The stage of the project cost
management
Abstract
Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. Described the current stage of the project cost management situation on the strengthening of the various stages of construction cost management of the importance of and raised a number of key initiatives.
Keywords：cost of the construction project cost management status investment decision phase of the design phase of the implementation phase of the cost management in a market economy,
1、Project cost management
Even under the WTO and China's accession to the world community, China's construction industry how to effectively control construction cost of the construction and management of an important component part. However, the current budget for the construction projects - estimate, budget, Super budget accounts for the "super three" is still widespread and that eventually led to a serious loss of control of project investment. Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost.
As the project cost to the project runs through the entire process, stage by stage can be divided into Investment Decision stage, the design and implementation phases. The so-called Project Cost effective control is the optimization of the construction plans and design programs on the basis of in the building process at all stages, use of certain methods and measures to reduce the cost of the projects have a reasonable control on the scope and cost of the approved limits.
2、the status of construction cost management
Engineering and cost management work of the current status of project cost management system was formed in the 1950s, 1980s perfect together. Performance
of the country and directly involved in the management of economic activities. Provisions in the design stage to different estimates or budget preparation as well as government; Nothing relevant departments to formulate a budget, content, methods and approval, the budget will provide the fixed cost of equipment and materials and fixed price of the budget preparation, approval, management authority, and so on.
3、engineering cost management cost management union
With the historical process, after recovery, reform and development, formed a relatively complete budget estimate of quota management system. However, as the socialist market economic development, the system's many problems have also exposed. Generally speaking, the budget estimate is based on direct participation in the management of national economic activity as a precondition. enterprise is not the actual economic entities. Due to the characteristics of the planned economy, and, at the time under the conditions of productivity, will inevitably become a shortage in the economy.
In severe shortage of commodities under the conditions, as long as a certain level of investment, will be certain outputs. In this environment, the project planning and technical argumentation there can be no economic analysis. State control of the project cost constitute key factors equipment and materials prices, wages and taxes of artificial distribution. In this relatively stable economic environment, the budget estimate for the system approved project cost, help the government to carry out investment plans to play a major role.
As the socialist market economic system established, requires us to predict project investment and control. In recent years, international investment project developed to the requirements of prior pre-control and in the middle of control. China, the traditional practice in an objective light on the cause decision-making, implementation heavy, light the economy and technology,
First, the consequences of victimization,Due to the technical personnel of the project technical and economic concepts and a weak awareness of cost control, cost management makes the quality difficult to raise. Project Cost control is difficult to
achieve long-term goals.
Second, the various stages of the project management view of the above circumstances, My first academia in the 1980s made the whole process of cost management and control concept, building departments will study the feasibility of projects and the budgets and final accounts to two extended at the request of the corresponding regulations put our cost management concepts and methods referred to a new height.
4、The decision-making phase of the project cost management
Our task now is to be modern and cost management in line with China's national conditions of the market economy system goal, learn from the advanced experience of the developed countries, and establish sound market economic laws of project cost management system, efforts to increase the project cost levels. An investment decision-making phase of the project cost management construction project investment decision-making stage is proposed project proposals; conduct a feasibility study to determine investment estimation and the final preparation of design task. At this stage, the project's technical and economic decision-making, of the construction project cost of the project after the completion of the economic benefits have a decisive influence, The construction cost is an important stage control.
China's current stage of the project cost for the project management for the purpose of clearing price, and focusing only on the construction process of cost control, neglected before the start of the project investment decision-making stage of cost control. Investment decision-making phase of investment projects is estimated an important basis for decision-making. It has a direct impact on national economic and financial analysis of the results of the reliability and accuracy. Because of this phase is the preliminary work of projects, the information can not be fully, comparable works more or less that information accumulated relatively small, estimated inadequate and unscientific. Makes project cost management and cost workers is difficult at this stage do something.
The various stages of the project cost control in the decision-making phase project cost control. Right project planning phase of the cost, many owners have the wrong understanding that the lower the cost the better. Cost control is not a unilateral issue, and should be a number of factors, a combination of practical, comprehensive consideration. The construction project investment decision-making stage, the project's technical and economic decision-making, Cost of the project after the completion of the project and the economic benefits, with a decisive role in project cost control is an important stage, rationally define and control the direction of the project cost of accurate positioning and building Optimization guiding role.
5、In the stage of construction project units in engineering cost management
In the decision-making phase of the most important is to do a good job feasibility study, the work is done well, returns on investment and can form a good proportion. Otherwise, invest more, less effective, resulting in loss of control and waste of investment.
At present, some of the projects planned the owners of departure from the subjective desires of a feasibility study on the lack of scientific proof. Feasibility Study untrue, false or engineering functions obtaining the approval of their superiors, actually put into the feasibility study will be awarded in the study for the project after the smooth functioning buried a lot of hidden problems, lead to insufficient follow-up funds for the project and had to extend the time limit so that the project could not have planned the use of cost-effective, even become hopeless completion of the beard works.
