Top Quark Physics Overview

夸克英语作文In the realm of particle physics, quarks are the fundamental building blocks of matter, akin to the alphabet letters that make up the diverse lexicon of our universe. These elementary particles are bound together by the strong force, one of the four fundamental forces of nature, and they are never found in isolation. The study of quarks and their interactions is not just a scientific endeavor; it's a journey into the very fabric of existence.Quarks come in six different "flavors": up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom. Each flavor has its own unique properties, such as mass and electric charge. The lighter quarks, up and down, are the most common and form the protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus. The heavier quarks, on the other hand, are less stable and quickly decay intolighter ones.The discovery of quarks was a monumental leap in our understanding of the universe. It was in the 1960s when physicist Murray Gell-Mann proposed the quark model, which was later confirmed by deep inelastic scattering experiments. This model revolutionized the field of particle physics and earned Gell-Mann the Nobel Prize in Physics.Quarks are held together by gluons, which are the mediator particles of the strong force. This force is so powerful that it overcomes the quarks' natural tendency todisperse. The strong force is also responsible for the phenomenon of color charge, a quantum property that quarks possess. Each quark can exist in one of three color states, and the force only allows quarks to combine in such a waythat they form a color-neutral state, like the protons and neutrons in an atom.The study of quarks has led to the development of the Standard Model of particle physics, which describes the electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces. Despite its successes, the Standard Model is not without its limitations. It does not, for example, account for gravity or the nature of dark matter, which is believed to make up a significant portion of the universe's mass.As scientists continue to probe the depths of the subatomic world, quarks remain at the forefront of research. The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and other particle accelerators are instrumental in these investigations, providing a window into the high-energy interactions of quarks and the potential for discovering new particles or forces.In conclusion, quarks are not just esoteric particles of interest to physicists; they are the cornerstone of the matter that makes up everything we see and touch. The quest to understand their nature and the forces that govern them is a testament to human curiosity and our relentless pursuit of knowledge. As we continue to unravel the mysteries of quarks, we gain a deeper appreciation for the intricate and awe-inspiring design of the universe.。

a r X i v :h e p -e x /0506030v 1 12 J u n 2005TOP QUARK MASS MEASUREMENTS AT THE TEV ATRONMARTIJN MULDERS(on behalf of the CDF and DØcollaborations)Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory,Batavia,IL 60510,USAIn the year 2004several milestones in the measurement of the top quark mass were reached.The DØcollaboration published a significant improvement of their Run I measurement of the top quark mass,and both Tevatron experiments released preliminary measurements based on Run II data sets collected in the period 2002-2004.The preliminary Run II results presented here do not yet surpass the current world average in precision,but this is expected to change soon.With larger data sets ready to be analyzed,a better understanding of the Run II detectors and improved analysis methods,2005promises to be a remarkable year for Top physics.1IntroductionThe recent publication of the improved Run I measurement of the top mass by DØ1was exciting for two reasons.First of all it demonstrated how much improvement in measurement precision could be achieved using a more advanced analysis technique like the Matrix Element method.Secondly,it was a reminder of how little we yet know about the properties of the top quark and that new experimental information about the top quark can have big implications for electroweak fits in the Standard Model.The current (Run I only)world average value for the top quark mass is 178.0±4.3GeV /c 2.In the coming years the measurements of CDF and DØcombined should lead to a precision of about 2GeV.Together with expected improvements in the measurement of the W boson mass this will allow to further constrain the Higgs boson mass to a relative precision of approximately 30%,as discussed elsewhere in these proceedings 2.Since the start of Run II both CDF and DØhave recorded more than 600pb −1of data,already 5times the Run I luminosity.The preliminary results presented here are based on fraction of the recorded data ranging from 160to 230pb −1.Figure1:Reconstructed mass distributions for the CDF di-lepton neutrino weighting analysis(left),and the DØTemplate method with b-tagging(right).2Run II Top mass resultsIn p¯p collisions with √Table1:Overview of preliminary Run II top mass resultstop mass(GeV/c2)CDF neutrino-weighting168.1+11−9.8(stat)±8.6(sys)CDF M reco Template+t¯t p z176.5+17.2−16.0(stat)±6.9(sys)CDF M reco Template+φofν1andν2170.0±16.6(stat)±7.4(sys) DØDalitz and Goldstein155+14−13(stat)±7(sys)CDF Template with b-tagging177.2+4.9−4.7(stat)±6.6(sys)CDF Multi-Variate Template179.6+6.4−6.3(stat)±6.8(sys)CDF Dynamic Likelihood177.8+4.5−5.0(stat)±6.2(sys)DØIdeogram177.5±5.8(stat)±7.1(sys)DØTemplate topological169.9±5.8(stat)+7.8−7.1(sys)DØTemplate with b-tagging170.6±4.2(stat)±6.0(sys)2.2Final states with one lepton plus jetsWhile the lepton+jets channel benefits from a higher branching ratio,it suffers from significant backgrounds from W+jets and non-W multi-jet events.Since only one neutrino is present thefinal state can be fully reconstructed.Some analyses use a constrained kinematicfit to further improve the measurement of lepton and jets beyond detector resolution.The CDF Dynamic Likelihood Method(DLM)follows a different approach, similar to the DØMatrix Element method1;transfer functions are derived from Monte Carlo simulation describing the jet energy resolution.These functions are subsequently used in a multi-dimensional integration over phase space calculating the likelihood that the event is compatible with matrix elements describing top pair production and decay.In order to reconstruct the invariant mass of the top decay products,a choice has to be made to assign jets and lepton to the corresponding top or anti-top quark.In a lepton+jets event12ways exist to do this assignment.Some analyses take only one jet assignment per event in consideration.The CDF Dynamic Likelihood Method and the DØIdeogram analysis include all possible jet assignments in thefit.The CDF and DØtemplate methods use an overallfit of Monte Carlo templates to the data in order to extract the mass.The CDF Dynamic Likelihood Method and DØIdeogram analysis derive an event-by-event likelihood to maximize the statistical information extracted from each event.The Ideogram method also includes the hypothesis that the event could be background, weighted according to an estimated event purity.Both experiments apply b-tagging in some of the top mass analyses.One advantage of b-tagging is to strongly reduce the backgrounds.A second advantage of b-tagging for the top mass measurement in the lepton+jets channel is the reduction of the number of possible jet assignments in the case that one or two jets are b-tagged.The CDF Template analysis combines the0-tag,1-tag and double tagged event samples in thefit to optimize the statistical precision. DØ’sfirst top mass analysis with b-tagging uses events with at least one tag,which applied to a data set of230pb−1leads to the most precise preliminary Run II top mass result presented so far.Figure1shows thefitted mass for the lowest-χ2solution for the b-tagged DØTemplateanalysis,compared to the Monte Carlo prediction.An overview of the current preliminary results is shown in Table1.3Prospects for the Top mass measurementIn all results reported here the dominant component of the systematic uncertainty is the uncer-tainties related to the jet energy scale.In the last year a lot of work has been done to improve the calibration of the reconstructed jet energies.CDF reports an improvement of a factor two or more in jet energy scale uncertainties compared to a year ago.Similar improvements are expected in DØ.This will have a direct effect on the systematic uncertainties quoted.Further improvements in understanding the Jet Energy Scale can come from performing an in-situ calibration of the light-jet energy scale using the jets from the hadronic decay of the W in the same t¯t events used to measure the top mass,and from studies in progress aimed at determining the b-jet energy scale from data.Other systematics that are being studied are the modeling of initial state andfinal state gluon radiation in the t¯t Monte Carlo.Very soon both experiments hope to present preliminary results with updated jet energy scale and an integrated luminosity of more than300pb−1.All together the prospects are very good for having new top mass results this year with a precision comparable to or better than the current world average for each of the Tevatron experiments.This will open the door to an exciting new area of top physics to be further explored in the coming years at the Tevatron.References1.DØCollaboration,Nature429(2004)p638.2.C.Hays,these proceedings,hep-ex/0505064.3.J.Nielsen,these proceedings,hep-ex/0505051.4.CDF Collaboration,/physics/new/top/top.html5.DØCollaboration,/Run2Physics/WWW/results/top.htm。

