhelmed by European over-refined, degenerated, and artificial sophistication.6. James‟ fame largely rested on his handing “the international theme”----American innocence in contrast with European sophistication. What is James‟s attitude towards the difference in morality of Daisy Miller from that of the Old World?6. James enjoys juxtaposing American moral innocence with the somber decadence of Europe and presenting the superiority of at least some of American values to those of the Old World. However, the final death of Dairy in Some indicates that European values are strong and overwhelming.To HelenHelen, thy beauty is to meLike those Nicean barks of yore,That ge ntly, o‟er a perfumed sea,The weary, wayworn wanderer boreTo his own native shore.Om desperate seas long wont to roam,Thy hyacinth hair, thy classic face.Thy Naiad airs have brought me homeTo the glory that was GreeceAnd the grandeur that was Rome.Lo! In yon brilliant window-nicheHow statue-like I see thee standThe agate lamp within thy hand!Ah, Psyche, from the regions whichAre Holy Land!Questions:7. “To take sound away from poetry”, said one poet “is like tearing the wings from a bird”. Poets, like musicians, are sensitive to the effects of sounds. Analyze the lines from To Helen and explain the device of alliteration in your own words.O Captain! My Captain!O Captain! My Captain! Our fearful trip is done;The ship has weather‟d every rack, the prize we sought is won;The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting,While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring:But O heart! heart! heart!O the bleeding drops of red,Where on the deck my Captain lies,Fallen cold and dead.O Captain! My captain! Rise up and hear the bells:Rise up—for you the flag is flung—for you the bugle trills;For you bouquets and ribbon‟d wreaths---for you the shores a-crowding;Here Captain! Dear father!This arm beneath your head;It is some dream that on the deck,You‟ve fallen cold and dead.My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still;My father does not feel my arm; he has no pulse nor will;The ship is anchor‟d safe and sound, its voyage closed and done;From fearful trip, the victor ship, comes in with object won;Exult, O shores, and ring, O bells!But I, with mournful tread,Walk the deck my Captain lies,Fallen cold and dead.Questions:8. Read the poem lyrics of O Captain! My Captain! By Walt Whitman and analyze it terms of free verse.Invisible manXXV. The Hunting of the Invisible ManFor a space Kemp was too inarticulate to make Adye understand the swift things that had just happened. The tow men stood on the landing, Kemp speaking swiftly, the grasp something of the situation.“He‟s mad,” said Kemp; “inhuman. He is pure selfishness. He thinks of nothing but his own advantage, his own safety. I have listened to such a story this morning of brutal self-seeking! He has wounded men. He will kill them unless we can prevent him. He will create a panic. Nothing can stop him. He is going out now-furious!”“He must be caught,” said Adye. “That is certain.”“But how?” cried Kemp, and suddenly become full of ideas. “You must begin at once. You must set e very available man to work. You must prevent his leaving this district. Once he gets away he may go through the countryside as he wills, killing and maiming. He dreams of a reign of terror! A reign of terror, I tell you. You must set a watch on trains and roads and shipping. The garrison must help. You must write for help. The only thing that may keep him here is the thought of recovering some books of notes he counts of value. I will tell you of that! There is a man in your police station—Marvel.”“I know,” said Adye,” I know. Those books—yes.”“And you must prevent him from eating or sleeping; day and night the country must be astir for him. Food must be locked up and secured, all food, so that he will have to break his way to it. The houses everywhere must be barred against him. Heaven send。

Zigbee Wireless Sensor Network in Environmental MonitoringApplicationsI. ZIGBEE TECHNOLOGYZigbee is a wireless standard based on IEEE802.15.4 that was developed to address the unique needs of most wireless sensing and control applications. Technology is low cost, low power, a low data rate, highly reliable, highly secure wireless networking protocol targeted towards automation and remote control applications. It’s depicts two key performance characteristics – wireless radio range and data transmission rate of the wireless spectrum. Comparing to other wireless networking protocols such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, UWB and so on, shows excellent transmission ability in lower transmission rate and highly capacity of network.A. Zigbee FrameworkFramework is made up of a set of blocks called layers.Each layer performs a specific set of services for the layer above. As shown in Fig.1. The IEEE 802.15.4 standard defines the two lower layers: the physical (PHY) layer and the medium access control (MAC) layer. The Alliance builds on this foundation by providing the network and security layer and the framework for the application layer.Fig.1 FrameworkThe IEEE 802.15.4 has two PHY layers that operate in two separate frequency ranges: 868/915 MHz and 2.4GHz. Moreover, MAC sub-layer controls access to the radio channel using a CSMA-CA mechanism. Its responsibilities may also include transmitting beacon frames, synchronization, and