5.1Bidding construction unit bidding system
Therefore, in order to phase in the investment decision-making effectively control construction costs, we must do the following aspects:
5.2 construction stage
ⅰImplementation of the construction project and corporate accountability, Construction of the project from planning to implementation of the entire process and the use of the funds to repay responsibilities to the people. in addition to
establishing a legal system and the project supervision matching mechanism by the departments in charge of the industry and supervision departments for setting up a monitoring group to oversee the use of funds.
ⅱA realistic approach to market analysis, to avoid the blindness of the project decision-making, reduces and reduces investment risk. Fully consider building projects in the future market competitiveness, design task more scientific and reliability.
ⅲCapital financing must have a formal commitment document, the parties must do investment funds in place, and funds must have documents to ensure that the project can be approved after the scheduled implementation. To the various loan conditions should be carefully analyzed to minimize the burden of interest and repayment pressure.
ⅳTo strengthen the engineering geology, hydrology, geology and land, water, electricity, transport, environmental projects such as external conditions for the work of depth to make the investment estimate there are sufficient grounds.
Taking extensive investigation and research, comparison of similar projects, seriously functional analysis, multi-program comparison and choice. After full technical appraisal and economic evaluation, and the final technologically advanced, functional and reliable. Reasonable economic projects, thus calculate a more accurate and realistic estimation of the amount of investment, so that the project cost from the start positioning in a more reasonable level.
The design phase of the project cost control for a long time, China's building control very effective, - investment projects is not uncommon, this will affect owners of investment returns, it adds to the owners and within budget, as well as difficulties in fund owners, the impact on the future management or the owners make payments in arrears, and so on. Hence, the control of the project cost is of great significance, however the project cost is the primary means of control design, Currently most of the property owners in the design stage seldom works on cost control, and they found that the cost of the design will not have a great impact,