a r X i v :h e p -p h /0604197v 1 24 A p r 2006Physics of top∗Speaker..(4.1)σ(p¯p→tX)+σ(p¯p→¯t X)This is because under the CP symmetry,the initial hadron state(p¯p)is invariant.This is the unique opportunity at Tevatron that the LHC cannot offer.To probe CP-violation in top quark interaction at the LHC,one has to measure the CP-violating(more generally,time-reversal violating)observables that make use of the spin information of the produced(anti)top quarks,such as measuring the expectation values of< s t· p b× pℓ+>and< s¯t· p¯b× pℓ−>from the decay of top and anti-top, respectively,in the single-top and single-antitop events[8].Needless to say that CP-violation can also be tested at the LHC in the t¯t events by comparing the production rates of t L¯t L and t R¯t R events, for under the CP operation,a left-handed top(t L)becomes a right-handed anti-top(¯t R).One way toleading b-tagged jet algorithm s-channel s-channelinclusive2-jet inclusive2-jet exclusive3-jet 80%72%95%εν84%√√a2t(1+x0)+2(1+x m+x p),f−=2(1+x m)1There are typos in Eqs.(5)and(6)of Ref.[6],in which x t should be a t.2∼M W+M Z.Because bottom quark is the isospin partner of top quark,its interactions can also be sensitive to new physics models of EWSB.For example,in the MSSM,two Higgs doublets are required bymodel bottom Yukawa coupling∼1MSSM(tanβ=40)∼1∼1Table2:Discriminate models of EWSB by testing the interaction of top and bottom quarks to Higgs boson.Figure3:Representative Feynman diagrams for gg→h production.T with t(i.e.,Little Higgs mechanism)[19].Furthermore,to ensureρ-parameter to be one at tree level,a discrete symmetry called T-parity was introduced in the Little Higgs model with T-parity (LHT).Consequently,the effective cutoff scale of the modelΛ=4πf can be as low as10TeV and the masses of new heavy resonances can be of sub-TeV[20].The LHT model is particularly interesting because it also provides a dark matter candidate which is the lightest T-odd particle A H, the heavy bosonic T-partner of photon.Another important feature of this model is that new Higgs couplings are induced in the part of effective theory that generates the masses of the extra heavy T-partner(either T-odd or T-even)fermions needed for protecting the Higgs boson mass at the weak scale.In Ref.[21]we showed that these new Higgs couplings can lead to non-decoupling effect and alter our conclusions on the collider phenomenology of Higgs boson.For example,the tree level couplings of Higgs boson to weak gauge bosons and fermions are all suppressed relative to their SM values by a factor1−c(v2SM/f2)where v SM∼246GeV and the coefficient c depends on the specific coupling and model scenario.In Fig.3,we show some representative Feynman diagrams contributing to the production process gg→h.We found that the production rate of Higgs boson via gluon-gluon fusion is also suppressed relative to the SM rate.This can be understood as follows.In the Littlest Higgs model[22],the contribution from the T-partner(T)of top quark partially cancel the top quark loop contribution,similar to the effect of cancelling the quadratic divergencies in Higgs boson mass correction.The additional contribution induced by the T-odd heavy fermions further suppress the production rate of gg→h due to the non-decoupling effect originated from the mass generation mechanism for those heavy T-odd fermions [21].With f=700GeV,which is consistent with low energy precision data,the cross section σ(gg→h)can be reduced by about35%for m h around115GeV.It is important to note that the total decay width of Higgs boson in the LHT is always smaller than that predicted by the SM, for the cancellation of quadratic divergencies in Higgs boson mass corrections are among particles with the same spin statistics.While the partial decay width ofΓ(h→γγ)does not change very much from the SM prediction,the decay branching ratio BR(h→γγ)can increase by as much as30%for the total decay width of Higgs boson is largely reduced by the smaller bottom quark Yukawa coupling.Consequently,the discovery potential of the LHC for a light Higgs boson with。

