现代英语词汇学复习

英语词汇学复习提纲Part I概念题1.（glossary）a list of the difficult words used in a piece of writing or subject,with explanations of their meanings2.(phrase) a group of words that form a unit within a clause3.(expression) unclassified linguistic unit of any length: words, phrases, sentences,paragraphs, etc.4.(diction) the choice of words used in a speech or piece of writing5.(vocabulary) words in general known, learnt, used, etc. or a list of words,usually in alphabetical order and with explanations of their meanings6.(lexicon) all the words and phrases in a language or a dictionary7.(lexis) all the words in a language8.(word) the smallest unit of spoken or written language which has meaning andcan stand alone9.(Etymology) the study of origins and development of words10.(Lexicography) the writing and making of dictionaries11.(Lexical semantics) the study of words and their meanings12.(lexicology) the study of meanings and uses of words13.(morphology) the study of how words are formed in a language14.(phraseology) the words and phrases used in a particular profession or activity, ora particular way of putting words together to express something15.(collocation) a group of words which "naturally" go together through commonusage16.Morpheme: the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible oranalyzable into smaller forms17.Root: a root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the mainlexical meaning of the word.18.A ffix: a collective term for the type of formative that can be used only whenadded to another morpheme. It can further be divided inflectional and derivational types.19.Prefix: a derivational or an inflectional affix that can be added to the beginningof a morpheme.20.S uffix: a derivational or inflectional affix that can be added to the end of amorpheme.21.C ompounding /composition: a word formation process consisting of joining twoor more bases to form a new unit, a compound word.22.D erivation/ affixation: a word-formation process by which new words arecreated by adding a prefix, or suffix or both to the base.23.C onversion: a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class isshifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix.24.I nitialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a propername, a technical term or a phrase; it is pronounce letter by letter.25.A cronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of anorganization or a scientific term, etc; they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters.26.B lending/hybrid: a word-formation process in which a new word is formed bycombining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms.27.B ack-formation: a term used to refer to a word-formation process by which ashorter word is coined by deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.28.C lipping: a word-formation process by which a word is shortened by deletingone or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form.29.M otivation: refers to the connection between word symbol and its sense. MostEnglish words are non-motivated. Motivation can arise in three major ways: phonetic motivation, morphological motivation and semantic motivation.30.P olysemy : a term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has arange of different meanings.31.H omonyms: words identical in sound or spelling or both but different inmeaning.32.S ynonyms: words differing in sound but identical or similar in meaning.33.A ntonyms: words that are opposite in meaning34.H yponymy is the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexicalitems, such that the former is included in the latter.35.C ontext in its narrowest sense consists of the lexical items that comeimmediately before and after any word in an act of communication.36.Euphemism: an act of using agreeable language when speaking of anunpleasant or embarrassing fact (such as death, disease, etc) and of taboo subjects (such as sex and the excretive processes of the body).37.M etaphor: is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison based onassociation of similarity, in which a word or phrase ordinarily used for one thing is applied to another, a process which often results in semantic change or figurative extension of meaning.38.M etonymy: a figure of speech by which an object or idea is described by thename of something closely related to it.Part II 常用英语词汇学术语Acronym 首字母拼音词Acronymy首字母拼音法Affix 词缀Affixation 词缀法Antonym 反义词Antonymy 反义关系Back-formation 逆构词，反成法Blend 拼缀词Blending 拼缀法Collocation 搭配，组合Complementaries 互补反义词Complete antonym 完全反义词Composition 复合法Compounding 复合构词法Compound word 复合词、Concept 概念Conceptual meaning 概念意义Connotative meaning 内涵意义Context 语境Conversion 词类转换法Denotative meaning 外延意义Degradation of meaning 词义的降格Derivation 派生法Elevation of meaning 词义的升格Etymology 词源学Euphemism 委婉语Homonymy 同音（形）异义Hyponymy 上下义关系Idiom 成语Inflectional affix 屈折词缀Initialism：首字母缩略词Metaphor：隐喻Metonymy：换喻，转喻，借代Morpheme 词素Morphology 词形学，形态学Motivation of word 词的理据Neologism 新词语Onomatopoeic word 拟声词Phonetics 语音学Polysemy 一词多义Register 语域Root 词根Semantic field语义场Semantics 语义学Synonym 同义词Synonymy 同义关系Word-formation/building 构词法Part III True or False Statements1.It is usual that some affixes have far more frequent productive uses than others.There are some significant relations between affixes, especially antonymy, as with pre- and post-, -full and –less. (T)2.Though most prefixes can occur as independent words, they can on occasion bedetached to permit coordination, as in pre- and post-hysterectomy. (F)pounding can occur only in three main word classes, nouns and to a lesserextent, adjectives and, to least extent, verbs. (F)4.Semantically, compounds can often be identified as having a main stress on thefirst element and a secondary stress on the second element. (F)5.English compounds can be analyzed according to different criteria, such asorthographic criteria, semantic criteria, and phonological criteria. (T)pounds can be divided into three categories according to word classes: nouncompounds, adjective compounds and verb compounds. (T)pounds indicate the relations of the compounding elements by syntacticparaphrases. (T)8.Conversion is the derivational process whereby an item is adapted or convertedto a new word class without the addition of an affix. (T)9.Conversions from verb to noun and from verb to adjective are the mostproductive categories. (F)10.T here are two types of conversion: full conversion and partial conversion. (T)11.T he most important kinds of alteration in conversion are the voicing of finalconsonants, and the shift of stress. (T)12.W ords formed through acronymy are called acronyms or initialisms, dependingon the spelling of the new words. (F)13.B ack-formation is the method of creating new words by removing the supposedsuffixes. (T)14.M otivation has nothing to do with the explanation for the reason that a particularform has a particular meaning. (F)15.T he conceptual meaning of a word is often unstable and hard to determine. (F)16.B y etymological motivation, we mean that the meaning of a particular word isrelated to its origin. (T)17.S ense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and thenon-linguistic world of experience, while reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. (F)18.I n semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherentrelation to the physical world of experience. (T)19.C ontextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from orreduce meaning to observable contexts. (T)20.T he meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its words andphrases put together. (F)21.B oth semantics and pragmatics study how the speakers of a language choosetheir words to effect successful communication. (F)22.T he meaning of an isolated word from a dictionary is usually abstract andcontext-independent. (T)23.I ndo-European refers to the family languages spoken originally in Europe. (F)24.L atin and French belong to the different language groups. (F)25.E nglish belongs to the West-Germanic language group of Indo-Europeanlanguage family. (T)26.T he first people in England about whose language we have definite knowledgeare the Celts. (T)27.C ertain Germanic tribes, Angles, Saxons, Frisians and Jutes were the founders ofthe English nation. (T)28.O ld English has much less loan words compared with modern English.