it is wrong, on the contrary, Design phase of the project cost control is the most important step. Because it determines engineering design, construction methods, materials and equipment types, models of the project cost is of critical significance, design optimization phase of the program or minor changes, project cost will have a significant impact, Design phase of the project cost control of the total project cost of 70%. Following is how to control the project from design to create the Law: ⅰAs the owners must design, the design selected on the quality level is a direct impact on the quality of product design level, and the design quality products in the level of direct influence on the pricing of the works. Different design units on the same project design are different. the same item of different design institute works between certain aspects of the project cost on the existence of differences between, We assume that with a design from two different design institute to design, Construction plans after the completion of a requested advisory unit cost to do the budget, certainly different design institute the total cost of the project is absolutely not the same, and most of the difference between the two over 10% even more than 30%, and not necessarily high cost than the design of low cost, and good design is often low cost, We all know that different people have different design styles and different levels, the design works naturally, therefore chosen to design units is the control on the first step. Through tender to select the design of the units is a good method, the tender documents to elaborate on this particular aspect of the requirements, cost control targets, and so on.
2设计阶段的工程造价控制
长期以来,我国建筑控制很有效,因此,控制工程造价具有重要意义, 但工程造价的主要方法是控制设计。
目前大部分的业主在设计阶段很少工程的成本控制,而他们认为成本的设计不会有太大的影响,这是不对的,相反的,设计阶段的工程造价控制是最重要的一
步。因为它决定了工程设计、施工方法、材料和设备的种类,优化设计阶段的程序或小的变化, 工程造价将会产生重大影响,设计阶段的工程造价控制项目总成本的70% 。以下是如何控制工程从设计到管理。
2.1 作为业主,必须重视设计
设计选定的质量水平直接影响产品质量的设计水平, 而设计产品质量的水平,直接影响定价的工程量。不同的设计单位对同一项目的设计是不同的。同一项目的不同设计研究院工程之间某些方面的工程造价就存在分歧之间,我们假设设计由两个不同的设计院设计, 施工图完成后,所要求的咨询单位成本做预算。当然不同设计院的项目的总成本是绝对不一样的, 大部分两者的差异超过10% ,甚至超过30% , 而不一定是成本高,比设计成本低,良好的设计往往是成本低,我们都知道,每个人有不同的设计风格,不同层次的设计作品自然因此选择设计单位,是管制的第一步。通过招标选择设计单位,是一个很好的方法,在招标文件中详细说明这方面的要求,成本控制目标等等。
否则,在以后的设计过程中设计单位会提出增加成本的设计要求；通过招标项目的设计进入市场,为选择最好的设计单位。
2.2 提倡设计招投标和设计优化战役模式设计单位评估
由专家组成, 按照适用,经济,美学原理和先进技术, 结构合理,以满足建筑节能和环保的要求,综合评价的优点,规划设计, 择优确定中选方案。
成功的投资计划估计将接近一般建设工程范围内的投资。这意味着两个设计合约,将帮助设计方案的选择和竞争机会,以确保获选设计先进的技术,独特的新颖性,适应性,以及控制工程造价。设计单位要努力提高自身素质,该项目设计巧妙构思, 当代降低工程成本上动脑筋,以提高设计质量, 力争把设计阶段的工程造价控制批准的投资上限。
2.3 加强设计阶段
以加强监督专员,以确定一个合理的设计, 成熟的技术,减少在施工阶段主
要设计变化和在节目中, 在有效控制了工程造价将扮演一个角色。工程的设计,如果工程监理介入排除不利因素,一般可排除80%的错误。在整个建设过程中的成本控制,在开始施工时尽量节约投资20%,关键施工阶段的识别和控制成本。监督的设计阶段,包括: 设计院的设计图纸和说明,协助业主处理不同设计方案的经济, 资本开支与发展的初步估计,以确保投资能够得到最有效的利用。与业主,监理,包括：
根据设计院提供的设计图纸和说明,协助业主处理不同的设计方案经济,资本支出发展的初步规划,以确保投资能够得到最有效的利用；与业主不同的设计方案, 需要计算自己的材料和设备进行成本分析和研究, 对设计人员的费用,以协助他们在投资限额范围内设计,以节省投资。寻求一次性投资少,经济好的设计方案,取得最合理的经济指标。
2.4积极推动所谓的上限限额设计
即使批准的设计任务书和投资估算,在保证功能要求的前提下。初步设计和概算控制, 据初步批准的预算总额为设计和施工图设计控制。而每一个专业,每一个都有一个门槛设计的一个目标。在设计过程中,设计师要进步多方案,优化设计, 确保设计在技术上是先进,合理,创新,时尚,而不是打破限制投资的目标, 从而杜绝了工程设计,提高安全系数和设计标准, 或只考虑技术可行性的计划,而非经济理性的现象, 这项工程的费用,以确保有效控制。