物理专业词汇(T)t matrix t 矩阵t network t 型网络t quark t 夸克table 表tachometer 转速计tachyon 快子tadpole diagram 蝌蚪图tail of comet 彗尾tamm dancoff approximation 塔姆丹科夫近似tamm dancoff equation 塔姆丹科夫方程tamm state 塔姆能级tandem electrostatic generator 范德格喇夫串列式静电加速器tandem mirror 串联镜tandem van de graaff accelerator 范德格喇夫串列式静电加速器tangent line 切线tangential cpmponent 切线分量tangential resistance 接切阻力tangential stress 切向应力tangential velocity 切向速度tani foldy transformation 谷福尔德变换tantalum 钽tantalum electrolytic capacitor 钽电解电容器tape 带tape recording 纸带记录target 靶tau lepton 轻子tau neutrino 中微子taurus 金牛座tautochrone 等时曲线tautochronism 等时性tautomeric transformation 互变转换tautomerism 互变现象taylor number 泰勒数taylor's flow 泰勒流tea laser tea 激光器tearing instability 撕裂不稳定性technetium 锝technical atmosphere 工程大气压technicolor 彩色电影technics 技术technique 技术telecentric system 远心系统telecontrol 遥控telemeter 测远计telemetering 遥测telemetry 遥测法telephone receiver 收话器听筒telephoto lens 远距照相镜头telephotographic objective 远距照相镜头telephotometry 光度遥测法telescope 望远镜telescopic meteor 望远镜燎telescopium 望远镜座telethermometer 遥测温度表television 电视television camera 电视摄象机television microscope 电视显微镜television receiver 电视接收机television set 电视接收机telluric line 大气吸收谱线tellurium 碲temperature 温度temperature coefficient 温度系数temperature correction 温度汀正temperature difference 温差temperature distribution 温度分布temperature effect 温度效应temperature factor 温度因数temperature gradient 温度梯度temperature green function 温度格林函数temperature radiation 温度辐射temperature regulator 温度第器temperature rise 温升temperature scale 温标temperature sensor 温度传感器temperature transducer 温度换能器温度传感器temperature wave 温度波tempering 回火temporary star 新星tensiometer 张力计tension 张力tensor 张量tensor force 张量力tensor meson 张量介子tensor polarization 张量极化tensor product 张量乘积tera 兆兆terbium 铽term 项term separation 项分裂term splitting 项分裂term symbol项的符号term value 光谱项值terminal 端子terminal equipment 终端设备terminal voltage 终端电压terrestrial current 地电流terrestrial electricity 地电terrestrial heat flow 地热流terrestrial magnetic field 地磁场terrestrial magnetism 地磁terrestrial planet 类地行星terrestrial radiation 地面辐射tesla 特斯拉tesla coil 特斯拉感应圈tesla transformer 特斯拉感应圈testing statistical hypothesis 统计假说的检验tetragonal system 正方系tetrahedral angle 四面角tetrahedron 四面形tetrode 四极管tevatron 垓电子伏加速器texture 织构thallium 铊theodolite 经纬仪theorem of parallel axes 平行轴定理theoretical astronomy 理论天文学theoretical astrophysics 理论天体物理学theoretical nuclear physics 理论核物理学theoretical physics 理论物理学theory 理论theory of atomic structure 原子结构论theory of continental drift 大陆漂移论theory of electrons 电子论theory of elementary particles 基本粒子理论theory of expanding universe 膨胀宇宙论theory of fermi liquid 费密铃理论theory of games 对策论theory of gamow condon gurney 伽莫夫康登古尔内理论theory of gravity 引力论theory of heat 热学theory of liquids 液体理论theory of magnetism 磁学理论theory of non local field 非定域场论theory of nuclear structure 核结构理论theory of perturbation 微扰理论theory of probability 概率论theory of relativity 相对论theory of scattering 散射理论theory of tidal evolution 潮汐演化论theory of valence 原子价理论thermal analysis 热分析thermal balance 热平衡thermal blooming 热晕thermal breeder 热增殖堆thermal breeder reactor 热增殖堆thermal capacity 热容量thermal column 热柱thermal conduction 热传导thermal conductivity 热导率thermal conductivity gage 热导真空计thermal conductor 导热体thermal convection 热对流thermal creep 热蠕变thermal cycle 热循环thermal desorption 热解吸thermal diffuse scattering 热弥漫散射thermal diffusion 热扩散thermal diffusion coefficient 热扩散系数thermal diffusivity 热扩散性thermal dissociation 热离解thermal distribution 热分布thermal e.m.f. 热电动势thermal efficiency 热效率thermal electron 热电子thermal energy 热能thermal engine 热机thermal equilibrium 热平衡thermal excitation 热激发thermal expansion 热膨胀thermal fatigue 热疲劳thermal instability 热不稳定性thermal insulation 热绝缘thermal ionization 热电离thermal lens effect 热透镜效应thermal motion 热运动thermal neutron 热中子thermal noise 热噪声thermal output of reactor 反应堆热功率thermal physics 热物理学thermal power 热功率thermal radiation 热辐射thermal reactor 热堆thermal shock 热冲击thermal spike 热峰thermal stability 热的稳定性thermal switch 热控开关thermal transmission 传热thermal transpiration 热发散thermal treatment 热处理thermal unit 热单位thermalization 热化thermion 热电子thermionic current 热离子电流thermionic emission 热电子发射thermionic rectifier 热离子整流thermionic tube 热离子管thermistor 热敏电阻thermistor thermometer 热敏电阻温度计thermistor vacuum gage 热敏电阻真空计thermoacoustic refrigeration 热声致冷thermoacoustics 热声学thermoanalysis 热分析thermobarometer 温度气压表thermocapillarity 热毛细现象thermochromism 热色现象thermocouple 热电偶thermocouple gage 热电偶真空计thermocouple junction 热电偶接头thermodiffusion 热扩散thermodynamic characteristic function 热力学特性函数thermodynamic critical field 热力学临界磁场thermodynamic efficiency 热力学效率thermodynamic equation of state 热力学物态方程thermodynamic equilibrium 热力学平衡thermodynamic function 热力学函数thermodynamic inequality 热力学不等式thermodynamic limit 热力学极限thermodynamic model 热力学模型thermodynamic potential 热力学势thermodynamic quantity 热力学变量thermodynamic stability 热力学稳定性thermodynamic state 热力学状态thermodynamic system 热力学系统thermodynamic temperature 热力学温度thermodynamic temperature scale 热力学温标thermodynamic variable 热力学变量thermodynamic weight 热力学权重thermodynamics 热力学thermodynamics of irreversible processes 不可逆过程热力学thermoelastic wave 热弹性波thermoelectric current 热电流thermoelectric diagram 热电图thermoelectric effect 热电效应thermoelectric element 温差电偶thermoelectric phenomenon 热电现象thermoelectric power 温差电势率thermoelectric pyrometer 热电高温计thermoelectric series 热电序thermoelectric thermometer 热电温度计thermoelectric transducer 热电变换器thermoelectric type 热电型thermoelectricity 温差电thermoelectromotive force 热电动势thermoelectron 热电子thermogalvanometer 热电偶电疗thermogramm 温度记录图thermograph 自记式温度计thermogravimetric analysis 热重量分析thermohydrodynamics 热铃动力学thermoluminescence 热致发光thermoluminescence dosimeter 热致发光剂量计thermolysis 热解thermomagnetic effect 热磁效应thermomechanical effect 热机械效应thermometer 温度计thermometry 测温法thermomolecular pressure 热分子压强thermonuclear reaction 热核反应thermonuclear reactor 热核堆thermonuclear temperature 热核温度thermopile 温差电堆thermoplastic 热塑性材料thermoplastic material 热塑性材料thermorelay 温差电偶继电器thermoremanent magnetization 热剩余磁化强度thermosetting resin 热固尸thermosphere 热成层thermostat 恒温器thermotropic liquid crystal 热致液晶thick film integrated circuit 膜集成电路thick lens 厚透镜thickness 厚度thickness gage 测厚计thin film 薄膜thin film integrated circuit 薄膜集成电路thin film superconductor 超导薄膜thin film transistor 薄膜晶体管thin lens 薄透镜third harmonic generation 第三谐波发生third law of thermodynamics 热力学第三定律third sound 第三次声波thirring model 瑟林模型thixotropy 触变性thomas fermi model 托马斯费密模型thomas precession 托马斯旋进thomas reiche kuhn's sum rule 托马斯赖克库扼和定则thomson effect 汤姆逊效应thomson principle 汤姆逊原理thomson scattering 汤姆逊散射thomson's atom model 汤姆逊原子模型thorium 钍thorium reactor 钍堆three body force 三体力three body problem 三体问题three color photometry 三色光度学three dimensional hologram 三维全息照相three level maser 三能级微波激射器three phase current 三相电流three