(T)29.The Norman Conquest virtually introduced French-English bilingualism intoEngland. (T)30.C ollocation is the relationship between two words or groups of words that oftengo together and form a common expression. (T)31.C ollocations are not transparent in meaning; that is, the meaning of the wholecannot be worked out from the meaning of each of the words in it. (F)32.L exical collocations normally consist of nouns, adjectives, verbs andprepositions. (F)33.A fixed lexical collocation is a collocation of two or more co-occurring lexemesin an unchanging syntactic and semantic relationship. (T)34.A Dictionary of the English Language by Dr. Samuel Johnson in 1755 is asymbol for modern English Dictionary. (F)35.W ebster’s two-volume 1828 dictionary, The American Dictionary of the EnglishLanguage, published when he was 70 years old, was by far the largest and the most impressive dictionary produced in America up to that time. (T)36.F rom pronunciation, British dictionaries as well as American ones generally useInternational Phonetic Alphabet. (IPA). (F)37.B ilingual dictionaries usually do not have etymological labels due to thelimitation of the length. (T)Part IV. Practices for Word-formation Processes.Section A: Explain the meanings of the following compounds in English1.Pickpocket2.Housebreaking3.Off-white4.Sleepwalker5.Brainstorming6.Self-styled7.Tenderfoot8.Good-looking9.Quick-freeze10.D ragonflyKeys:1.A person who steals things from people’s pockets2.Entering a building without right or permission in order to commit a crime3.A color that is nor pure white but has some grey or yellow in it4.A person who walks around while asleep5.Method of solving problems in which all the members of a group suggest ideaswhich are then discusseding a name, title etc. which one has given oneself, esp. without having anyright to do so7.A person who has recently arrived in a rough place8.Having a pleasant appearance9.Freeze very quickly for storing so that it keeps its natural qualities10.I nsect with a long thin body and two pairs of wingsSection B 根据例词，写出另外同类型转换的例子1.Garage to garage _______ ______ _______2.Water to water ________ ________ _______3.Core to core _______ ________ _______4.Nurse to nurse _______ ________ _______5.Hand to hand _______ -________ ______6.To release release _______ ________ _______7.To catch catch _______ ________ _______8.To show off show-off ______ ________ ______9.To throw throw ______ ________ ______10.T o cook cook _______ _______ _______11.D ry to dry ________ _______ _______12.B rave to brave _________ _______ _______Section C写出下列截短词的原词1.ad2. Memo3. Auto4. mike5. Bike6. Bus7. phone 8. Champ 9. Photo10. con 11. Co-op 12. Plane13. copter 14. Dorm 15. Rhino16. flu 17. Fridge 18. Gas19. sub 20. Taxi 21. Gym22.hippo 23. Lab 24. Limo25.lunch 26. Math 27. Vet28. zoo 29. Pub 30. PopKeys:2.memorandum 6. Omnibus 10. Convict 11. Co-operative 15. Rhinoceros 16. Influenza18. gasoline 19. Submarine 20. Taxicab22. hippopotamus 24. Limousine 25. Luncheon27. veteran, veterinarian, veterinary28. zoological garden 29 public house 30. Popular music Section D 写出下列首字母缩略词、拼音词的完整写法及汉语意思1.WHO2.ASEAN3.WTO4.ISP5.IT6.WWW7.CPU8.WPS9.GM10.V IP11.C EO12.G MT13.I OC14.C IA15.B BC16.T B17.V OA18.N BA19.F BI20.R OM21.D OS22.B IOS23.U NESCO24.N ATO25.O PEC26.T OEFL27.A IDS28.G PS29.R adar30.S IM31.C DMAPart V Meaning and Sense Relation1.Flowers _______ __________ ____________ _______ _________2.Body parts ________ _________ ________ _________ ________3.Stationary _________ __________ _______ ________ _________Section B 从下列七组词语中各找出一个不属于该组语义场的词：１.P en pencil ink wallpaper pencil-box ruler pads２.S oap towel bathtub oven basin sink perfume３.D river professor clerk student nurse guard porter４.W alk stride pace plunge run stroll roam parade５.C ar truck bus train bicycle airplane steamboat６.R ed green purple pink blue sandy brown orange７.C up mug glass spoon bowl pot plate saucer１.A s lean as _____２.A s long as______３.A s white as_____４.A s flat as _________５.A s warm as_______６.A s yellow as ______７.A s plain as ________８.A s round as _______９.A s naked as _______10.As sweet as _______11. as strong as _______12. as tasteless as ______13. as red as _______14. as plum as ______15. as thick as ______16. as cool as _______Keys:1.skeleton2. arm3. flour4. pancake5. toast6. butter7. ears 8. sausage 9. eggs 10. beans11. onions 12. potatoes 13. beef 14. blackberry 15. porridge 16. a cucumberPart VI 用分类关系画出以下各组词的树形图（不多于5层）１.T rack events, hurdles, jump, high jump, discus throw, field events, throw, events, walk, run, shot put, long jump, hammer throw, relays２.C ow, reptile, organism, plant, porcine, ox, bird, human, mammal, buffalo, bovine, animal, ovine３.A rmy, tank, rifle, armed forces, air force, warships, mine hunter, navy, transport aircraft, fighter-bomber４.P rose, novel, fiction epic, literature, drama, short story, poetry, lyric, novelette, pastoral５.P lane geometry, square, trapezium, plane triangle, quadrilaterals, rectangle, irregular quadrilateral, rhombus, parallelogramsKeys:1.EventsTrack events field eventsWalk run hurdles relays shot put jump throwHigh jump long jump hammer throw discus throw2.OrganismHuman animal plantBird mammal reptileOvine bovine porcineOx cow buffalo3.Armed forcesArmy navy air force Tank rifle warships mine hunter transport aircraft fighter-bomber4.LiteratureProse fiction drama poetryNovel novelette short story epic lyric pastoral5.Plane geometryPlane triangles quadrilateralsIrregular quadrilaterals parallelograms trapeziumSquare rectangle rhombusPart VII 完成下列明喻成语1. as _______ as ink2. as _______as brass3. as ________ as silver4. as _________as crystal5. as ________ as ice6. as ________as pitch7. as ________as bone 8.as ________as a pig9. as ________as a wolf 10. as ________as marble11. as ________as fire 12. as ________as two peas14. as ________as a ghost 15. as _________ as thought16. as rich as _______ 17. As heavy as ______18. as easy as _______- 19. As blind as ______20. as yellow as ________ 21. As ripe as _______\22. as pleased as ________ 23. As green as ______24. as cunning as ________ 25. As thin as ______26. as poor as ________- 27. As gay as _______28. as busy as ________ 29. As soft as ______Keys:1.black2. bold3. bright4. clear5. cold6. dark7. dry 8. fat 9. greedy 10. hard 11. hot 12. like14.mad 15. pale 16. a Jew 17. lead 18. ABC 19. a mole20. a guinea 21. cherry 22. punch 23.grass 24. a fox25. a rake 26. a church mouse 27. a lark 28. a bee 29. Down Part VIII 将下列谚语译成对应的汉语谚语：1.Two heads are better than one.2. The leopard can’t change his spots.3. A bad penny always comes back.4. East or west, home is best.5. After supper walk a while.6. Seeing is believing.7. Never try to prove what nobody doubts.8.All are not thieves that dogs bark at.word专业资料-可复制编辑-欢迎下载9.Anger and haste hinder good counsel.10. When the cat’s away, the mince will play.11.It is as well to know which way the wind blows.12.Sow nothing, reap nothing.13.God’s mill grinds slow but sure.14.He who has health has hope.15.While the grass grows the horse starve.16. You get what you pay for.Keys:1. 三个臭皮匠，胜过诸葛亮2.江山易改，本性难移3. 恶有恶报4.金窝银窝，不如家里草窝5.饭后百步走，活到九十九6.百闻不如一见7.此地无银三百两8.人不可貌相，海水不可斗量9.小不忍则乱大谋10.山中无老虎，猴子称大王11.识时务者为俊杰12.无功不受禄13. 天网恢恢，疏而不漏14.留得青山在，不怕没柴烧15.远水解不了近渴16. 一分价钱一分货。