又称价值工程的价值分析,是一种现代科学管理技术, 是一个新的技术经济分析的是产品的功能分析,以节约资源,降低成本的目的,一个有效的方法。它弥补了传统的成本管理单纯强调降低成本和质量管理只强调改善质量缺陷,建设,有利于解决长期存在的时间长,浪费大,质量差,成本高的问题。价值工程法一般分为三个步骤：评估的面向对象技术和经济评分评分；计算对象的技术和经济指标; 计算几何设计的物体,平均从比较中选择最佳的设计。
3 建设项目实施阶段的单位工程造价管理
控制工程成本,是合理的该项目达到质量标准的前提下,在投资决策阶段,
设计及建造阶段的项目,把项目审批出现在管制范围内,力争在各项建设工程合理使用人力, 物力和财力资源,以取得良好的投资效益和社会效益。
项目成本控制和管理是一个动态的过程。动态的市场经济,使投资在确定与控制变得更为复杂,这将要求施工单位对工程造价管理的项目贯穿整个过程中,它必须有一个全面的焦点。
执行阶段的项目。实施阶段的工程造价管理是实施全过程项目管理。项目实施阶段的工程造价管理可分为三个部分：投标管理施工管理和结算管理。
3.1 招标施工阶段的施工单位招标制度
控制工程造价的有效手段,申办组织,可以提高成本效益的工程,并确保工程质量, 缩短建设周期,投资回报, 施工单位可充分利用招标的手段,有效控制成本。
施工编号10月7部令发布了“合同与施工合同定价管理” 明确指出,在工程招标使用库存。这就要求建设单位进行招标, 在招标文件中,不仅包括通常的内容如债券投标前附表,招标债券合同的条件、合同协议条款、合同格式、技术规格、图纸、招标文件及其他参考格式,还必须提供工程清单招标作为参考文件的重要组成部分。
建设单位在招标文件中的工程量清单, 按照国家或地方颁布的规则的计算方法,统一的项目划分, 统一计量单位,统一的工程计算规则按设计图纸加以计算和统计安排,取得名单。数量应遵循的筹备工作客观,公正,科学,合理的原则。编写者必须有一定的知识的工程设计和施工经验, 以及材料与机械施工技术全面的科学知识,为了计算容积的工程无重大遗漏。此基础上,必须符合国家规定的工程计算规则与分包工程处工程单位,并按照设计图纸,设计必不可少的爱情招标文件规定计算量的项目应该有一个综合测试,作品必须简单,虽然不露出现错误定价项目,要保证正确的工程。应该要求的不同等级分开工程部,情况则有所不同, 我们可能有不同的价格,为项目分开。这就要求编写清单编制人员,认真研究设计图纸, 分析招标文件中包括的工作内容及不同的技术要求, 大家熟悉的过程,并到现场认真调查,预计,以使施工的情况下,会对价格项目得以打破。此外, 因为项目清单计算数额的项目是不完整的工程,并考虑利益施工单位,显然付出
代价相同的总体价格该工程量清单的数量,实际建设是一个具有实际意义。
在评价和审查的投标应做的单位,个人总报价和综合评估价格不符合要求的个体显示物价符合要求, 与最低总价不能解释单一,价低。投标人往往知道总成本,以维持相同的情况下, 该计划很可能会改变较小的项目,以降低价格。变化可能较大项目的价格上升,以达到竣工结算工程,将增加为目的。我们也做价格和相应数量的工程技术综合评估的大批量项目注重价格分析。价格会做与工作内容,施工计划,是一个全面的技术评价过程中, 因而倾向于选择施工单位。建设施工阶段的合同成本控制基础。签订严密的施工合同,同时加强施工合同管理,可以保证合同价是合理的, 合法性,减少履行合同的纠纷,维护双方利益的合同,有效地控制了工程投资费用。
在签约前,做好管理合同文件, 合同及补充合同协议。工作往来等单一内容提出了延长合同,并解释完整必须得到维护, 除了建立了技术档案,执行合同的动态分析分析结果采取积极主动的措施。
3.2施工阶段
施工阶段的施工方案,是基于预算或建安工程合同价的目标,控制工程造价。现阶段养护余地小,但可能性是浪费很大。从而控制成本的项目给予足够的重视。
3.2.1 建筑计划
加强技术经济比较施工方案是施工组织设计进行了重新的工作内容,合理的施工方案,缩短建设工期,确保三峡工程质量, 提高经济效率,施工方案正确,从技术和经济评价进行了比较, 通过定性和定量分析,质量,时间,成本三项技术和经济指标,是理智的, 并有效地使用人力,物力和财力,取得较好的经济效益,良好的施工管理人员之间的关系, 全面成本管理是一个重要途径。
3.2.2 严格涉及更改项目预算控制在概算内
施工造成的变化,原因有很多,包括工程设计不良,使工程合同与图纸不符规定；当前市场供应的材料不符合标准规格的设计要求。这些问题已离开初级工程
造价的因素。因此,在施工过程中,我们必须加紧海关变化通过任何更改设计,扩大建设规模,提高设计标准,增加建设内容, 最好实行“分级控制,限额签证”制度。有权变更设计,尤其是涉及到成本的设计变更,必须经设计单位, 建设单位现场代表,监理工程师共同签字,并应提前这种变化,减少损失, 因为已完成或部分完成的项目将进行拆除工作的内容, 这势必造成重大变更损失。因此,建设单位应指派工程造价管理专业人员常驻施工现场,掌握在任何时候控制工程造价的变化。
3.2.3 工程现场签证手续
通过严格控制建设项目的监督制度, 建立专门的部门, 专业人员使用的专业项目管理,以避免项目管理人员只是签证不是经济帐的现象。投资失控造成严重后果，严重改变签证程序,要采取建设,监理方、工地代表共同签名的方式,以确保变更,签证的真实性,合法性, 经济和避免欺诈的现象,由此产生的纠纷。
在施工过程中,建设单位要加强现场施工管理, 督促施工方按图施工,严格控制变更的谈判,代用材料, 现场签证,以及各种预算外额外劳动力成本的必要修改,应做一次后发生变化的及时变化,计算的工作量和费用的情况发生了巨大变化,以把握在任何时候项目的费用水平,以避免积压的工作,真正的工程造价。
施工单位代表到现场监督,做好记录,特别是隐蔽记录和签证, 减少结算及格现象。不少工程现场签证是没有这么严重,给工程带来了非常大的麻烦, 导致相当大的经济损失, 现场签证的严格管理,施工阶段的工程成本控制的关键。
3.2.4 工程量清单,严格审查
对项目的审查清单监理工程师名单的措施来控制工程。工程量清单提供的措施清单,是为了完成建设项目, 发生在施工前和工程施工过程中技术,生活,安全等方面的非工程实体。在这个阶段,因为许多项目都是在施工图及施工现场不完善的招标等到施工招标的工程设计和现场实况,有更好的机会。监理工程师地址收集第一手资料,逐项考核鉴定,不作修改。
3.2.5 控制材料消耗,合理确定材料价格
工程造价控制材料价格的控制是主要的, 材料费在工程中往往占有很大的比重,一般占预算费用的70% 。占直接成本的80%。有必要在施工阶段严格按照合同金额材料控制, 材料订定合理价格,以有效地控制工程造价。市场经济物资供应各种渠道,品种及价格范围的材料, 施工单位预算管理和外勤人员应密切注意市场行情随着工程进度的现场,市场, 另一方面,在信息化建设和物资竣工决算提供了有力依据。
3.2.6 科技与经济一体化,加强投资控制