providing a reliable transmission mechanism.B. Zigbee’s TopologyThe network layer supports star, tree, and mesh topologies, as shown in Fig.2. In a star topology, the network is controlled by one single device called coordinator. The coordinatoris responsible for initiating and maintaining the devices on the network. All other devices, known as end devices, directly communicate with the coordinator. In mesh and tree topologies, the coordinator is responsible for starting the network and for choosing certain key network parameters, but the network may be extended through the use of routers. In tree networks, routers move data and control messages through the network using a hierarchical routing strategy. Mesh networks allow full peer-to-peer communication.Fig.2 Mesh topologiesFig.3is a network model, it shows that supports both single-hop star topology constructed with one coordinator in the center and the end devices, and mesh topology. In the network, the intelligent nodes are composed by Full Function Device (FFD) and Reduced Function Device (RFD). Only the FFN defines the full functionality and can become a network coordinator. Coordinator manages the network, it is to say that coordinator can start a network and allow other devices to join or leave it. Moreover, it can provide binding and address-table services, and save messages until they can be delivered.Fig.3 Zigbee network modelII.THE GREENHOUSE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORINGSYSTEM DESIGNTraditional agriculture only use machinery and equipment which isolating and no communicating ability. And farmers have to monitor crops’ growth by themselves. Even if some people use electrical devices, but most of them were restricted to simple communication between control computer and end devices like sensors instead of wire connection, which couldn’t be strictly defined as wireless sens or network. Therefore, by through using sensor networks and, agriculture could become more automation, more networking and smarter.In this project, we should deploy five kinds of sensors in the greenhouse basement. By through these deployed sensors, the parameters such as temperature in the greenhouse, soil temperature, dew point, humidity and light intensity can be detected real time. It is key to collect different parameters from all kinds of sensors. And in the greenhouse, monitoring the vegetables growing conditions is the top issue. Therefore, longer battery life and lower data rate and less complexity are very important. From the introduction about above, we know that meet the requirements for reliability, security, low costs and low power.A. System OverviewThe overview of Greenhouse environmental monitoring system, which is made up by one sink node (coordinator), many sensor nodes, workstation and database. Mote node and sensor node together composed of each collecting node. When sensors collect parameters real time, such as temperature in the greenhouse, soil temperature, dew point, humidity and light intensity, these data will be offered to A/D converter, then by through quantizing and encoding become the digital signal that is able to transmit by wireless sensor communicating node. Each wireless sensor communicating node has ability of transmitting, receiving function.In this WSN, sensor nodes deployed in the greenhouse, which can collect real time data and transmit data to sink node (Coordinator) by the way of multi-hop. Sink node complete the task of data analysis and data storage. Meanwhile, sink node is connected with GPRS/CDMA can provide remote control and data download service. In the monitoring and controlling room, by running greenhouse management software, the sink node can periodically receives the data from the wireless sensor nodes and displays them on monitors.B. Node Hardware DesignSensor nodes are the basic units of WSN. The hardware platform is made up sensor nodes closely related to the specific application requirements. Therefore, the most important work is the nodes design which can perfect implement the function of detecting and transmission as a WSN node, and perform its technology characteristics. Fig.4 shows the universal structure of the WSN nodes. Power module provides the necessary energy for the sensor nodes. Data collection module is used to receive and convert signals of sensors. Data processing and control module’s functions are node device control, task sche duling, and energy computing and so on. Communication module is used to send data between nodes and frequency chosen and so on.Fig.4 Universal structure of the wsn nodesIn the data transfer unit, the module is embedded to match the MAC layer and the NET layer of the protocol. We choose CC2430 as the protocol chips, which integrated the CPU, RF transceiver, net protocol and the RAM together. CC2430 uses an 8 bit MCU (8051), and has 128KB programmable flash memory and 8KB RAM. It also includes A/D converter, some Timers, AES128 Coprocessor, Watchdog Timer, 32K crystal Sleep mode Timer, Power on Reset, Brown out Detection and 21I/Os. Based on the chips, many modules for the protocol are provided. And the transfer unit could be easily designed based on the modules.As an example of a sensor end device integrated temperature, humidity and light, the design is shown in Fig. 5.Fig.5 The hardware design of a sensor nodeThe SHT11is a single chip relative humidity and temperature multi sensor module