Chapter10 English Idioms⏹10.1 Introductory Remarks⏹10.2 Sources of English Idioms⏹10.3 Classification of Idioms⏹10.4 Syntactic, structural and stylistic analysis of idioms10.1 Introductory Remarks♦Idiom: is a combination of two or more words which are usually structurally fixed and semantically opaque, and function as a single unit of meaning.♦English idiom: is a group of words with a special meaning different from the meanings of its constituent words.eg. a feather in sb.’s cap –an honour ,success ,of which one can be prouddraw a blank–to fail to discover or find out about sth. after searching hard and asking many questions .*Idioms are usually semantically opaque, i.e. metaphorical rather than literal.An idiom functions as a unit of meaning.♦Features: a. semantic opaqueness; b. structural invariability.♦English idioms form an essential part of the general vocabulary.Idioms reflect the environment, life, history and culture of the native speakers, and are closely associated with their innermost spirit and feeling.10.2 Sources of English IdiomsMany idiomatic expressions come from:1)Everyday life of the English people;eg. to keep one’s shirt on要有耐心; 别紧张; 指不要紧张t o give sb. the cold shoulder冷落某人2)Agricultural life;eg. to go to seed花谢结子; 走下坡路; 花谢结籽to lead sb. up the garden path迷惑某人,使某人产生错觉,花言巧语3)Nautical and military life;eg. be in the same boat with同舟共济to be in deep waters陷入困境4)Business life;eg. to come under the hammer将要落锤to talk shop三句不离本行5)Student life;eg. to speak by the book引经据典to turn over a new leaf重新开始(改过自新,过新生活)6)Food and cooking;eg. to keep the pot boiling仅足糊口;苟延残喘to be in the soup陷入困境7)Sports and cad-playing;eg. to keep the ball rolling不使中断to reach first base取得初步成就8)The Bible;eg. a thorn in the flesh肉中刺,眼中钉,烦恼的根源to turn the other cheek忍气吞声t he apple of one’s eyes掌上明珠9)Shakespeare’s plays;eg. to flutter the dovecotes扰乱鸽棚to give the Devil his due勿掩恶人善，平心而论10)fables, myths or legends.eg. sour grapes（指某人因得不到某物而称该事物不好）酸葡萄the lion’s share（最大份额或最大的一份）狮子的份额10.3 Classification of IdiomsThere are several criteria of classification of idioms. We classify them by structural criterion.A.Phrase idioms 短语成语According to the central word , they may subdivided into:1.Verb phrase idiom*a)All common English verbs, most of which are of native Anglo-Saxon origin, can combine with adverbs and prepositions to form phrasal verbs.b)Most of the verb phrase idioms are often nearly synonymous with loan words of Roman origin.c)Verb phrase idioms can form noun compounds.d)Phrasal verbs usually more lively and expressive than single verbs.eg. fall flat大失所望; 残败bite the hand that feeds one以怨报德2. Noun phrase idiomThe commonest functions of noun phrase idioms:a)As the direct object of a clause;b)As the complement of a clause;c)As the object of a preposition.eg. a baker’s dozen 十三个Jack of all trades 万事通; 万金油3. Adjective phrase idiomThe commonest function of adjective phrase idioms is as complement of a clause.eg. high and mighty盛气凌人;趾高气扬wide of the mark毫不沾边4. Prepositional phrase idiomFunctions of prepositional phrase idioms are:a)As an adjunct modifying a verb; 附属修饰语b)As a complement;补语c)As a complement or adjunct;d)As a disjunct; 分离判断语，附加语e)As a connecting phrase.B.Clause idioms 无主语从句成语Most of these idioms are terse, colloquial, vivid and changed with life.1.Verb + complement pattern2.Verb + direct object pattern3.Verb + direct object + complement pattern4.Verb + indirect object + direct object pattern5.Verb + direct object + adjunct patternC.Sentence idioms句子成语1.Proverbs;2.Typical conversational expressionseg. Upon my word! 我敢担保!Well begun is half done.半途而废Kill the goose that laid the golden egg. 毁掉财路; 杀鸡取卵10.4 Syntactic, structural and stylistic analysis of idiomsA. syntactic function 句法的功能1.The syntactic function of most phrase idioms usually corresponds with the central word or components.2.The syntactic function of some phrase idioms can vary.3.Prepositional phrase idioms have very diverse functions.4.noun + noun phrases have diverse functions.eg. He has a gift of the gab.(the ability to talk readily and easily )B. transformational restrictions 结构转换的限制性Transformation is a matter of structural change, and the change may be of various kinds.1.Some verb phrases may change word order.2.Some cannot change their word order.3.Some verb phrases may be passivized, but some can not.4.Most of the clause idioms cannot be put into the passive voice, while some of them can be used either way.5.The direct object usually does not undergo passive transformation; only the indirect object can be passivized.6.Some clause idioms may be made passive with a meaning quite different from what it had in the active form.C. Collocative restrictions 搭配限制1. Words collocate with idioms as the subjects, objects, predicates etc. of different types of phrase and clause idioms.2. Some idioms have a wide range of collocates while some have a limited choice.3. For some idioms, one has to consider which collocates will serve as adjuncts.D. Structural variability结构变化Idioms are structurally fixed, and as a rule one are not supposed to change any element in an idiomatic expression. But it is not unusual for writers to give a new twist to an old saying by making slight changes for rhetorical effect.Some ways of alteration in idioms:1. The replacement of one element by another without affecting the meaning of the whole.2. Insertion of one or more words into an idiomatic expression without changing its basic meaning.3. Deletion of one or more words, especially articles.E. Stylistic features文体特征1. Most idioms are stylistically neutral;2. But some of them belong to informal spoken English;3. Some idiom phrases are slangy.。