primary colors 三原色threshold condition 阈值条件threshold detector 阈值探测器threshold dose 临界剂量threshold energy 阈能threshold frequency 临界频率threshold of audibility 最小可听值threshold of hearing 最小可听值threshold value 阈值threshold voltage 阈电压threshold wavelength 临界波长throttling 节流节力throughput 透射能thulium 铥thunder 雷thyratron 闸淋thyristor 晶闸管tidal action 潮汐酌tidal friction 潮汐摩擦tidal hypothesis 潮汐假说tidal motion 潮汐运动tidal wave 潮波tide generating forces 引潮力tides 潮汐tight binding approximation 紧密耦合近似tight coupling method 紧密耦合法tilt boundary 倾斜晶界timbre 音品time 时间time constant 时间常数time correlation function 时间相关函数time delay relay 延时继电器时间继电器time interval 时间间隔time lag 时滞time lag relay 时滞继电器time measurement 测时time of flight mass spectrometer 飞行时间质谱仪time of flight method 飞行时间法time of flight spectrometer 飞行时间谱仪time of flight spectrometry 飞行时间谱学time of relaxation 弛豫时间time ordered product 时序乘积time reflection 时间反演time relay 时滞继电器time resolved spectrum 时间分辨谱time resolving power 时间分辨能力time response 时间特性time reversal invariance 时间反转不变性time to amplitude converter 时幅变换器tin 锡tintometer 色度计titanium 钛titanium oxide 钛氧化物titanium oxide capacitor 钛氧化物电容器tld 热致发光剂量计toda lattice 户田点阵toepler pump 托普勒泵tokamak 托卡马克tolansky's method 托兰斯基方法tolerance dose 容许剂量tone 音tone color 音品tone quality 音质top 回转仪top quark t 夸克topological algebra 拓扑代数topological defect 拓扑缺陷topological group 拓扑群topological quantum field theory 拓扑量子场论topological quantum number 拓扑量子数topological space 拓扑空间topology 拓扑学torch discharge 火焰状放电toricellian vacuum 托里折利真空tornado 陆龙卷toroidal field 环向磁场torque 转矩torr 托torricelli vacuum 托里折利真空torsion 扭转torsion balance 扭秤torsion electrometer 扭转静电计torsion moment 扭矩torsion pendulum 扭摆torsion seismometer 扭转震计torsional oscillation 扭转振动torsional rigidity 扭转刚度torsional strength 抗扭强度torsional stress 扭转应力torsional vibration 扭转振动torsional wave 扭转波total absorption 总吸收量total absorption coefficient 总吸收系数total current 总电流total eclipse 全食total energy 总能量total intensity 总强度total radiation temperature 总辐射温度total reflecting prism 全反射棱镜total reflection 全反射toughness 坚韧tourmaline 电气石tower telescope 塔式望远镜townsend coefficient 汤森系数townsend discharge 汤森放电trace 径迹tracer 示踪原子tracer atom 示踪原子tracer element 示踪元素tracer isotope 示踪同位素tracer method 示踪法tracer technique 示踪法track 径迹track chamber 径迹室train of waves 波列trajectory 轨道transcription 转录transducer 变换器换能器transfer 转移transfer equation 传递方程transfer function 转递函数transfer matrix 转移矩阵transfer ratio 传递比transferred momentum 传递动量transformation 变换transformation group 变换群transformation of coordinates 坐标变换transformation theory 变换论transformer 变压器transient 过渡现象transient current 瞬态电流transient equiliblium 动态平衡transient equilibrium 瞬态平衡transient motion 瞬态运动transient phenomenon 过渡现象transient response 瞬态响应transient stability 瞬态稳定性transient state 瞬态transient time 过渡时间transistor 晶体管transistor transistor logic 晶体管晶体管逻辑transition 跃迁transition curve 转变曲线transition element 过渡元素transition energy 转变能transition layer 过渡层transition matrix 跃迁矩阵transition metal 过渡金属transition point 转变点transition probability 跃迁概率transition radiation 跃迁辐射transition state 过渡状态transition temperature 转变温度transition zone 过渡区translation 平移translation energy 平动能translation group 平移群translation invariance 平移不变性translation lattice 平移点阵translation motion 平移translucency 半透迷translucent body 半透缅transmission 传递transmission coefficient 透射系数transmission electron diffraction 透射电子衍射transmission electron microscope 透射电子显微镜transmission factor 透射系数transmission grating 透射光栅transmission line 输电线transmission of heat 热传导transmission of light 透光性transmission resonance 透射共振transmissivity 透射transmittance 透射transmittancy 相对透射比transmitting antenna 发射天线transmitting tube 发送管transmutation 转变transonic flow 跨声速流transonic speed 跨声速度transparence 透迷transparency 透迷transparent body 透缅transphasor 光敏晶体管transport coefficient 输运系数transport equation 输运方程transport number 迁移数transport phenomenon 输运现象transport process 输运过程transport theory 迁移理论transuranic element 超铀元素transversal wave 横波transverse electric wave 横电波transverse expansion 横膨胀transverse field 横场transverse magnetic wave 横磁波transverse mode 横模transverse polarization 横向极化transverse relaxation 横向弛豫transverse vibration 横振动transverse wave 横波trap 阱trapped electron 俘获电子trapped ion method 俘获离子法trapped particle 捕获粒子traveling wave amplifier 行波放大器traveling wave tube 行波管traveling wave type accelerator guide 行波型加速屁导travelling wave 行波tree graph 始triad 三价物trial and error method 试凑法trial charge 试探电荷triangle anomaly 三角图反常triangle of forces 力的三角形triangular lattice 三角形栅格triangular magnetic structure 三角形磁结构triangulum 三角座triangulum australe 南三角座triatomic molecule 三原子分子triboelectricity 摩擦电tribology 摩擦学triboluminescence 摩擦发光tribophysics 摩擦物理学triboplasma 摩擦等离子体trichromatic coefficient 三原色系数trichromatic coordinates 三色坐标trichromatic equation 三原色方程trichromatic system 三原色系triclinic lattice 三斜点阵triclinic system 三斜系tricritical point 三重临界点trifid nebula 三叶星云trigger 触发器trigger circuit 触发电路trigonal system 菱形系trimolecular reaction 三分子反应triode 三极管triode ionization gage 三极管电离真空计triode type ion pump 三极管型离子泵triple bond 三重键triple mirror 隅角棱镜triple point 三重临界点triplet 三重线triplet state 三重态tristimulus values 标准三色值tritium 氚tritium nucleus 氚核triton 氚核trochoidal focusing mass spectrometer 摆线聚焦质谱仪trochoidal wave 摆线波trojan group 脱罗央群trojans 脱罗央群tropic 回归线tropopause 对零顶troposphere 对零true electric charge 真电荷true noon 视午true solar time 真太阳时true sun 真太阳truth quark t 夸克tsunami 海震tube 管tube of electric flux 电通量管tube of magnetic induction 磁感应管tubing 导管tucana 杜鹃座tunable laser 可党激光器tunable semiconductor laser 可党半导体激光器tunable solid state laser 可党固体激光器tuned amplifier 党放大器tungsten 钨tungsten filament 钨丝tungsten halogen lamp 卤化钨灯tungsten lamp 钨丝灯tuning 党tuning fork 音叉tuning fork oscillator 音叉振荡器tunnel balance 空气动力天秤tunnel diode 隧道二极管tunnel effect 隧道效应tunnel junction 隧道结tunneling 隧穿tunneling spectroscopy 隧道效应光谱学turbid medium 混浊介质turbidimetry 混浊度测定法turbidity 浊度turbidity coefficient 浊度系数turbidity factor 浊度因子turbo molecular pump 涡轮分子泵turbulence 湍流紊流turbulent diffusion 湍俩散turbulent flow 湍怜turbulent heating 紊劣热turbulent motion 湍动turing machine 图灵计算机turn ratio 匝数比twin boundary 孪晶边界twin crystal 孪晶twin structure 孪晶结构twinning 孪生twinning deformation 孪生畸变twinning plane 孪晶面twins 孪晶twist boundary 扭转晶界two beam approximation 双束近似two beam interference 双光束干涉two dimensional compound 二维化合物two dimensional crystal 二维晶体two dimensional crystal nucleus 二维晶核two dimensional electron system 二维电子系two dimensional flow 二维流平面流two dimensional lattice 二维点阵two fluid model 二铃模型two photon absorption 双光子吸收two photon transition 双光子跃迁two stream instability 二束不稳定性two time green's function 双时格林函数two wave approximation 双波近似twyman green interferometer 特外曼格林干涉仪tyndall phenomenon 丁达尔效应type doublet 型双重态type superconductivity 第一类超导性;第二类超导性typhoon 台风From: /word/sxwl/2009-02-03/67426.html。