有效地控制了投资,从组织,技术,经济,合同,并采取其他措施。因此,施工单位必须加强管理工程和技术人员的“经济”的理念、教育质量, 培养务实的工作作风,施工方以帮助改善建筑设计,合理的安全,财政和物质资源。加快工作进度,提高工程质量。施工遇到问题,及时与设计师联系,选择既经济和科学潜力的解决方案, 克服所造成的浪费指挥,给予应有的重视投资保护, 负责工程技术相结合的经济官员,从招标,合同谈判, 成本预算,签订支付工程进度的竣工决算,成本分析, 整个过程管理,严格控制工程造价。
3.2.7 做好结算价格的评估完成项目竣工结算
施工企业按照与合同规定的内部完成,由承办单位, 经验收质量标准,并符合合同要求, 对建设单位,最后结算价的工程。竣工后的结算审核批准建设项目工程造价的基础。结算完成第一阶段的工程造价控制。一段很长的时间,完成了施工图纸结算预算,是成本管理的问题得以解决。因此,审计工作的完成解决是一项非常重要的工作,应着重做好以下几个方面的工作：
1）审计的准确输出。这个项目的竣工审计决算审计中,最重要和最复杂的, 其中最细致的工作,要计划完成的项目, 更改设计和施工工地为基础, 固定的,严格按照规定的工程计算规则逐项审核, 为防止建设工程竣工结算故意夸大产量,以增加项目的成本。
2）检查正确性。审查中列出的价格与固定价格一致,其名称、规格、计量单位,其内容与单位估价表的价格换算。
3）审查费标准与固定成本施工期间及工程造价的政策。
4结论
总之,工程造价控制是一个全过程控制, 应该说,每个环节都不能自满,而且每一个环节也很重要。随着中国加入世贸组织,是中国的投资主体多元化,投资方对降低成本,控制成本, 提高投资效益日益重视。因此,改变原有工程造价估算，概算，预算，合同价格，结算价，决算完成搬迁的。缺乏连续性的情况下, 以完善的控制水平，发展控制系统的投资项目, 投资建设项目,可以促进我国社会主义市场经济发展,适应全球经济一体化进程。
红外数据通信技术外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译) Infrared Remote Control System Abstract Red outside data correspondence the technique be currently within the scope of world drive extensive usage of a kind of wireless conjunction technique, drive numerous hardware and software platform support. Red outside the transceiver product have cost low, small scaled turn, the baud rate be quick, point to point SSL, be free from electromagnetism thousand Raos
etc. characteristics, can realization information at dissimilarity of the product fast, convenience, safely exchange and transmission, at short distance wireless deliver aspect to own very obvious of advantage. Along with red outside the data deliver a technique more and more mature, the cost descend, red outside the transceiver necessarily will get at the short distance communication realm more extensive of application. The purpose that design this system is transmit customer’s operation information with infrared rays for transmit media, then demodulate original signal with receive circuit. It use coding chip to modulate signal and use decoding chip to demodulate signal. The coding chip is PT2262 and decoding chip is PT2272. Both chips are made in Taiwan. Main work principle is that we provide to input the information for the PT2262 with coding keyboard. The input information was coded by PT2262 and loading to high frequent load wave whose frequent is 38 kHz, then modulate infrared transmit dioxide and radiate space outside when it attian enough power. The receive circuit receive the signal and demodulate original information. The original signal was decoded by PT2272, so as to drive some circuit to accomplish customer’s operation demand. Keywords: Infrared dray；Code；Decoding；LM386；Red outside transceiver 1 Introduction 1.1 research the background and significance Infrared Data Communication Technology is the world wide use of a wireless connection technology, by the many hardware and software platforms supported. Is a data through electrical pulses and infrared optical pulse switch between the wireless data transceiver technology.