英语词汇学总结复习资料⼤家请注意：笔记中⼤多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该⼀字不漏的背下来。

其实不少简答题也就是⼏个定义的汇总，再加上个例⼦就可以拿满分了。

区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各⾃的定义。

第⼀章Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1. 词的定义Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2.声⾳与意义的关系There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional.E.g. ―woman‖ means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.3.读⾳与拼写不⼀致的原因The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spellingc）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500d）. Borrowing of foreign language4. 词汇的含义Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given displine and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.5.词汇的分类的原则Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by originthe English vocabulary consist of words of all kinds. they can be classified by different criteria and for different purpose . words may fall into the word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion , and into native words and borrowed words by origin.基本词汇的特点1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary.1.all national character （most important）– natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena of the human body and relationsworld around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.2. stability– they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – past electricity，machine，car，plane ——now3.productivity– they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes.e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer4.polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove5.collocability– quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and others基本词汇在英语中的地位和重要性The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of thelanguage .though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary ,yet it is the most important part of it .e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of goldNon-basic vocabulary ——(例⼦)1. terminology –technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicinephotoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus2. jargon– specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid3. slang—— substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener，dip，persuader cant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population.5. dialectal words– only by speakers of the dialectbeauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech.7. neologism– newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mailold meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions.Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation betweennotions，words and sentences.a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.Functional words are in a small number.b. Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable.c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.3）. Native words –are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）– words taken over from foreign language. 80%本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性Native words form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language .therefore , what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words.According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.1.Denizen s– words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，pork cup from cuppa（L）2.Aliens– retained their original pronunciation and spellinge.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo3.translation loans– formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.1）. Word translated according to the meaninge.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noir long time no see，surplus value，master piece 2）. Words translated according to the sounde.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchup tea4. Semantic loans– their meaning are borrowed from another languagee.g. stupid old dump new sassy dream old joy and peace pioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering work new a member of the young pioneer fresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky第⼆章The Development of the English1、Indo-European language family （Europe，the Near East，India）It can be grouped into an Eastern set :Balto –Slavic 、Indo-Iranian、Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic、Italic 、Hellenic、GermanicIn the Eastern set , Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively,the Balto –Slavic comprises such modern language such as Prussian、Lithuanian、Polish、Czech、Bulgarian、Slovenian、Russian. In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit.In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. In the Celtic,we find Scottish, Irish,Welsh, Breton. the five Romance language ,namely, Portuguese,Spanish, French, Italian, Roumanian all belong to the Italic through an intermediate language called Latin. The Germanic family consist of the four Northern European language :Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.2、History （时间，历史事件，特征）1）Old English （450-1150）totally 50，000-60，000 wordsThe 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic.The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions. The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English. At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary. The common practice was to create new words bycombining two native words. In the 9th century，many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English，our daily life and speech.特点：highly inflected language///complex endings or vowel changes （full ending）2）Middle English （1150-1500）English，Latin，FrenchUntil 1066，although there were borrowings from Latin，the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.By the end of the 13th century，English gradually come back into public areas.Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin pouered into English. 75% of them are till in use today.As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点：fewer inflections leveled ending3）Modern English （1500-up to now）early modern English （1500-1700）late modern English（1700-up to now）The Renaissance(the early period)，Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the West ern world’s great literary heritage.From the 1500’s through the 1700’s ,many writers experimented with words. Over 10000 new words entered the English language .many of these were taken from Latin and Greek .The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization，British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe，thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.After World War II，many new words have been created to express new ideas，inventions and scientific achievements. More words are created by means of word-formation.thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions，and scientific achievements. more words are created by means of word-formation.in modern English，word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use.特点：ending are almost lost.3. Three main sources new words当代英语词汇发展的现状New words sweep in at a rate much faster than at any other historical period of time .词汇发展的主要原因1).The rapid development of modern science and technology2).Social: economic and political changes3).The influence of other cultures and languages4. Three modes of vocabulary development（英语发展的三个主要⽅式：创造新词、旧词新意、借⽤外来语词）1. Creation – the formation of new words by using the existing materials，namely roots，affixes and other elements. （This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.）2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. Borrowing – to take in words from other languages.（played a vital role in the development of vocabulary , particularly in earlier times）4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete）French 30%，Latin 8%，Japanese Italian 7%，Spanish 6%，German Greek 5%，Russian Yiddish 4%第三章Word Formation*1. Morpheme(词素) ——A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）*2.Morph—— A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.3.Monomorphenic words– morphemes are realized by single morphs.4.Allomorph（词素变体）——Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s）has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context，e.g. in cats/s/，in bags/z/，in matches/iz/.5. Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences，e.g. cat，walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.6.Bound Morphemes——The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words，e.g. recollection （re+collect+ion）collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix）Bound morphemes are found in derived words.7.Bound root ——A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root，it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example：it conveys the meaning of ―say or speak‖ as a Latin root，but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before）we obtain the verb predict meaning ―tell beforehand‖。

词汇学复习资料词汇学复习资料词汇学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究词汇的构成、分类和使用规律。

对于学习一门语言来说，掌握丰富的词汇是非常重要的。

在这篇文章中，我们将提供一些词汇学的复习资料，帮助读者巩固和扩展词汇量。

一、词汇的构成词汇是语言的基本单位，是由一个或多个音素组成的。

在不同的语言中，词汇的构成方式也有所不同。

例如，英语中的词汇主要由字母组成，而汉语中的词汇则由汉字组成。

1. 字母构词法英语中的词汇通常由字母组成，可以通过添加前缀、后缀和词根来构成新的词汇。

例如，单词“unhappiness”由前缀“un-”（表示否定）和词根“happy”组成。

2. 字形构词法汉语中的词汇由汉字组成，可以通过添加偏旁部首、衍生字和合成字来构成新的词汇。

例如，汉字“学”可以通过添加偏旁部首“子”来构成“字”，表示学习。

二、词汇的分类词汇可以按照不同的分类标准进行分类，例如按照词性、语义和用途等。

下面是一些常见的词汇分类。

1. 词性分类词汇可以分为名词、动词、形容词、副词、代词、介词、连词和感叹词等不同的词性。

名词用来表示人、事物或概念，动词用来表示动作或状态，形容词用来描述人或事物的特征，副词用来修饰动词、形容词或其他副词，代词用来代替名词，介词用来表示位置、时间或方式，连词用来连接词语或句子，感叹词用来表示强烈的情感。