华中师范大学物理学院物理学专业英语仅供内部学习参考！2014一、课程的任务和教学目的通过学习《物理学专业英语》，学生将掌握物理学领域使用频率较高的专业词汇和表达方法，进而具备基本的阅读理解物理学专业文献的能力。

通过分析《物理学专业英语》课程教材中的范文，学生还将从英语角度理解物理学中个学科的研究内容和主要思想，提高学生的专业英语能力和了解物理学研究前沿的能力。

培养专业英语阅读能力，了解科技英语的特点，提高专业外语的阅读质量和阅读速度；掌握一定量的本专业英文词汇，基本达到能够独立完成一般性本专业外文资料的阅读；达到一定的笔译水平。

要求译文通顺、准确和专业化。

要求译文通顺、准确和专业化。

二、课程内容课程内容包括以下章节：物理学、经典力学、热力学、电磁学、光学、原子物理、统计力学、量子力学和狭义相对论三、基本要求1.充分利用课内时间保证充足的阅读量（约1200~1500词/学时），要求正确理解原文。

2.泛读适量课外相关英文读物，要求基本理解原文主要内容。

3.掌握基本专业词汇（不少于200词）。

4.应具有流利阅读、翻译及赏析专业英语文献，并能简单地进行写作的能力。

四、参考书目录1 Physics 物理学 (1)Introduction to physics (1)Classical and modern physics (2)Research fields (4)V ocabulary (7)2 Classical mechanics 经典力学 (10)Introduction (10)Description of classical mechanics (10)Momentum and collisions (14)Angular momentum (15)V ocabulary (16)3 Thermodynamics 热力学 (18)Introduction (18)Laws of thermodynamics (21)System models (22)Thermodynamic processes (27)Scope of thermodynamics (29)V ocabulary (30)4 Electromagnetism 电磁学 (33)Introduction (33)Electrostatics (33)Magnetostatics (35)Electromagnetic induction (40)V ocabulary (43)5 Optics 光学 (45)Introduction (45)Geometrical optics (45)Physical optics (47)Polarization (50)V ocabulary (51)6 Atomic physics 原子物理 (52)Introduction (52)Electronic configuration (52)Excitation and ionization (56)V ocabulary (59)7 Statistical mechanics 统计力学 (60)Overview (60)Fundamentals (60)Statistical ensembles (63)V ocabulary (65)8 Quantum mechanics 量子力学 (67)Introduction (67)Mathematical formulations (68)Quantization (71)Wave-particle duality (72)Quantum entanglement (75)V ocabulary (77)9 Special relativity 狭义相对论 (79)Introduction (79)Relativity of simultaneity (80)Lorentz transformations (80)Time dilation and length contraction (81)Mass-energy equivalence (82)Relativistic energy-momentum relation (86)V ocabulary (89)正文标记说明：蓝色Arial字体（例如energy）：已知的专业词汇蓝色Arial字体加下划线（例如electromagnetism）：新学的专业词汇黑色Times New Roman字体加下划线（例如postulate）：新学的普通词汇1 Physics 物理学1 Physics 物理学Introduction to physicsPhysics is a part of natural philosophy and a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy. Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of natural philosophy along with chemistry, certain branches of mathematics, and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their own right. Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry,and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences, while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics and philosophy.Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism or nuclear physics led directly to the development of new products which have dramatically transformed modern-day society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus.Core theoriesThough physics deals with a wide variety of systems, certain theories are used by all physicists. Each of these theories were experimentally tested numerous times and found correct as an approximation of nature (within a certain domain of validity).For instance, the theory of classical mechanics accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger than atoms and moving at much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be areas of active research, and a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics known as chaos was discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by Isaac Newton (1642–1727) 【艾萨克·牛顿】.University PhysicsThese central theories are important tools for research into more specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of his or her specialization, is expected to be literate in them. These include classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, electromagnetism, and special relativity.Classical and modern physicsClassical mechanicsClassical physics includes the traditional branches and topics that were recognized and well-developed before the beginning of the 20th century—classical mechanics, acoustics, optics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism.Classical mechanics is concerned with bodies acted on by forces and bodies in motion and may be divided into statics (study of the forces on a body or bodies at rest), kinematics (study of motion without regard to its causes), and dynamics (study of motion and the forces that affect it); mechanics may also be divided into solid mechanics and fluid mechanics (known together as continuum mechanics), the latter including such branches as hydrostatics, hydrodynamics, aerodynamics, and pneumatics.Acoustics is the study of how sound is produced, controlled, transmitted and received. Important modern branches of acoustics include ultrasonics, the study of sound waves of very high frequency beyond the range of human hearing; bioacoustics the physics of animal calls and hearing, and electroacoustics, the manipulation of audible sound waves using electronics.Optics, the study of light, is concerned not only with visible light but also with infrared and ultraviolet radiation, which exhibit all of the phenomena of visible light except visibility, e.g., reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, dispersion, and polarization of light.Heat is a form of energy, the internal energy possessed by the particles of which a substance is composed; thermodynamics deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy.Electricity and magnetism have been studied as a single branch of physics since the intimate connection between them was discovered in the early 19th century; an electric current gives rise to a magnetic field and a changing magnetic field induces an electric current. Electrostatics deals with electric charges at rest, electrodynamics with moving charges, and magnetostatics with magnetic poles at rest.Modern PhysicsClassical physics is generally concerned with matter and energy on the normal scale of1 Physics 物理学observation, while much of modern physics is concerned with the behavior of matter and energy under extreme conditions or on the very large or very small scale.For example, atomic and nuclear physics studies matter on the smallest scale at which chemical elements can be identified.The physics of elementary particles is on an even smaller scale, as it is concerned with the most basic units of matter; this branch of physics is also known as high-energy physics because of the extremely high energies necessary to produce many types of particles in large particle accelerators. On this scale, ordinary, commonsense notions of space, time, matter, and energy are no longer valid.The two chief theories of modern physics present a different picture of the concepts of space, time, and matter from that presented by classical physics.Quantum theory is concerned with the discrete, rather than continuous, nature of many phenomena at the atomic and subatomic level, and with the complementary aspects of particles and waves in the description of such phenomena.The theory of relativity is concerned with the description of phenomena that take place in a frame of reference that is in motion with respect to an observer; the special theory of relativity is concerned with relative uniform motion in a straight line and the general theory of relativity with accelerated motion and its connection with gravitation.Both quantum theory and the theory of relativity find applications in all areas of modern physics.Difference between classical and modern physicsWhile physics aims to discover universal laws, its theories lie in explicit domains of applicability. Loosely speaking, the laws of classical physics accurately describe systems whose important length scales are greater than the atomic scale and whose motions are much slower than the speed of light. Outside of this domain, observations do not match their predictions.Albert Einstein【阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦】contributed the framework of special relativity, which replaced notions of absolute time and space with space-time and allowed an accurate description of systems whose components have speeds approaching the speed of light.Max Planck【普朗克】, Erwin Schrödinger【薛定谔】, and others introduced quantum mechanics, a probabilistic notion of particles and interactions that allowed an accurate description of atomic and subatomic scales.Later, quantum field theory unified quantum mechanics and special relativity.General relativity allowed for a dynamical, curved space-time, with which highly massiveUniversity Physicssystems and the large-scale structure of the universe can be well-described. General relativity has not yet been unified with the other fundamental descriptions; several candidate theories of quantum gravity are being developed.Research fieldsContemporary research in physics can be broadly divided into condensed matter physics; atomic, molecular, and optical physics; particle physics; astrophysics; geophysics and biophysics. Some physics departments also support research in Physics education.Since the 20th century, the individual fields of physics have become increasingly specialized, and today most physicists work in a single field for their entire careers. "Universalists" such as Albert Einstein (1879–1955) and Lev Landau (1908–1968)【列夫·朗道】, who worked in multiple fields of physics, are now very rare.Condensed matter physicsCondensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter. In particular, it is concerned with the "condensed" phases that appear whenever the number of particles in a system is extremely large and the interactions between them are strong.The most familiar examples of condensed phases are solids and liquids, which arise from the bonding by way of the electromagnetic force between atoms. More exotic condensed phases include the super-fluid and the Bose–Einstein condensate found in certain atomic systems at very low temperature, the superconducting phase exhibited by conduction electrons in certain materials,and the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of spins on atomic lattices.Condensed matter physics is by far the largest field of contemporary physics.Historically, condensed matter physics grew out of solid-state physics, which is now considered one of its main subfields. The term condensed matter physics was apparently coined by Philip Anderson when he renamed his research group—previously solid-state theory—in 1967. In 1978, the Division of Solid State Physics of the American Physical Society was renamed as the Division of Condensed Matter Physics.Condensed matter physics has a large overlap with chemistry, materials science, nanotechnology and engineering.Atomic, molecular and optical physicsAtomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter–matter and light–matter interactions on the scale of single atoms and molecules.1 Physics 物理学The three areas are grouped together because of their interrelationships, the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of the energy scales that are relevant. All three areas include both classical, semi-classical and quantum treatments; they can treat their subject from a microscopic view (in contrast to a macroscopic view).Atomic physics studies the electron shells of atoms. Current research focuses on activities in quantum control, cooling and trapping of atoms and ions, low-temperature collision dynamics and the effects of electron correlation on structure and dynamics. Atomic physics is influenced by the nucleus (see, e.g., hyperfine splitting), but intra-nuclear phenomena such as fission and fusion are considered part of high-energy physics.Molecular physics focuses on multi-atomic structures and their internal and external interactions with matter and light.Optical physics is distinct from optics in that it tends to focus not on the control of classical light fields by macroscopic objects, but on the fundamental properties of optical fields and their interactions with matter in the microscopic realm.High-energy physics (particle physics) and nuclear physicsParticle physics is the study of the elementary constituents of matter and energy, and the interactions between them.In addition, particle physicists design and develop the high energy accelerators,detectors, and computer programs necessary for this research. The field is also called "high-energy physics" because many elementary particles do not occur naturally, but are created only during high-energy collisions of other particles.Currently, the interactions of elementary particles and fields are described by the Standard Model.●The model accounts for the 12 known particles of matter (quarks and leptons) thatinteract via the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental forces.●Dynamics are described in terms of matter particles exchanging gauge bosons (gluons,W and Z bosons, and photons, respectively).