comprising a calibrated digital output. It can test the soil temperature and humidity. The DS18B20 is a digital temperature sensor, which has 3 pins and data pin can link MSP430 directly. It can detect temperature in greenhouse. The TCS320is a digital light sensor. SHT11, DS18B20and TCS320are both digital sensors with small size and low power consumption. Other sensor nodes can be obtained by changing the sensors.The sensor nodes are powered from onboard batteries and the coordinator also allows to be powered from an external power supply determined by a jumper.C. Node Software DesignThe application system consists of a coordinator and several end devices. The general structure of the code in each is the same, with an initialization followed by a main loop.The software flow of coordinator, upon the coordinator being started, the first action of the application is the initialization of the hardware, liquid crystal, stack and application variables and opening the interrupt. Then a network will be formatted. If this net has been formatted successfully, some network information, such as physical address, net ID, channel number will be shown on the LCD. Then program will step into application layer and monitor signal. If there is end device or router want to join in this net, LCD will shown this information, and show the physical address of applying node, and the coordinator will allocate a net address to this node. If the node has been joined in this network, the data transmitted by this node will be received by coordinator and shown in the LCD.The software flow of a sensor node, as each sensor node is switched on, it scans allchannels and, after seeing any beacons, checks that the coordinator is the one that it is looking for. It then performs a synchronization and association. Once association is complete, the sensor node enters a regular loop of reading its sensors and putting out a frame containing the sensor data. If sending successfully, end device will step into idle state; by contrast, it will collect data once again and send to coordinator until sending successfully.D. Greenhouse Monitoring Software DesignWe use VB language to build an interface for the test and this greenhouse sensor network software can be installed and launched on any Windows-based operating system. It has 4 dialog box selections: setting controlling conditions, setting Timer, setting relevant parameters and showing current status. By setting some parameters, it can perform the functions of communicating with port, data collection and data viewing.Zigbee无线传感器网络在环境监测中的应用I.Zigbee技术Zigbee是一种基于IEEE802.15.4的无线标准上被开发用来满足大多数无线传感和控制应用的独特需求。

Best Education System in theworld>The best education system in the world: Education, like healthcare and food, is a basic fundamental right of every citizen in every country. No forces of nature should stop anyone from getting an education because simply put, education is power.Countries fight elections over trivial things like war and religion, but never on education, which is a truly upsetting and unfortunate turn of events. But this should not be a reason forpeople not to fight to get free and fair education that they deserveThere are many countries in the world that have made education free for their citizens. Because a well-educated citizen can bring laurels to their country and change the course of the dynamics of our societyBut before we start discussing some of the best education systems in the world, let us answer a few fundamental questionsQuestions that need to be immediately addressed are:Is education just about teaching student’s science and mathematics?Is education important only to find a job?Is education shadowed by political powers?Does getting a degree make you an educated person?Is our education system knowledge-driven or marks driven?What Constitutes a Good Education System?Countries with the Best Education System in the WorldEducation System in South KoreaEducation System in Hong KongEducation System in FinlandEducation System in USA These are some of the burning questions that are haunting academicians and policymakers world over. There is no one proper definition for education and anyone who says otherwise is not educated enough!In this part of the article, we will try to answer some of the questions mentioned aboveIs education just about teaching students science, arts, history or mathematics?Not necessarily. Of course, a student needs to be thought about geography, history, science and mathematics for them to have a bright and illustrious career ahead. But education is not confined to these subjects. Students need to be thought much more than this.Ethics, integrity, humanitarian values, the survival of the fittest and many other aspectsthat help them be a law-abiding honest and wise citizen which helps them in creating a better world are vital aspects of education for a student. Students are gullible and are of a fresh mindset. Anything that is taught in childhood will remain with them forever.Is education important only to find a job?Definitely not. Unfortunately the perception of the education systems, especially in countries like India, in that it is important only to find jobs and earn money. The government, academicians, teachers, students and parentsare collectively to be blamed for this type of mentalityA good education can indeed fetch you a good job, but that is the secondary intention of a good