2. 语义分类词汇可以按照词义的相似性进行分类。

例如，可以将名词按照人、动物、植物、物体、抽象概念等进行分类；将动词按照行为、状态、感觉、思维等进行分类；将形容词按照颜色、大小、形状、性质等进行分类。

3. 用途分类词汇可以按照在句子中的作用进行分类。

例如，可以将词汇分为实词和虚词。

实词包括名词、动词、形容词和副词，它们在句子中起到实际的意义；虚词包括代词、介词、连词和感叹词，它们在句子中起到连接或修饰的作用。

三、词汇的使用规律词汇的使用规律是指在特定语境中使用词汇的约束条件。

不同的语言和不同的语境中，词汇的使用规律也有所不同。

英语词汇学知识点整理词汇期末复习（C1-C7）Chapter 1⼀、Word 词的定义(1) a minimal free form（最⼩的⾃由形式）(2) a sound unity(3) a semantic unity（meaning）(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.（具有句法功能）⼆、Vocabulary词汇的定义All the words in a language make up what is generally known as vocabulary.⼀般来说，词汇指的是⼀种语⾔⾥所有单词的总和。

词的总和构成语⾔的词汇。

词与词汇之间的关系是个体与总体之间的关系。

三、Sound&Meaning发⾳和意义The connection between the sound (form) and meaning is arbitrary (任意的) and conventional. ⼆者的关系是约定俗成、随意的四、Sound & Form发⾳和形式(1)The written form of a natural language is the orthographical（正字的）record of the oralform.⾃然语⾔的书写形式是⼝语形式的书写记录。

(2)The reasons of differences occur between sound and form: 发⾳与形式不同的原因：①English alphabet was adopted from the Romans 英语字母表来⾃罗马②the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. 发⾳改变快速③Differences created by professional scribes. 专业抄写员的不同④More differences brought by the continuing change of sounds and the standardization of spelling.发⾳不断变化，书写标准化。

Chapter 5Word meaning and Semantic Features 词义与语义特征⏹ 5.1 Conventionality and Motivation 约定俗成与有理据词⏹ 5.2 Main Types of Word Meaning 词义的分类⏹ 5.3 Componential Analysis and Semantic Features 语义成分分析与语义特征5.1 Conventionality and Motivation 约定俗成与有理据词The sound and meaning of words relatedTwo ways:1. Conventionality 约定俗成Most English words are conventional, arbitrary symbol.Arbitrary: adj. decided by or based on chance or personal opinion rather than facts or reason. Conventional or arbitrary: there is no intrinsic relation between the sound-symbol and its sense.Eg. △□English –house French –maison Chinese –fángzi Russian –dom Spanish –casa 2. Motivation 有理据词Motivation: refers to the connection between word-symbol and its sense.⏹Phonetic motivation语音理据Phonetic motivation: pronunciation suggests the meaning, including echoic words or onomatopoeic wordsE.g. woof-woof the woof-woof of a dogmiaow the miaow of a catroar the roar of a lionbang the bang of a door⏹Morphological motivation 形态理据Morphological motivation: there is a direct connection between the morphemic structure of the word and its meaning.E.g. anticancer 抗癌的kilogram 公斤，千克good-looking 好看的，美貌的daydream 白日梦，做白日梦⏹Semantic motivation 语义理据Semantic motivation: The figurative meaning can be understood by those who know the literal meaning.E.g. a stony heart 铁石心肠，冷酷无情the leg of a table 桌子的腿5.2 Main Types of Word Meaning 词义的分类Types of Word Meaning: A. Grammatical meaning语法意义B. Lexical meaning 词汇意义⏹ A. Grammatical meaning1. word-class词类:The word-class determines the position that a word normally occupies in a sentenceEg. Being a child, he can’t understand what he just said.He never dreams of being a superstar.2. inflectional paradigm词形变化:Eg. seasons of a year 一年四季the poles 南北两极cat –cats mouse –mice walk –walks –walked write –wrote –written⏹ B. Lexical meaning1.Denotative meaning外延意义(conceptual meaning概念意义)Denotative meaning involves the relationship between a linguistic unit (esp. a lexical item )and the non-linguistic entities (physical objects, natural phenomena / things, events, processes) to which a word refersThe denotative meaning of a word’s definition given in a dictionaryEg. chairchair: a piece of furniture for one person to sit on, which usually ahs a back, a seat, fourlegs, and sometimes armsthe same meaning for all speakers of a given communityIt is that aspect of lexical meaning which makes communication possible.the central factor in linguistic communication2.Connotative meaning内涵意义Connotative meaning: the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’smind.E.g. motherdenotative meaning: female parentconnotative meaning: love, care, warmTwo levels of connotation●Connotations pertaining to individualsbased on personal experiencee.g. father●Connotations pertaining to a groupe.g. communist, road, Uncle Sam3.Social or stylistic meaning 社会或文体意义●Social meaning: a piece of language conveys about the social circumstance of its use.One adjusted one’s language so as to make it appropriate in various situation in terms of :(1)the social relationship between the speakers or correspondents (friend tofriend ,professor to student )(2)the occasion (a class reunion or an official reception )(3)subject matter(about serious political issues or about films ,swimming or food )(4)the mode of discourse (spoken or written )●Stylistic meaningConsultative style is a polite and fairy neutral style ;it’s used when we are talking to a person whom we do not know well ,or to someone who is senior to ourselves in terms ofage or social position .Casual style is used in conversion between friends or in personal letter when the language is informal ,familiar ,relaxed ,warm and friendly .●the criterion of formality: formal, neutral and informal4. Affective meaning情感意义Affective meaning is concerned with the expression of feelings and attitudes of speaker or writer.snarl words –show disapproval or contempt on the part of the speaker . derogatory (derog.)E.g. gang, niggardlypurr words—express the speaker 's approval of the person or thing he is talking about .appreciatory (apprec.)E.g. scholar, masterpiece, generous5.3 Componential Analysis and Semantic Features 语义成分分析与语义特征●Componential analysis on the basis of semantic contrastComponential analysis: A process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components (semantic features).⏹ManMan: [+Hunan +Adult +Male]⏹ChildChild: [+Human -Adult +Male]⏹CowCow: [+Bovine +Adult -Male]⏹LambLamb: [+Ovine -Adult +Male]⏹BoarBoar: [+Porcine +Adult -Male]现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter5●Advantages and disadvantages of componential analysis➢Advantages:1)Enable us to have an exact knowledge of the conceptual meaning of aword2)Help us to choose the right word or collocation➢Disadvantages:1)The impossibility of making a list of the infinite number of semanticfeatures.2)The analysis of word meaning into its sense components is not enough.3)Many words are often used figuratively without observing the normal“usage rules”。