●The Standard Model also predicts a particle known as the Higgs boson. In July 2012CERN, the European laboratory for particle physics, announced the detection of a particle consistent with the Higgs boson.Nuclear Physics is the field of physics that studies the constituents and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons technology, but the research has provided application in many fields, including those in nuclear medicine and magnetic resonance imaging, ion implantation in materials engineering, and radiocarbon dating in geology and archaeology.University PhysicsAstrophysics and Physical CosmologyAstrophysics and astronomy are the application of the theories and methods of physics to the study of stellar structure, stellar evolution, the origin of the solar system, and related problems of cosmology. Because astrophysics is a broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.The discovery by Karl Jansky in 1931 that radio signals were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science of radio astronomy. Most recently, the frontiers of astronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Perturbations and interference from the earth's atmosphere make space-based observations necessary for infrared, ultraviolet, gamma-ray, and X-ray astronomy.Physical cosmology is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert Einstein's theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th century, Hubble's discovery that the universe was expanding, as shown by the Hubble diagram, prompted rival explanations known as the steady state universe and the Big Bang.The Big Bang was confirmed by the success of Big Bang nucleo-synthesis and the discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964. The Big Bang model rests on two theoretical pillars: Albert Einstein's general relativity and the cosmological principle (On a sufficiently large scale, the properties of the Universe are the same for all observers). Cosmologists have recently established the ΛCDM model (the standard model of Big Bang cosmology) of the evolution of the universe, which includes cosmic inflation, dark energy and dark matter.Current research frontiersIn condensed matter physics, an important unsolved theoretical problem is that of high-temperature superconductivity. Many condensed matter experiments are aiming to fabricate workable spintronics and quantum computers.In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremost among these are indications that neutrinos have non-zero mass. These experimental results appear to have solved the long-standing solar neutrino problem, and the physics of massive neutrinos remains an area of active theoretical and experimental research. Particle accelerators have begun probing energy scales in the TeV range, in which experimentalists are hoping to find evidence for the super-symmetric particles, after discovery of the Higgs boson.Theoretical attempts to unify quantum mechanics and general relativity into a single theory1 Physics 物理学of quantum gravity, a program ongoing for over half a century, have not yet been decisively resolved. The current leading candidates are M-theory, superstring theory and loop quantum gravity.Many astronomical and cosmological phenomena have yet to be satisfactorily explained, including the existence of ultra-high energy cosmic rays, the baryon asymmetry, the acceleration of the universe and the anomalous rotation rates of galaxies.Although much progress has been made in high-energy, quantum, and astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena involving complexity, chaos, or turbulence are still poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever application of dynamics and mechanics remain unsolved; examples include the formation of sand-piles, nodes in trickling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of surface tension catastrophes, and self-sorting in shaken heterogeneous collections.These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, including the availability of modern mathematical methods and computers, which enabled complex systems to be modeled in new ways. Complex physics has become part of increasingly interdisciplinary research, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in aerodynamics and the observation of pattern formation in biological systems.Vocabulary★natural science 自然科学academic disciplines 学科astronomy 天文学in their own right 凭他们本身的实力intersects相交，交叉interdisciplinary交叉学科的，跨学科的★quantum 量子的theoretical breakthroughs 理论突破★electromagnetism 电磁学dramatically显著地★thermodynamics热力学★calculus微积分validity★classical mechanics 经典力学chaos 混沌literate 学者★quantum mechanics量子力学★thermodynamics and statistical mechanics热力学与统计物理★special relativity狭义相对论is concerned with 关注，讨论，考虑acoustics 声学★optics 光学statics静力学at rest 静息kinematics运动学★dynamics动力学ultrasonics超声学manipulation 操作，处理，使用University Physicsinfrared红外ultraviolet紫外radiation辐射reflection 反射refraction 折射★interference 干涉★diffraction 衍射dispersion散射★polarization 极化，偏振internal energy 内能Electricity电性Magnetism 磁性intimate 亲密的induces 诱导，感应scale尺度★elementary particles基本粒子★high-energy physics 高能物理particle accelerators 粒子加速器valid 有效的，正当的★discrete离散的continuous 连续的complementary 互补的★frame of reference 参照系★the special theory of relativity 狭义相对论★general theory of relativity 广义相对论gravitation 重力，万有引力explicit 详细的，清楚的★quantum field theory 量子场论★condensed matter physics凝聚态物理astrophysics天体物理geophysics地球物理Universalist博学多才者★Macroscopic宏观Exotic奇异的★Superconducting 超导Ferromagnetic铁磁质Antiferromagnetic 反铁磁质★Spin自旋Lattice 晶格，点阵，网格★Society社会，学会★microscopic微观的hyperfine splitting超精细分裂fission分裂，裂变fusion熔合，聚变constituents成分，组分accelerators加速器detectors 检测器★quarks夸克lepton 轻子gauge bosons规范玻色子gluons胶子★Higgs boson希格斯玻色子CERN欧洲核子研究中心★Magnetic Resonance Imaging磁共振成像，核磁共振ion implantation 离子注入radiocarbon dating放射性碳年代测定法geology地质学archaeology考古学stellar 恒星cosmology宇宙论celestial bodies 天体Hubble diagram 哈勃图Rival竞争的★Big Bang大爆炸nucleo-synthesis核聚合，核合成pillar支柱cosmological principle宇宙学原理ΛCDM modelΛ-冷暗物质模型cosmic inflation宇宙膨胀1 Physics 物理学fabricate制造，建造spintronics自旋电子元件，自旋电子学★neutrinos 中微子superstring 超弦baryon重子turbulence湍流，扰动，骚动catastrophes突变，灾变，灾难heterogeneous collections异质性集合pattern formation模式形成University Physics2 Classical mechanics 经典力学IntroductionIn physics, classical mechanics is one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, which is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the action of a system of forces. The study of the motion of bodies is an ancient one, making classical mechanics one of the oldest and largest subjects in science, engineering and technology.Classical mechanics describes the motion of macroscopic objects, from projectiles to parts of machinery, as well as astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars, and galaxies. Besides this, many specializations within the subject deal with gases, liquids, solids, and other specific sub-topics.Classical mechanics provides extremely accurate results as long as the domain of study is restricted to large objects and the speeds involved do not approach the speed of light. When the objects being dealt with become sufficiently small, it becomes necessary to introduce the other major sub-field of mechanics, quantum mechanics, which reconciles the macroscopic laws of physics with the atomic nature of matter and handles the wave–particle duality of atoms and molecules. In the case of high velocity objects approaching the speed of light, classical mechanics is enhanced by special relativity. General relativity unifies special relativity with Newton's law of universal gravitation, allowing physicists to handle gravitation at a deeper level.The initial stage in the development of classical mechanics is often referred to as Newtonian mechanics, and is associated with the physical concepts employed by and the mathematical methods invented by Newton himself, in parallel with Leibniz【莱布尼兹】, and others.Later, more abstract and general methods were developed, leading to reformulations of classical mechanics known as Lagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics. These advances were largely made in the 18th and 19th centuries, and they extend substantially beyond Newton's work, particularly through their use of analytical mechanics. Ultimately, the mathematics developed for these were central to the creation of quantum mechanics.Description of classical mechanicsThe following introduces the basic concepts of classical mechanics. For simplicity, it often2 Classical mechanics 经典力学models real-world objects as point particles, objects with negligible size. The motion of a point particle is characterized by a small number of parameters: its position, mass, and the forces applied to it.In reality, the kind of objects that classical mechanics can describe always have a non-zero size. (The physics of very small particles, such as the electron, is more accurately described by quantum mechanics). Objects with non-zero size have more complicated behavior than hypothetical point particles, because of the additional degrees of freedom—for example, a baseball can spin while it is moving. However, the results for point particles can be used to study such objects by treating them as composite objects, made up of a large number of interacting point particles. The center of mass of a composite object behaves like a point particle.Classical mechanics uses common-sense notions of how matter and forces exist and interact. It assumes that matter and energy have definite, knowable attributes such as where an object is in space and its speed. It also assumes that objects may be directly influenced only by their immediate surroundings, known as the principle of locality.In quantum mechanics objects may have unknowable position or velocity, or instantaneously interact with other objects at a distance.Position and its derivativesThe position of a point particle is defined with respect to an arbitrary fixed reference point, O, in space, usually accompanied by a coordinate system, with the reference point located at the origin of the coordinate system. It is defined as the vector r from O to the particle.In general, the point particle need not be stationary relative to O, so r is a function of t, the time elapsed since an arbitrary initial time.In pre-Einstein relativity (known as Galilean relativity), time is considered an absolute, i.e., the time interval between any given pair of events is the same for all observers. In addition to relying on absolute time, classical mechanics assumes Euclidean geometry for the structure of space.Velocity and speedThe velocity, or the rate of change of position with time, is defined as the derivative of the position with respect to time. In classical mechanics, velocities are directly additive and subtractive as vector quantities; they must be dealt with using vector analysis.When both objects are moving in the same direction, the difference can be given in terms of speed only by ignoring direction.University PhysicsAccelerationThe acceleration , or rate of change of velocity, is the derivative of the velocity with respect to time (the second derivative of the position with respect to time).Acceleration can arise from a change with time of the magnitude of the velocity or of the direction of the velocity or both . If only the magnitude v of the velocity decreases, this is sometimes referred to as deceleration , but generally any change in the velocity with time, including deceleration, is simply referred to as acceleration.Inertial frames of referenceWhile the position and velocity and acceleration of a particle can be referred to any observer in any state of motion, classical mechanics assumes the existence of a special family of reference frames in terms of which the mechanical laws of nature take a comparatively simple form. These special reference frames are called inertial frames .An inertial frame is such that when an object without any force interactions (an idealized situation) is viewed from it, it appears either to be at rest or in a state of uniform motion in a straight line. This is the fundamental definition of an inertial frame. They are characterized by the requirement that all forces entering the observer's physical laws originate in identifiable sources (charges, gravitational bodies, and so forth).A non-inertial reference frame is one accelerating with respect to an inertial one, and in such a non-inertial frame a particle is subject to acceleration by fictitious forces that enter the equations of motion solely as a result of its accelerated motion, and do not originate in identifiable sources. These fictitious forces are in addition to the real forces recognized in an inertial frame.A key concept of inertial frames is the method for identifying them. For practical purposes, reference frames that are un-accelerated with respect to the distant stars are regarded as good approximations to inertial frames.Forces; Newton's second lawNewton was the first to mathematically express the relationship between force and momentum . Some physicists interpret Newton's second law of motion as a definition of force and mass, while others consider it a fundamental postulate, a law of nature. Either interpretation has the same mathematical consequences, historically known as "Newton's Second Law":a m t v m t p F ===d )(d d dThe quantity m v is called the (canonical ) momentum . The net force on a particle is thus equal to rate of change of momentum of the particle with time.So long as the force acting on a particle is known, Newton's second law is sufficient to。