education. Being a better human being with good acumen and common sense and inculcating humanitarian values in students still is the primary intention of the education system.Is education shadowed by political powers?It pains us to say that, the education system is in most parts of the world, including India, is overshadowed by political and social influence.Science and mathematics can be an exception, but curriculum and syllabus in subjects like history and geography vary time to time depending on the political and social situation in the countryHistory can be blurred and modified by historians giving into propaganda other hidden agendas. This is a sorry state of affairs in our education system, which needs to be addressed immediately. Education systems should be truly independent without the influence of any power in the country.Does getting a degree make you an educated person?Do you think anyone and everyone graduating from top universities and institution around the world is really “educated”? Again, not necessarily. Because education comes from the deeds we do and not a piece of papers. A person might be a topper in all the subjects and might have done well in his or her career, but if he or she does not have humanitarian value and are crooked minded, then what is the pit of education?Is our education system knowledge-driven or marks driven?Well, it is supposed to knowledge-driven but due to various faulty reasons, the system has somehow become marks driven. Students are thought subjects in the classroom to top exams, and not to help them gain real knowledge A part of the blame is on government and a part of school authorities and faculties for this situation of our education systemThere are plenty of reasons, other than the ones mentioned above, on why our education system has so many flaws and is not up to thepar. The sole intention of an educational institution is to make students truly educated people. But the real truth about education systems in certain countries is far from that. From making money to promoting propaganda, education has always become a scapegoat for evil forces.Hence, let us answer this fundamental question hereWhat Constitutes a Good Education System?Good curriculum:Education curriculum according to the culture and dynamics of the country. It is the academicians and experts that design the curriculum and they need to keep all the local factors of the country in mind.Enrolment: Getting students to schools in primary and secondary education is a challenge that countries need to address Government and other responsible bodies should conduct awareness campaigns to make sure the less privileged get to go to school without any hindrance.Qualified faculty:Well trained faculty to schools is the responsibility of the government. There should be proper institutes in place to rain teachers. We emphasise on this because, at the end of the day, it is the teachers that nurture the students. They need to be well equipped with all the required competencies for the job.Infrastructure:For all-round development of a kid, the proper environment should be built around them. Digital infrastructure to physical infrastructure, a school should have it all to be a true best education systems in the world.Humanitarian values:Inculcate moral science and other such subjects in the curriculum. Students can grow up to be a doctor or a scientist or an engineer but the education system should also be such that students grow up to be a good human being.Coordination:Proper coordination between all the stakeholders such as government, parents and teachers. The education system can be improved only if everyone takes part in it effectively.Knowledge:An education system should be knowledge-driven and not marks driven. A school should not be a certificate-granting institute. Students should be thought to gain knowledge and not grades.Intentions:Teach students for the intention of gaining knowledge and not jobs. The intentions should be made clear. This holds importance, especially in primary and secondary education. The system should be designed such thatstudents make their own decisions later on about their career. An education system should only be medium for children to grow up to be independent.Freedom:Freedom from influential powers such as business, politics. The education system and the concerned authorities and schools should be truly independent in functioning. In this article, we list out the following factors that can make a country’s education systems the best in the worldLet us explain each of the factors by taking examples of best education systems around the worldCountries with the Best Education System in the WorldEducation System in South KoreaSouth Korea is considered to be one of the best education systems in East Asian Countries. Many countries across the globe try to imitate and replicate South Korea’s education syste ms.So what makes South Korea’s education system good?Synchronization of curriculum and examsSouth Korea takes it college and school examination so seriously, so much so that places come to a standstill on days of public examinations such as the university entrance examination and traffic is stopped and planes will be diverted to minimize noise. This is the amount of value they put on their children’s education The curriculum is dominated by languages, mathematics and science. English has become a very important element