外文翻译 原文 Strategies for distinctive brands Material Source: Journal of Brand Management Author:Judith Lynne Zaichkowsky ABSTRACT Brand identity complements brand equity and it forms an important part of the strategic management of brands. Identity elements include a well-known brand name, logo, font type, symbols, colour, shape, as well as unique product and benefit descriptions. These different elements can contribute to distinct consumer perceptions of various brands in the marketplace and help to differentiate brands from competitors. Brand managers need to start with a vision of what they want their brand to represent and then use the appropriate identity elements to build the brand. Some brand identity components may be influential to choice at the subconscious level of consumers, and therefore the understanding of individual psychological processes of perception and social meaning is required by brand managers. Keywords: brand equity ; brand identity ; logos ; brand names ; packaging INTRODUCTION Much literature in the area of branding has focused on brand equity and its importance to strong brands. Although everyone agrees that understanding and creating brand equity is essential for marketing, very little academic attention is paid to understanding the importance of brand identity and its relation to brand equity and brand management. Brand identity is the visual picture and meaning derived from the visual impact of the brand. For the consumer to identify brands with their respective manufacturers, the brands must be sold with distinctive features supplied by that particular manufacturer. Strong and unique links to one source is what complements and protects brands from being interchangeable in the marketplace. Brand differentiation, or identity, may be achieved through a well-known brand name, logo, typeface, symbol, colour, shape, distinctive design of the package or product, as well as product benefit descriptions known as unique selling points
外文翻译 Construction projects, private and public alike, have a long history of cost escalation. Transportation projects, which typically have long lead times between planning and construction, are historically underestimated, as shown through a review of the cost growth experienced with the Holland Tunnel. Approximately 50% of the active large transportation projects in the United States have overrun their initial budgets. A large number of studies and research projects have identified individual factors that lead to increased project cost. Although the factors identified can influence privately funded projects the effects are particularly detrimental to publicly funded projects. The public funds available for a pool of projects are limited and there is a backlog of critical infrastructure needs. Therefore, if any project exceeds its budget other projects are dropped from the program or the scope is reduced to provide the funds necessary to cover the cost growth. Such actions exacerbate the deterioration of a state’s transportation infrastructure. This study is an anthology and categorization of individual cost increase factors that were identified through an in-depth literature review. This categorization of 18 primary factors which impact the cost of all types of construction projects was verified by interviews with over 20 state highway agencies. These factors represent documented causes behind cost escalation problems. Engineers who address these escalation factors when assessing future project cost and who seek to mitigate the influence of these factors can improve the accuracy of their cost estimates and program budgets Historically large construction projects have been plagued by cost and schedule overruns Flyvbjerg et al. 2002. In too many cases, the final project cost has been higher than the cost estimates prepared and released during initial planning, preliminary engineering, final design, or even at the start of construction “Mega projects need more study up front to avoid cost overruns.” The ramifica tions of differences between early project cost estimates and bid prices or the final cost of a project can be significant. Over the time span between project initiation concept development and the completion of construction many factors may influence the final project costs. This time span is normally several years in duration but for the highly