物理专业英语词汇(T)t matrix t 矩阵t network t 型网络t quark t 夸克table 表tachometer 转速计tachyon 快子tadpole diagram 蝌蚪图tail of comet 彗尾tamm dancoff approximation 塔姆 丹科夫近似tamm dancoff equation 塔姆 丹科夫方程tamm state 塔姆能级tandem electrostatic generator 范德格喇夫串列式静电加速器tandem mirror 串联镜tandem van de graaff accelerator 范德格喇夫串列式静电加速器tangent line 切线tangential cpmponent 切线分量tangential resistance 接切阻力tangential stress 切向应力tangential velocity 切向速度tani foldy transformation 谷 福尔德变换tantalum 钽tantalum electrolytic capacitor 钽电解电容器tape 带tape recording 纸带记录target 靶tau lepton 轻子tau neutrino 中微子taurus 金牛座tautochrone 等时曲线tautochronism 等时性tautomeric transformation 互变转换tautomerism 互变现象taylor number 泰勒数taylor's flow 泰勒流tea laser tea 激光器tearing instability 撕裂不稳定性technetium 锝technical atmosphere 工程大气压technicolor 彩色电影technics 技术technique 技术telecentric system 远心系统telecontrol 遥控telemeter 测远计telemetering 遥测telemetry 遥测法telephone receiver 收话器听筒telephoto lens 远距照相镜头telephotographic objective 远距照相镜头telephotometry 光度遥测法telescope 望远镜telescopic meteor 望远镜燎telescopium 望远镜座telethermometer 遥测温度表television 电视television camera 电视摄象机television microscope 电视显微镜television receiver 电视接收机television set 电视接收机telluric line 大气吸收谱线tellurium 碲temperature 温度temperature coefficient 温度系数temperature correction 温度汀正temperature difference 温差temperature distribution 温度分布temperature effect 温度效应temperature factor 温度因数temperature gradient 温度梯度temperature green function 温度格林函数temperature radiation 温度辐射temperature regulator 温度第器temperature rise 温升temperature scale 温标temperature sensor 温度传感器temperature transducer 温度换能器温度传感器temperature wave 温度波tempering 回火temporary star 新星tensiometer 张力计tension 张力tensor 张量tensor force 张量力tensor meson 张量介子tensor polarization 张量极化tensor product 张量乘积tera 兆兆terbium 铽term 项term separation 项分裂term splitting 项分裂term symbol 项的符号term value 光谱项值terminal 端子terminal equipment 终端设备terminal voltage 终端电压terrestrial current 地电流terrestrial electricity 地电terrestrial heat flow 地热流terrestrial magnetic field 地磁场terrestrial magnetism 地磁terrestrial planet 类地行星terrestrial radiation 地面辐射tesla 特斯拉tesla coil 特斯拉感应圈tesla transformer 特斯拉感应圈testing statistical hypothesis 统计假说的检验tetragonal system 正方系tetrahedral angle 四面角tetrahedron 四面形tetrode 四极管tevatron 垓电子伏加速器texture 织构thallium 铊theodolite 经纬仪theorem of parallel axes 平行轴定理theoretical astronomy 理论天文学theoretical astrophysics 理论天体物理学theoretical nuclear physics 理论核物理学theoretical physics 理论物理学theory 理论theory of atomic structure 原子结构论theory of continental drift 大陆漂移论theory of electrons 电子论theory of elementary particles 基本粒子理论theory of expanding universe 膨胀宇宙论theory of fermi liquid 费密铃理论theory of games 对策论theory of gamow condon gurney 伽莫夫 康登 古尔内理论theory of gravity 引力论theory of heat 热学theory of liquids 液体理论theory of magnetism 磁学理论theory of non local field 非定域场论theory of nuclear structure 核结构理论theory of perturbation 微扰理论theory of probability 概率论theory of relativity 相对论theory of scattering 散射理论theory of tidal evolution 潮汐演化论theory of valence 原子价理论thermal analysis 热分析thermal balance 热平衡thermal blooming 热晕thermal breeder 热增殖堆thermal breeder reactor 热增殖堆thermal capacity 热容量thermal column 热柱thermal conduction 热传导thermal conductivity 热导率thermal conductivity gage 热导真空计thermal conductor 导热体thermal convection 热对流thermal creep 热蠕变thermal cycle 热循环thermal desorption 热解吸thermal diffuse scattering 热弥漫散射thermal diffusion 热扩散thermal diffusion coefficient 热扩散系数thermal diffusivity 热扩散性thermal dissociation 热离解thermal distribution 热分布thermal e.m.f. 热电动势thermal efficiency 热效率thermal electron 热电子thermal energy 热能thermal engine 热机thermal equilibrium 热平衡thermal excitation 热激发thermal expansion 热膨胀thermal fatigue 热疲劳thermal instability 热不稳定性thermal insulation 热绝缘thermal ionization 热电离thermal lens effect 热透镜效应thermal motion 热运动thermal neutron 热中子thermal noise 热噪声thermal output of reactor 反应堆热功率thermal physics 热物理学thermal power 热功率thermal radiation 热辐射thermal reactor 热堆thermal shock 热冲击thermal spike 热峰thermal stability 热的稳定性thermal switch 热控开关thermal transmission 传热thermal transpiration 热发散thermal treatment 热处理thermal unit 热单位thermalization 热化thermion 热电子thermionic current 热离子电流thermionic emission 热电子发射thermionic rectifier 热离子整流thermionic tube 热离子管thermistor 热敏电阻thermistor thermometer 热敏电阻温度计thermistor vacuum gage 热敏电阻真空计thermoacoustic refrigeration 热声致冷thermoacoustics 热声学thermoanalysis 热分析thermobarometer 温度气压表thermocapillarity 热毛细现象thermochromism 热色现象thermocouple 热电偶thermocouple gage 热电偶真空计thermocouple junction 热电偶接头thermodiffusion 热扩散thermodynamic characteristic function 热力学特性函数thermodynamic critical field 热力学临界磁场thermodynamic efficiency 热力学效率thermodynamic equation of state 热力学物态方程thermodynamic equilibrium 热力学平衡thermodynamic function 热力学函数thermodynamic inequality 热力学不等式thermodynamic limit 热力学极限thermodynamic model 热力学模型thermodynamic potential 热力学势thermodynamic quantity 热力学变量thermodynamic stability 热力学稳定性thermodynamic state 热力学状态thermodynamic system 热力学系统thermodynamic temperature 热力学温度thermodynamic temperature scale 热力学温标thermodynamic variable 热力学变量thermodynamic weight 热力学权重thermodynamics 热力学thermodynamics of irreversible processes 不可逆过程热力学thermoelastic wave 热弹性波thermoelectric current 热电流thermoelectric diagram 热电图thermoelectric effect 热电效应thermoelectric element 温差电偶thermoelectric phenomenon 热电现象thermoelectric power 温差电势率thermoelectric pyrometer 热电高温计thermoelectric series 热电序thermoelectric thermometer 热电温度计thermoelectric transducer 热电变换器thermoelectric type 热电型thermoelectricity 温差电thermoelectromotive force 热电动势thermoelectron 热电子thermogalvanometer 热电偶电疗thermogramm 温度记录图thermograph 自记式温度计thermogravimetric analysis 热重量分析thermohydrodynamics 热铃动力学thermoluminescence 热致发光thermoluminescence dosimeter 热致发光剂量计thermolysis 热解thermomagnetic effect 热磁效应thermomechanical effect 热机械效应thermometer 温度计thermometry 测温法thermomolecular pressure 热分子压强thermonuclear reaction 热核反应thermonuclear reactor 热核堆thermonuclear temperature 热核温度thermopile 温差电堆thermoplastic 热塑性材料thermoplastic material 热塑性材料thermorelay 温差电偶继电器thermoremanent magnetization 热剩余磁化强度thermosetting resin 热固尸thermosphere 热成层thermostat 恒温器thermotropic liquid crystal 热致液晶thick film integrated circuit 膜集成电路thick lens 厚透镜thickness 厚度thickness gage 测厚计thin film 薄膜thin film integrated circuit 薄膜集成电路thin film superconductor 超导薄膜thin film transistor 薄膜晶体管thin lens 薄透镜third harmonic generation 第三谐波发生third law of thermodynamics 热力学第三定律third sound 第三次声波thirring model 瑟林模型thixotropy 触变性thomas fermi model 托马斯 费密模型thomas precession 托马斯旋进thomas reiche kuhn's sum rule 托马斯 赖克 库扼和定则thomson effect 汤姆逊效应thomson principle 汤姆逊原理thomson scattering 汤姆逊散射thomson's atom model 汤姆逊原子模型thorium 钍thorium reactor 钍堆three body force 三体力three body problem 三体问题three color photometry 三色光度学three dimensional hologram 三维全息照相three level maser 三能级微波激射器three phase current 三相电流three primary colors 三原色threshold condition 阈值条件threshold detector 阈值探测器threshold dose 临界剂量threshold energy 阈能threshold frequency 临界频率threshold of audibility 最小可听值threshold of hearing 最小可听值threshold value 阈值threshold voltage 阈电压threshold wavelength 临界波长throttling 节流节力throughput 透射能thulium 铥thunder 雷thyratron 闸淋thyristor 晶闸管tidal action 潮汐酌tidal friction 潮汐摩擦tidal hypothesis 潮汐假说tidal motion 潮汐运动tidal wave 潮波tide generating forces 引潮力tides 潮汐tight binding approximation 紧密耦合近似tight coupling method 紧密耦合法tilt boundary 倾斜晶界timbre 音品time 时间time constant 时间常数time correlation function 时间相关函数time delay relay 延时继电器时间继电器time interval 时间间隔time lag 时滞time lag relay 时滞继电器time measurement 测时time of flight mass spectrometer 飞行时间质谱仪time of flight method 飞行时间法time of flight spectrometer 飞行时间谱仪time of flight spectrometry 飞行时间谱学time of relaxation 弛豫时间time ordered product 时序乘积time reflection 时间反演time relay 时滞继电器time resolved spectrum 时间分辨谱time resolving power 时间分辨能力time response 时间特性time reversal invariance 时间反转不变性time to amplitude converter 时 幅变换器tin 锡tintometer 色度计titanium 钛titanium oxide 钛氧化物titanium oxide capacitor 钛氧化物电容器tld 热致发光剂量计toda lattice 户田点阵toepler pump 托普勒泵tokamak 托卡马克tolansky's method 托兰斯基方法tolerance dose 容许剂量tone 音tone color 音品tone quality 音质top 回转仪top quark t 夸克topological algebra 拓扑代数topological defect 拓扑缺陷topological group 拓扑群topological quantum field theory 拓扑量子场论topological quantum number 拓扑量子数topological space 拓扑空间topology 拓扑学torch discharge 火焰状放电toricellian vacuum 托里折利真空tornado 陆龙卷toroidal field 环向磁场torque 转矩torr 托torricelli vacuum 托里折利真空torsion 扭转torsion balance 扭秤torsion electrometer 扭转静电计torsion moment 扭矩torsion pendulum 扭摆torsion seismometer 扭转震计torsional oscillation 扭转振动torsional rigidity 扭转刚度torsional strength 抗扭强度torsional stress 扭转应力torsional vibration 扭转振动torsional wave 扭转波total absorption 总吸收量total absorption coefficient 总吸收系数total current 总电流total eclipse 全食total energy 总能量total intensity 总强度total radiation temperature 总辐射温度total reflecting prism 全反射棱镜total reflection 全反射toughness 坚韧tourmaline 电气石tower telescope 塔式望远镜townsend coefficient 汤森系数townsend discharge 汤森放电trace 径迹tracer 示踪原子tracer atom 示踪原子tracer element 示踪元素tracer isotope 示踪同位素tracer method 示踪法tracer technique 示踪法track 径迹track chamber 径迹室train of waves 波列trajectory 轨道transcription 转录transducer 变换器换能器transfer 转移transfer equation 传递方程transfer function 转递函数transfer matrix 转移矩阵transfer ratio 传递比transferred momentum 传递动量transformation 变换transformation group 变换群transformation of coordinates 坐标变换transformation theory 变换论transformer 变压器transient 过渡现象transient current 瞬态电流transient equiliblium 动态平衡transient equilibrium 瞬态平衡transient motion 瞬态运动transient phenomenon 过渡现象transient response 瞬态响应transient stability 瞬态稳定性transient state 瞬态transient time 过渡时间transistor 晶体管transistor transistor logic 晶体管 晶体管逻辑transition 跃迁transition curve 转变曲线transition element 过渡元素transition energy 转变能transition layer 过渡层transition matrix 跃迁矩阵transition metal 过渡金属transition point 转变点transition probability 跃迁概率transition radiation 跃迁辐射transition state 过渡状态transition temperature 转变温度transition zone 过渡区translation 平移translation energy 平动能translation group 平移群translation invariance 平移不变性translation lattice 平移点阵translation motion 平移translucency 半透迷translucent body 半透缅transmission 传递transmission coefficient 透射系数transmission electron diffraction 透射电子衍射transmission electron microscope 透射电子显微镜transmission factor 透射系数transmission grating 透射光栅transmission line 输电线transmission of heat 热传导transmission of light 透光性transmission resonance 透射共振transmissivity 透射transmittance 透射transmittancy 相对透射比transmitting antenna 发射天线transmitting tube 发送管transmutation 转变transonic flow 跨声速流transonic speed 跨声速度transparence 透迷transparency 透迷transparent body 透缅transphasor 光敏晶体管transport coefficient 输运系数transport equation 输运方程transport number 迁移数transport phenomenon 输运现象transport process 输运过程transport theory 迁移理论transuranic element 超铀元素transversal wave 横波transverse electric wave 横电波transverse expansion 横膨胀transverse field 横场transverse magnetic wave 横磁波transverse mode 横模transverse polarization 横向极化transverse relaxation 横向弛豫transverse vibration 横振动transverse wave 横波trap 阱trapped electron 俘获电子trapped ion method 俘获离子法trapped particle 捕获粒子traveling wave amplifier 行波放大器traveling wave tube 行波管traveling wave type accelerator guide 行波型加速屁导travelling wave 行波tree graph 始triad 三价物trial and error method 试凑法trial charge 试探电荷triangle anomaly 三角图反常triangle of forces 力的三角形triangular lattice 三角形栅格triangular magnetic structure 三角形磁结构triangulum 三角座triangulum australe 南三角座triatomic molecule 三原子分子triboelectricity 摩擦电tribology 摩擦学triboluminescence 摩擦发光tribophysics 摩擦物理学triboplasma 摩擦等离子体trichromatic coefficient 三原色系数trichromatic coordinates 三色坐标trichromatic equation 三原色方程trichromatic system 三原色系triclinic lattice 三斜点阵triclinic system 三斜系tricritical point 三重临界点trifid nebula 三叶星云trigger 触发器trigger circuit 触发电路trigonal system 菱形系trimolecular reaction 三分子反应triode 三极管triode ionization gage 三极管电离真空计triode type ion pump 三极管型离子泵triple bond 三重键triple mirror 隅角棱镜triple point 三重临界点triplet 三重线triplet state 三重态tristimulus values 标准三色值tritium 氚tritium nucleus 氚核triton 氚核trochoidal focusing mass spectrometer 摆线聚焦质谱仪trochoidal wave 摆线波trojan group 脱罗央群trojans 脱罗央群tropic 回归线tropopause 对零顶troposphere 对零true electric charge 真电荷true noon 视午true solar time 真太阳时true sun 真太阳truth quark t 夸克tsunami 海震tube 管tube of electric flux 电通量管tube of magnetic induction 磁感应管tubing 导管tucana 杜鹃座tunable laser 可党激光器tunable semiconductor laser 可党半导体激光器tunable solid state laser 可党固体激光器tuned amplifier 党放大器tungsten 钨tungsten filament 钨丝tungsten halogen lamp 卤化钨灯tungsten lamp 钨丝灯tuning 党tuning fork 音叉tuning fork oscillator 音叉振荡器tunnel balance 空气动力天秤tunnel diode 隧道二极管tunnel effect 隧道效应tunnel junction 隧道结tunneling 隧穿tunneling spectroscopy 隧道效应光谱学turbid medium 混浊介质turbidimetry 混浊度测定法turbidity 浊度turbidity coefficient 浊度系数turbidity factor 浊度因子turbo molecular pump 涡轮分子泵turbulence 湍流紊流turbulent diffusion 湍俩散turbulent flow 湍怜turbulent heating 紊劣热turbulent motion 湍动turing machine 图灵计算机turn ratio 匝数比twin boundary 孪晶边界twin crystal 孪晶twin structure 孪晶结构twinning 孪生twinning deformation 孪生畸变twinning plane 孪晶面twins 孪晶twist boundary 扭转晶界two beam approximation 双束近似two beam interference 双光束干涉two dimensional compound 二维化合物two dimensional crystal 二维晶体two dimensional crystal nucleus 二维晶核two dimensional electron system 二维电子系two dimensional flow 二维流平面流two dimensional lattice 二维点阵two fluid model 二铃模型two photon absorption 双光子吸收two photon transition 双光子跃迁two stream instability 二束不稳定性two time green's function 双时格林函数two wave approximation 双波近似twyman green interferometer 特外曼 格林干涉仪tyndall phenomenon 丁达尔效应type doublet 型双重态type superconductivity 第一类超导性;第二类超导性typhoon 台风。