of socialmobility.Their education system reflects a strong overlap between the test questions and the exam-driven curriculum that schools focus on, as well as the hard work by the pupils and the strong support/pressure from parents to succeed.Culture of diligenceIn South Korea, the education systems give due diligence to every desires and ambition of students. There aptitude and talents are nurtured accordinglyThe customization of education and the importance they give to student’s mindset helps students develop a keen interest in the education imparted to them.Education System in Hong KongHong Kong was built on hard work, as a refugee society. There was no in-built class system and the way to achieve social mobility was through education.Some of the things Hong Kong has done to their education system are:PedagogyThere’s a mix of academic rigour and structure. There’s a theory of learning behind everything.They don’t do a project just for the sake of doing it –there’s a framework of learning.InfrastructureFor all-round development of the child, he or she should study in a healthy and competitive environment. School should have facilities like sports parks, libraries, clubs, digital classrooms, etc so that students nurture their abilities in all fields.Enrolment rateHong Kong conducted massive awareness campaigns across many regions that resulted in an increase in student enrollment for primary and secondary education in their schools. Getting students to come to school and changing the mindset of parents is one of the big challenges that education systems faces and Hong Kong has cracked the code in this area!Education System in FinlandThere is plenty of rating agencies around the world that rate an education system on the basis of various factors and Finland seems to havetopped in these ratings for more than 2 years now.So how did Finland achieve this?Teacher to student ratioTeacher to student ratio was kept low so that each student got the required care and attention from the students.EnrolmentMass enrollment happened in Finland that helped its education systems make drastic changes to its infrastructure and academicsLocal powerMunicipalities and schools have a lot of power to localize the national core curriculum. They trust their teachers as they have been selected through a careful process. They are given a lot of freedom and responsibility to tailor learning according to the needs of every child. They are not just paying lip service or following a script.No examinationsClass sizes are between 15 to 25 across primary and secondary schools. There are no national examinations or rankings. They don’t have that culture of comparing schools. If a school is not doing well, it is not closed down. It is given more resources of theydo well. The completion is between schools and not between students.Education System in USAThe United States of America has great education systems. Some of the top universities in the world are from the USA, such asHarward UniversityStanford UniversityWarton UniversityCalTech The USA also has the best primary and secondary education in the world.In a country like India, schooling is seen to be a process of certification. Questions are being asked as to whether the system is producing the sorts of people the economy and society needs. The system does encourage hard work and diligence but the concerns are that it is unduly stressful, does not promote creativity and the ability to be critical.Policymakers, academicians and school authorities can take a cue from these countries to build a robust education system in countrieslike India. But it would be wrong for us to blindly replicate all the factors mentioned above.Each country will have its own culture and population dynamics. An education system needs to be tailored to meet and synchronize with these dynamics.Lastly, to build a good education system, everyone from the government to the public should put efforts, only then a country like India can have truly the best education systems in the world.。

第一章测试1.我不需要做研究，所以我不需要学习学术英语写作。

A:错B:对答案:A2.做旅游攻略的过程，就是一个简单的research过程。

A:错B:对答案:B3.et al就是 and others的意思。

A:对B:错答案:A4.下面哪些选项是学术英语写作的原因？A:To discuss a subject of common interest and give the writer’s view;B:To answer a question the writer has been given or chosen;C:To synthesize research done by others on a topic.D:To report on a piece of research the writer has conducted;答案:ABCD5.学术英语写作中的一般文本特征包括：A:sentenceB:headingC:sub-titleD:titleE:phraseF:paragraph答案:ABCDEF第二章测试1.在细化主题时，需要考虑你的写作目的是什么以及预期读者是谁。

A:对B:错答案:A2.My Most Embarrassing Moment是一个可以写的论文题目。

A:对B:错答案:B3.选题不一定是自己感兴趣的和好奇的。