Chapter 6 Polysemy and Homonymy⏹6.1 Polysemy 一词多义⏹6.2 Homonymy 同音同形异义⏹6.3 The Stylistic Value of Polysemy and Homonymy 一词多义与同音异义的文体价值6.1 Polysemy 一词多义Polysemy: A term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings.*means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time.●Two approaches to polysemy :diachronic 历时的and synchronic 一时的，同步的●Two processes leading to polysemy1)Radiation辐射型：It is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at thecenter while secondary meaning radiates from it in every direction like ray .*Though all the secondary meanings are independent of one another, they can all be traced back to the primary meaning.2)Concatenation连锁型: It is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word movesgradually away from its first sense by successive shifts ,like the links of a chain ,until thereis no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning .*use relations between senses to master the different meanings of a polysemic word●Sense relations of polysemy1)original meaning vs. extended meaning 原始意义vs.引申意义2)universal meaning vs. particular meaning 普遍意义vs.特殊意义3)abstract meaning vs. concrete meaning 抽象意vs.特殊意义4)literal meaning vs. figurative meaning字面意义vs.比喻意义6.2 Homonymy 同音同形异义Homonymy: words which though different in meaning ,are pronounced alike ,or spelled alike ,or both .Eg.light（光）light（轻的）；bark（吠）bark（树皮）；flower（花）flour（面粉）●Three types of homonyms:1)Perfect homonyms完全同形同音异义词:Words identical in spelling but different in meaning .E.g.1)．poppop ／p p/ n．流行歌曲pop／p p／n．爸爸pop／p p／n．砰的一声2)．lastlast ／la:st／a．最后的last／la:st／v．持续last／la:st／n．鞋楦头现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter62)Homophones同音异义词:Words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Eg. air空气–heir继承人，后嗣bear忍受，熊–bare空的，赤裸的dear 亲爱的–deer鹿3)Homograph同形异音异义词:Words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning .Eg. lead sow tear prayerSources of homonyms1.Phonetic convergenceUnder the influence of phonetic convergence ,two or more words whichonce were different in sound forms take on the same pronunciation thespoken language .E.g. melo –meal bean –been beat –beet flea –flee heal –heel2.Semantic divergenceWhen two or more meanings of the same word drift apart to such an extentthat there will be no obvious connection between them ,polysemy will giveplace to homonymy .E.g. flour –flower metal –mettle3.Foreign influenceE.g. host –one who entertains guest [L hospitis ]host –a large number ,an army [L hostis ,army ,hostile force ]4.ShorteningThis source is of decidedly subsidiary importance in formal writing but haswidespread influence in everyday speech.E.g. pop –popular (music )-to thrust ,to push (up ) 推6.3 The Stylistic Value of Polysemy and Homonymy一词多义与同音异义的文体价值Context plays a very important role in the hearer 's interpretation of words of two special types: different words of like form(homonymy)and words of several meanings (polysemy ).*Polysemic and homonymous words are stylistically useful to achievehumour or irony ,or to heighten dramatic effect .。