外文文献： Project Cost Control: The Way it Works By R. Max Wideman In a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of thewholesystem of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up adescription ofhow it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory. First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyzethe findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end resultsare not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycleat suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have tochange the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the referencebaselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway. But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projectsthat fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might aswell start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire projectlife span. And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significantdocuments. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution),Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget orCost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability toeffectively control project costs. Footnote I am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting mywork on this topic. The Business Case and Application for (execution) Funding It is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive managementresponsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. Thismeans that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points
用于多跳认知无线电网络的分布式网络编码控制信道 Alfred Asterjadhi等著 1 前言 大多数电磁频谱由政府机构长期指定给公司或机构专门用于区域或国家地区。由于这种资源的静态分配，许可频谱的许多部分在许多时间和/或位置未使用或未被充分利用。另一方面，几种最近的无线技术在诸如IEEE802.11，蓝牙，Zigbee之类的非许可频段中运行，并且在一定程度上对WiMAX进行操作;这些技术已经看到这样的成功和扩散，他们正在访问的频谱- 主要是2.4 GHz ISM频段- 已经过度拥挤。为了为这些现有技术提供更多的频谱资源，并且允许替代和创新技术的潜在开发，最近已经提出允许被许可的设备（称为次要用户）访问那些许可的频谱资源，主要用户未被使用或零星地使用。这种方法通常被称为动态频谱接入（DSA），无线电设备发现和机会性利用未使用或未充分利用的频谱带的能力通常称为认知无线电（CR）技术。 DSA和CR最近都引起了无线通信和网络界的极大关注。通常设想两种主要应用。第一个是认知无线接入（CW A），根据该认知接入点，认知接入点负责识别未使用的许可频谱，并使用它来提供对次用户的接入。第二个应用是我们在这个技术中研究的应用，它是认知自组织网络（CAN），也就是使用 用于二级用户本身之间通信的无许可频谱，用于诸如点对点内容分发，环境监控，安全性等目的，灾难恢复情景通信，军事通信等等。 设计CAN系统比CW A有更多困难，主要有两个原因。第一是识别未使用的频谱。在CW A中，接入点的作用是连接到互联网，因此可以使用简单的策略来推断频谱可用性，例如查询频谱调节器在其地理位置的频谱可用性或直接与主用户协商频谱可用性或一些中间频谱经纪人另一方面，在CAN中，与频谱调节器或主要用户的缺乏直接通信需要二级用户能够使用检测技术自己识别未使用的频谱。第二个困难是辅助用户协调媒体访问目的。在CW A中存在接入点和通常所有二级用户直接与之通信（即，网络是单跳）的事实使得直接使用集中式媒体接入控制（MAC）解决方案，如时分多址（TDMA）或正交频分多址（OFDMA）。相反，预计CAN将跨越多跳，缺少集中控制器;而对于传统的单通道多跳自组织网络而言，这个问题的几个解决方案是已知的，因为假设我们处理允许设备访问的具有成
Study on Project Cost Control of Construction Enterprises By: R. Max Wideman Abstract With the increasing maturity of construction market, the competition between construction enterprises is becoming fierce. The project profit is gradually decreasing. It demands that all construction enterprises enhance their cost control, lower costs, improve management efficiency and gain maximal profits. This paper analyses the existing problems on project cost control of Chinese construction enterprises, and proposes some suggestions to improve project cost control system. Key Words ：Construction enterprises, Project management, Cost control After joining the WTO, with Chinese construction market becoming integrated, the competition among architectural enterprises is turning more intense. Construction enterprises must continually enhance the overall competitiveness if they want to develop further at home and abroad construction market. Construction Enterprises basically adopt the "project management-centered" model, therefore, it is particularly important to strengthen project cost control. 1.The Current Domestic Project Cost Classification and Control Methods Cost refers to the consumption from producing and selling of certain products, with the performance of various monetary standing for materialized labor and labor-consuming. Direct and indirect costs constitute the total cost, also known as production cost or manufacturing cost. Enterprise product cost is the comprehensive indicator to measure enterprise quality of all aspects. It is not only the fund compensation scale, but also the basis to examine the implementation of cost plan. Besides, it can provide reference for product pricing According to the above-mentioned definition and current domestic cost classification, construction project cost can be divided into direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs include material cost, personnel cost, construction machinery cost, material transportation cost, temporarily facility cost, engineering cost and other direct cost. Indirect costs mainly result from project management and company's cost-sharing, covering project operating costs (covering the commission of foreign projects), project's management costs (including exchange losses of
毕业设计（论文） 外文文献翻译 文献、资料中文题目：研究建设项目的工程造价 文献、资料英文题目： 文献、资料来源： 文献、资料发表（出版）日期： 院（部）： 专业：工程管理 班级： 姓名： 学号： 指导教师： 翻译日期： 2017.02.14
科技文献翻译 题目：研究建设项目的工程造价 研究建设项目的工程造价 摘要 在工程建设中，中国是拥有世界最大投资金额和具有最多建设项目的国家。它是一 项在建设项目管理上可以为广泛的工程管理人员进行有效的工程造价管理，并合理 确定和保证施工质量和工期的条件控制施工成本的重要课题。 在失去了中国建筑的投资和技术经济工程，分离的控制现状的基础上，通过建设成 本控制的基本理论为指导，探讨控制方法和施工成本的应用，阐述了存在的问题在 施工成本控制和对决心和施工成本的控制这些问题的影响，提出了建设成本控制应 体现在施工前期，整个施工过程中的成本控制，然后介绍了一些程序和应用价值工 程造价的方法在控制建设项目的所有阶段。 关键词：建设成本，成本控制，项目 1.研究的意义 在中国，现有的工程造价管理体系是20世纪50年代制定的，并在1980s.Traditional 施工成本管理方法改进是根据国家统一的配额，从原苏联引进的一种方法。它的特 点是建设成本的计划经济的管理方法，这决定了它无法适应当前市场经济的要求。 在中国传统建筑成本管理方法主要包括两个方面，即建设成本和施工成本控制方法 的测定方法。工程造价的确定传统的主要做法生搬硬套国家或地方统一的配额数量 来确定一个建设项目的成本。虽然这种方法已经历了20多年的改革，到现在为止，计划经济管理模式的影响仍然有已经存在在许多地区。我们传统的工程造价控制的