A:错B:对答案:A4. 1. 在本章中，提到的四个写作技巧是：A:BrainstormingB:Work ScheduleC:Research LogD:Mental Inventory答案:ABCD5.计划书包含下面哪些内容？A:your topic and your thesisB:any special aspects of your projectC:the problems you anticipateD:the kinds of sources you plan to consult答案:ABCD第三章测试1.在进行互联网搜索时，需要注意的规则是：A:to remain your curiosity of the research topic.B:to remain focused on the research topic.C:to review the source, point of view, and completeness of all documents rela ted to the research topic.D:to resist the temptation to be distracted by unrelated sites.答案:BCD2.当你进行批判性阅读时，下面哪些是需要考虑的？A:Do I agree with the writer’s views?B:What are the key ideas in this?C:Does the evidence presented seem reliable, in my experience and using common sense?D:Does the author have any bias (leaning to one side or the other)?E:Are the examples given helpful? Would other examples be better?F:Does the argument of the writer develop logically, step by step?答案:ABCDEF3.浏览和搜索的结合可以帮助你认识到你的研究主题是否过于宽泛，需要缩小范围，并且和单独的浏览或者搜索相比，它更能找到更完整的相关资源。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them study答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as“traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic Why 答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence andperformance答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language答： First of all, language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have beenspecified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of languagecan be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language Think of your own examples for illustration.答： Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factualinformation, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shoppi ng with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication Of the two, which one is primary and why答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, . the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before anotherconsonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It i s called dark [] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [pht] and spit is transcribed as [spt].4. How are the English consonants classified答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulationthe English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, . the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [] 4) [w] 5) [] 6) []答：A. (1) [] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ] (5) [ :] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open 7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study Who do you think will be more interested in the differencebetween, say, [l] and [], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist Why答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone How is it different from a phoneme How are allophones related to a phoneme答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather itis represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease ofarticulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, ., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, . discreet –indiscreet, correct –incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, . [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, .[]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning答： The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The mainsuprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, andspecify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at leasttwo examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays,motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the lawsand customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”count eract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntaxSyntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure ruleThe grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements . specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be writtenas follows:NP → (Det) N (PP) ...VP → (Qual) V (NP) ...AP → (Deg) A (PP) ...PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...The general phrasal structural rule ( X stands for the head N, V, A or P):The XP rule: XP → (specifier) X (complement)3. What is category How to determine a word's category Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it haveThe structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element playA phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role of each elementHead:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary. Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, iscalled surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening ofthe schools.Det A N Aux V Det N PDet Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A（以下8-12题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) → specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) → specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window) NP9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（划底线的为动词的修饰语，斜体的为名词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence. （划底线的为补语从句）a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences. （划底线的为关系从句）a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow (surface structure)you would come tomorrow (deep structure)b) What did Helen bring to the party (surface structure) Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)c) Who broke the window (surface structure)who broke the window (deep structure)Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning 答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms orsymbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ––elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was . Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English答： The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms,stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms. Examples（略）3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.答：(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, ., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms(2) While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. There are many polysemic words in English, The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more。