英语词汇学复习资料IntroductionEnglihaaglobal1)Morphology（构词学）2)Semantic（语义学）3)Stylitic（语体学）4)Etymology（词源学）3.研究le某icology的两大方法1)Diachronicapproach:历时语言学2)Synchronicapproach:共时语言学Chapter1Le某icologyandbaicconceptofwordandvocabulary1.Word——Awordiaminimalfreeformofalanguagethathaagivenoundandmeaningandyn tacticfunction.2.Thereinologicalrelationhipbetweenoundandmeaningatheymbolic connectionbetweenthemiarbitrary(任意的)andconventional（约定的,俗称的）.3.ound＆formTheoundhouldbeimilarto/conitentwiththeform,butthereareomeill ogical不合逻辑的andirregularity不规则的1)influencedbyRoman2)Pronunciationchanged3)earlycribe（抄写员）4)borrowing4.Vocabulary——Notonlycanitrefertothetotalnumberofthewordinalanguage,butitcanta ndforalltheworduedinaparticularhitoricalperiod.5.ClaificationofW ordbaicfull/content实义词native/Anglo-Sa某onwordfrequencynotionoriginnonbaic/vocabularyfunctional/empty功能词borrowed/loanCollocability（可搭配性）neutralintyle（中立性）(2)Twofeatureofnativewordfrequentinue1)wordtakenoverfromforeignlanguageareknowaborrowedwordorloan wordorborrowinginimpleterm.2)ItietimatedthatEnglihborrowingconti tute80percentofthemodernEnglihvocabulary3)TheEnglihlanguagehavat debt.Inanydictionaryome80%oftheentrieareborrowed.Chapter2ThedevelopmentoftheEnglihvocabulary1.OldEnglih属于Indo-Europeanlanguagefamily（印欧语系）——Germanic（日耳曼语系），与德语最相似.2.Hitory1）OldEnglih（450-1150）a.Thefirtpeopleknowntoinhabit（居住）EnglandwereCelt，thelanguagewaCeltic（凯尔特语）.b.TheecondlanguagewatheLatin（拉丁语）oftheRomanLegion（罗马军队）.Romaninvaion→Anglo-Sa某on 三个事件TheintroductionofChri tianity→拉丁文的涌入Vikinginvaion（北欧海盗）andScandinavian斯堪的纳维亚语传入word文档可自由复制编辑2）MiddleEnglih（1150-1500）在英语发展过程在哪个阶段出现三语鼎立的现象？French,Latin,EnglihinMiddleEnglihperiodeael,port,freight,出现于英语发展的哪个阶段，属于哪一种外来词的引入？MiddleEnglih,Dutch（带来了2500个词汇）3）ModernEnglih （1500-uptonow）TheRenaiance（文艺复兴）:LatinandGreekwererecognizedathelanguageoftheWeternworld’gr eatliteraryheritage（文化遗产）.TheIndutrialRevolution（工业革命）:17世纪中期Withthegrowthofcolonization（殖民化）,Britihtentacle（魔爪）beganatretchingoutoftoeverycorneroftheglobe，thuenablingEnglihtoaborb（吸收）wordfromallmajorlanguageoftheworld.十六世纪，有一种新工业Printing出现对词汇的发展产生重要的影响,这导致oundandform出现concord（一致）和tandardization第二次世界大战以后，大量外来词进入英语中，如：Maojacket,blackbelt,kongfu标准化Inflectionallanguage屈折语Analyticallanguage分析语TherapiddevelopmentofmoderncienceandtechnologySocial,economi candpoliticalchangeTheinfluenceofothercultureandlanguageThreemodeofvocabularyde velopmentChapter3ThetructureofEnglihwordword.）Free→cantandaloneaaword/independentofothermorphemeTypeprefi某ation前缀Le某ical→derivational→affi某ationBound→addedtoothermorphemeuffi某ation后缀Grammatical→inflectional2.Morph——Amorphememutberealizedbydicrete（离散的）unit.Theeactualpokenminimalcarrierofmeaningaremorph.Monomorpheni cword——morphemearerealizedbyinglemorph.Allomorph（词素变体）——Somemorphemearerealizedbymorethanonemorphaccordingtotheirpoition .3.Root——Arootithebaicformofaword,whichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttota lloofidentity.（Whatremainofawordaftertheremovalofallaffi某e.）Stem——aformtowhichaffi某eofanykindcanbeadded.Bae——refertoaformtowhichaffi某eofanykindcanbeadded.Itcanbearootortem.atemmayconitofainglerooto rtworootandarootpluaaffi某.atemcanbearootoraformbiggerthanaroot.请加以区别下面两个词的特征:nation,dict加以理论的分析(1)Bothnationanddictbelongtoroot,nationifreeroot,whichcanfun ctionaloneinaentence,Chapter4Word-formationinEnglih1.Therearefourmaintypeofword-formationinEnglih.word文档可自由复制编辑(1)★Affi某ation（prefi某ationanduffi某ation）构词能力最强Affi某ationigenerallydefinedatheformationofwordbyaddingwordformingorde rivationalaffi某etotem.fullconverion——Itcantakeanindefinitarticle(不定冠词)or-(e)toindicateingularorpluralnumber.e.g.black→ablackdrinkable→d rinkablepartialconverion——mutbeuedtogetherwithdefinitearticle.e.g.rich→therich2.Othertype ofword-formation(1)Clipping/hortening——hortenalongerwordbycuttingapartoftheoriginanduingwhatremainintea d.quake（earthquake）dorm（dormitory）pop（popularmuic）flu （influenza）(2)Acronymy首字母缩略法——joiningtheinitialletterofnameofocialandpoliticalorganizationorpe cialphraeandtechnicaltermeg:VOA-VoiceofAmericaTV-televiion绝大多数blending都是nouneg:mog（烟雾）frommoke+fogtele某（电传机）fromteleprinter+e某changeMedicare（医疗保险）frommedical+carelunarnaut（登月宇航员）fromlunar+atronaut(4)Back-formation逆构词法——iaproceofword-formationbywhichawordicreatedbythedeletion删除ofauppoedaffi某.donate（donation）loaf（loafer）babyit（babyitter）laze（lazy）Chapter5Wordmeaning1.Analytical(referential)分析的Reference–therelationhipbetweenlanguageandtheworld.Operational(conte某tual)运用到具体场景中Concept–whichbeyondlanguageithereultofhumancognitionreflectingthe objectiveworldinthehumanmind★Sene1）enedenotetherelationhipinidethelanguage.Theeneofane某preioniitplaceinaytemofemanticrelationhipwithothere某preioninthelanguage.’2）Sincetheeneofane某preioninotathing,itioftendifficulttoaywhatortofidentityiti.Itial oanabtraction.3）Everywordthathameaninghaene(noteverywordhareference)2.Motivation（理据）——accountfortheconnectionbetweenthelinguitic（语言学的）ymbolanditmeaning.non-motivatedOnomatopoeic（拟声的）——thewordwhoeounduggettheirmeaning.Semantic（语义学的）——refertothementalaociationuggetedbytheconceptual概念上的meaningofaword.eg：atthefootofmountain,themouthofriverword文档可自由复制编辑Etymological（词源学的）——Thehitoryoftheworde某plainthemeaningoftheword.3.TypeofmeaningGrammatical语法–refertothatpartofthemeaningofthewordwhichindicategrammaticalconc eptorrelationhipConceptual概念——themeaninggiveninthedictionaryandformthecore核心ofword-meaning.Le某ical词汇Connotative内涵意义eg：Mother—afemaleparent—loveAociative联想Stylitic语体1)formal2)neutral3)informalAffective/Emotive——appreciativeandpejorativeCollocative固定搭配Chapter6SenerelationSynchronicapproachRadiation辐射像车轮式一样进行发展的语义e.g.face,neck（3）TwoproceofdevelopmentConcatenation–meaning―linkingtogether‖串联 2.Homonymy（1）定义：Homonymaregenerallydefinedaworddifferentinmeaningbuteitheridenti cal（完全相同的）bothinoundandpellingoridenticalonlyinoundorpelling.PerfectHomonym同音同形异义词e.g.bear忍受；熊ball球；舞会（2）TypeHomograph同形异义e.g.minute分钟；微小的（1）定义：Synonymareworddifferentinoundandpellingbutmotnearlyalikeore某actlytheameinmeaning.Aboluteregioned地域（BritihEnglih＆AmericanEnglih）（2）TypetyliticdegreeRelative（Near）hadeofmeaningemotiverangecollocative搭配Borrowing（themotimportantource）（1）定义：Antonymyiconcernedwithemantic语义学的oppoition.Relative(dependoneachother)eg:parent—child,ell—buy,predeceor前辈—ucceor继承者word文档可自由复制编辑（3）Characteritic1）Antonymareclaifiedonthebaiofemanticoppoition.2）Awordwhichhamorethanonemeaningcanhavemorethanoneantonym.3）Antonymdifferinemanticincluion.4）Contrarytermaregradableantonym,differingindegreeofintenity,oeach haitowncorrepondingoppoition.（4）Ue。