The significance of control construction costs manages on entire process First, The necessary of control construction costs manages on entire process Talk about the management and the control on construction costs, that the field we are just accustomed to is thought of is a project advance in final account. Indeed , right away at present system and reality,what the job of that the management and the control on construction costs is advance in final account. Be that in advance, the people who work on final account according that already be ascertaied of the working drawing to calculate project amounts，apply a quota mechanically, the meter mechanically fetching cost, or designing that according to the drawing sheet and construction organization after construction is over as well as the scene construction visa takes notes weaves the final account being completed. This is necessary , useful no doubt. But we must see that when pre-final accounts personnel weave working drawing budget or the final account being completed, the construction plan and the design paper already determined. But construction being to take according to picture as principle, so then in advance, job done by final account personnel is only the change secretly scheming against cost produced by design alteration and prevents upvaluation from calculating boldly. But suppose the project is unreasonable on economy, there is a fault in decision-making; suppose designing a scheme feasible or be not optimum on the technology; the final account
5G无线通信网络中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
翻译： 5G无线通信网络的蜂窝结构和关键技术 摘要 第四代无线通信系统已经或者即将在许多国家部署。然而，随着无线移动设备和服务的激增，仍然有一些挑战尤其是4G所不能容纳的，例如像频谱危机和高能量消耗。无线系统设计师们面临着满足新型无线应用对高数据速率和机动性要求的持续性增长的需求，因此他们已经开始研究被期望于2020年后就能部署的第五代无线系统。在这篇文章里面，我们提出一个有内门和外门情景之分的潜在的蜂窝结构，并且讨论了多种可行性关于5G无线通信系统的技术，比如大量的MIMO技术，节能通信，认知的广播网络和可见光通信。面临潜在技术的未知挑战也被讨论了。 介绍 信息通信技术（ICT）创新合理的使用对世界经济的提高变得越来越重要。无线通信网络在全球ICT战略中也许是最挑剔的元素，并且支撑着很多其他的行业，它是世界上成长最快最有活力的行业之一。欧洲移动天文台（EMO）报道2010年移动通信业总计税收1740亿欧元,从而超过了航空航天业和制药业。无线技术的发展大大提高了人们在商业运作和社交功能方面通信和生活的能力无线移动通信的显著成就表现在技术创新的快速步伐。从1991年二代移动通信系统(2G)的初次登场到2001年三代系统（3G）的首次起飞，无线移动网络已经实现了从一个纯粹的技术系统到一个能承载大量多媒体内容网络的转变。4G无线系统被设计出来用来满足IMT-A技术使用IP面向所有服务的需求。在4G系统中，先进的无线接口被用于正交频分复用技术（OFDM），多输入多输出系统（MIMO）和链路自适应技术。4G无线网络可支持数据速率可达1Gb/s的低流度，比如流动局域无线访问，还有速率高达100M/s的高流速，例如像移动访问。LTE系统和它的延伸系统LTE-A，作为实用的4G系统已经在全球于最近期或不久的将来部署。 然而，每年仍然有戏剧性增长数量的用户支持移动宽频带系统。越来越多的
中英文资料对照外文翻译 Design phase of the project cost management Abstract Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. Described the current stage of the project cost management situation on the strengthening of the various stages of construction cost management of the importance of and raised a number of key initiatives. Keywords：cost of the construction project cost management status investment decision phase of the design phase of the implementation phase of the cost management in a market economy, Even under the WTO and China's accession to the world community, China's construction industry how to effectively control construction cost of the construction and management of an important component part. However, the current budget for the construction projects - estimate, budget, Super budget accounts for the "super three" is still widespread and that eventually led to a serious loss of control of project investment. Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. As the project cost to the project runs through the entire process, stage by stage can be divided into Investment Decision stage, the design and implementation phases. The so-called Project Cost effective control is the optimization of the construction plans and design programs on the basis of in the building process at all stages, use of certain methods and measures to reduce the cost of the projects have a reasonable control on the scope and cost of the approved limits.
品牌营销外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译) 译文： 品牌 消费者总有关于产品可用性、质量和可供选择的价格的不完全信息。这样的“不完美的信息”导致他们依靠那些减轻获取产品信息的费用的品牌。由于依靠名牌和伴生的公司名誉，每次购买时，消费者没有搜寻或调查产品就能做出合理的购买。 许多经济学家惊叹这样一个事实：消费者在名牌上投入了如此的信赖。问题是，如同这些经济学家看见的，消费者的信赖给了公司建立超出他们能收取的价格的品牌“市场力量”。因为这些经济学家宣称要“真实地”辨别产品，当公司以独特的名牌、相关的广告和积极的竞争来“区分”他们的产品，他们能够比其他人得到更多。名牌引导消费
者在不同的产品之间进行那些经济学家认为的人为的分别。公司因为品牌而受到尊敬，因此，名牌能使企业在提高价格的情况下而不会失去重大的销售额。 品牌导致消费者经常根据现实世界和“完美的”信息世界之间的比较而付出不必要的多余地的高价，那里同一个行业内的每个公司都承担出售相同的、没有品牌的“同类”产品。这些是在“完善的竞争模型，”作的假定，及有时供经济学家使用的简化的构建。虽然不完美信息是完全自然的和不可避免的。许多经济学家认为完善的竞争的绝佳状态是衡量政策是否理想的评判标准。那是因为在完善的竞争之下公司没有任何力量抬高交易价格。如果公司提高了他们的产品的价格甚至只比市场价格高一分，它都将什么也卖不出去。因此，在完全竞争情况下，消费者不会支付更高一分的价格购买在其他任何地方以更低的价格能买到的相同的产品。毫不奇怪，假定同类产品是理想的，导致以品牌区分产品而减少消费者福利的不正确涵义。那么，反过来，导致由哈佛经济学家爱德华·H 1956年主张的政策——商标不应该被强制执行。 但是，越来越多的经济行业认识到了假定产品是相同的存在着问题。你无法理解由没有下降的品牌效应为其服务的经济目的假定，我们居住在消费者都知晓的完全信息的世界。实际上，消费者没有充分的掌握信息，并且他们也知道他们并没有掌握完全的信息。因此，他们重视公司的名誉——并且他们愿意支付更多在那些一直供应高质量产品、拥有良好声誉的生产商的产品上。通过这种做法，消费者不会不合理行动。他们简单地设法保护自己没有必须用许多时间去学习获得关于各个公
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