味粒子物理学名词“味”在粒子物理学中是一个相当独特的概念呢。

**一、词性解释**“味”在粒子物理学里是名词。

它可不是我们日常生活中说的味道那种感觉哦。

**二、意思**在粒子物理学中，“味”是一种用来区分不同类型夸克和轻子的量子数。

比如说，夸克有六种“味”，分别是上（up）、下（down）、奇（strange）、粲（charm）、底（bottom）和顶（top）。

这就好比把粒子世界里的这些小家伙按照不同的特征分成了不同的家族，每个家族就用“味”来标记。

**三、用法**科学家们在研究粒子相互作用的时候就会用到“味”这个概念。

例如，在描述强相互作用和弱相互作用时，粒子的“味”会影响它们之间相互作用的方式。

就像不同性格（这里类比“味”）的人在社交场合（类比粒子相互作用的环境）中的表现会不一样。

**四、近义词**在粒子物理学这个范畴里，很难说有真正意义上传统的近义词。

不过如果非要找个类似概念来勉强表示的话，可能“种类特性”能有那么点意思，但这也不是完全准确的，毕竟“味”是非常独特的量子数概念。

**五、双语例句**1. “你知道吗？在粒子物理学里，夸克的‘味’决定了它们好多独特的性质呢。

The flavor of quarks in particle physics determines a lot of their unique properties, you know?”2. “我刚刚在看粒子物理的书，那些不同‘味’的轻子就像神秘小世界里的不同精灵。

I was just reading a book on particle physics. Those leptons with different flavors are like different elves in a mysterious little world.”3. “看呐，顶夸克这种‘味’的夸克可是超级重的，就像粒子世界里的大胖子。

Look, the top - flavored quark is super heavy, like a big fat guy in the particle world.”4. “如果粒子没有‘味’这个概念，那它们的分类得多混乱啊，就像没有名字标签的一群小动物。