现代英语词汇学一、词汇的构成（Word - formation）1. 词根（Root）- 定义：词根是单词的核心部分，它包含着单词的基本意义。

例如，“vis”在“visible”（可见的）、“vision”（视觉）和“visit”（参观）中是词根，其基本意义与“看”有关。

读音：[ruːt]，词性：名词。

2. 前缀（Prefix）- 定义：加在词根前面，改变单词的意义。

例如，“un - ”在“unhappy”（不快乐的）中表示否定。

读音：[ˈpriːfɪks]，词性：名词。

- 常见前缀及其意义：- “re - ”（再，又），如“rewrite”（重写）。

读音：[riː - ]，词性：前缀。

- “pre - ”（在……之前），如“preview”（预习，预演）。

读音：[priː - ]，词性：前缀。

3. 后缀（Suffix）- 定义：加在词根后面，改变单词的词性或意义。

例如，“ - er”在“worker”（工人）中表示“做……的人”。

读音：[ˈsʌfɪks]，词性：名词。

- 常见后缀及其作用：- “ - ness”（构成名词，表示性质、状态），如“happiness”（幸福）。

读音：[nəs]，词性：后缀。

- “ - ful”（构成形容词，表示充满……的），如“helpful”（有帮助的）。

读音：[fʊl]，词性：后缀。

二、词性（Parts of Speech）1. 名词（Noun）- 定义：表示人、事物、地点、抽象概念等。

例如，“book”（书）、“city”（城市）、“love”（爱）。

读音：[naʊn]，词性：名词。

- 名词的分类：- 可数名词（Countable Noun），如“apple”（苹果），有单复数形式。

- 不可数名词（Uncountable Noun），如“water”（水），一般没有复数形式。

2. 动词（Verb）- 定义：表示动作或状态。

例如，“run”（跑）、“be”（是）。

现代英语词汇学概论复习资料1~7现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料Chapter 2 Morphological Structure of English Words英语词汇的形态结构⏹ 2.1 Morphemes词素/语素/ 形位⏹ 2.2 Classification of Morphemes词素分类2.1.1 The Definition of “Morphemes” 词素的概念Morpheme: The smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language，not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.➢smallest: not divisible into smaller forms➢meaningful: carry meaning (lexical and grammatical)e.g. denationalizationdenationalization= de + nation + al + iz + ation➢ A morpheme is a two-facet language unit: sound and meaning➢ A morpheme is not identical with a syllable，either，since the latter has nothing to do with meaning.Allomorphs语素变体、词素变体:➢various shapes or forms of a morpheme➢do not differ in meaning or function➢conditioned by position or adjoining sounds➢Eg. -sbook→books /-s/pig→pigs /-z/horse → horses /-iz/➢Eg. im-，in-，i- perfect, responsible, logical, flexible perfect → imperfectresponsible→ irresponsiblelogical → illogicalflexible → inflexible➢Eg. –tion，-sioninvent →inventiondescribe →descriptionjustify →justificationmodernize→modernizationexpand →expansiondecide →decisionomit →omission2.2 Classification of Morphemes词素分类●Free Morphemes and Bound Morphemes自由词素与粘着词素Free morpheme:➢one that can be uttered alone with meaning➢ A free morpheme is a word.E.g. green, red, write, faithBound morpheme:➢cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance➢appear with at least one other morpheme, free or boundE.g. receive re-ceiveQ：自由词素与粘着词素如何组词？E.g. green, greenhouse, greenness, disagreeable, receive, encyclopedia➢green (free)➢green-house (free + free)➢green-ness (free + bound)➢re-ceive (bound + bound)➢en-cyclo-pedia (bound + bound + bound)* A free morpheme is a word.●Roots and Affixes词根与词缀Root 词根: The basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.➢ 1. Free root (自由词根):A word consist of one free root (or one morpheme)is a simple word.Free roots provide the English language with a basis for the formation of new words.➢ 2. Bound root（粘着词根）:roots derived from foreign sources ,esp. from Greek and Latin, belong to the class of bound morphemes, such as tian and cieveEg.1)work, workable, worker, worked, working (free)2) contain, detain, retaintain= tenere (L) = to hold (bound)3) conceive, deceive, receiveceive= capere (L) = to take (bound)4) revive, vitamin, vital, vivacious, vividvit, viv = life / to live (bound)➢Vital:necessary in order to stay alive-al: pertaining to = have a connection withvital = having a connection with life Vivacious:adj. apprec. full of life and high spirits; lively-ous: full ofvivacous = full of life (energy)Vivid:producing sharp clear pictures in the mind; lifelike-id: having a certain qualityvivid = having a certain quality of lifeAffixes缀: a collective term for the type of formative that can be used when added to another morpheme.➢ 1. Inflectional affixes(屈折词缀): serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree.特点：1.not to form a new word with new lexical meaning2. having only particular grammatical meaning3. only to be affixed to words of the same word-class (not to change the word-class)➢ E.g. Plural marker: pens, oxen, feetGenitive case: Jame’sVerbal endings: works, working, worked, bought, saidComparative and superlative degree: slower, slowest➢ 2. Derivational affixes（派生词缀）:to be added to another morpheme to derive a new word 特点：1. to derive a new word2. having a specific lexical meaning (some also affective meaning)3. some to be attached to words of different word classes➢Eg. Having pejorative or derogatory meaning-ism means“doctrine or point of view ”==socialismPro-means“on the side of ”==pro-com-munist⏹Mini-carmean-nessModern-izeSocial-ism Pro-communist De-codeDe-valueWash-able⏹mis-mal-absorptionpseudo-democratic hire-ling weak-ling child-ish派生词缀分类（derivational morphemes）: Prefixes and suffixes1) By linguistic origin:➢Native affixes➢Foreign affixes2) By productivity:➢Productive/living affixes➢Unproductive/dead affixes➢Summary➢ 2.Morphological Structure of English Words英语词汇的形态➢ 2.1 Morphemes词素➢ 1.The Definition of “Morphemes”词素的概念➢ 2. Allomorphs 词素变体➢ 2.2 Classification of Morphemes 词素分类➢ 1. Free Morphemes and Bound Morphemes➢自由词素与粘着词素➢ 2. Roots and Affixes 词根与词缀➢free root and bound root自由词根与粘着词根➢inflectional affixes and derivational affixes屈折词缀与派生词缀➢➢。

现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料Chapter 1 A General Survey Of English Vocabulary词的定义1.0 The Definition of the term “word”　1.1 The Development of English V ocabulary英语词汇的发展史1.2 Classification of English Words词的分类1.0The Definition of the term “word”Word: a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning), capable of performing a given syntactic function.? a minimum free form?sound?lexical and grammatical meaning?syntactic functionBound form粘着形式：Never used as sentences.Free form 自由形式：Consists entirely of two or more lesser free forms.，is a word.It’s not a phrase1.1 The Development of English Vocabulary?Native: Celtic?1st period(449-1100): Old English or Anglo-Saxon Period (OE or AS)Celtic →　Anglo-Saxon (the settlement from 450 AD.) / Old Norse / Latin?2nd period (1100-1500): Middle English Period (ME)French (the Norman Conquest in 1066)Latin?3rd period (1500-present): Modern English PeriodEarly stages of Modern English (1500-1700)Latin (Renaissance)Greek (Renaissance)Contemporary English (1700-present):Three Romance Languages : French, Spanish, ItalianOther European languages: Portuguese, German, Dutch …Non-European languages (exploration, colonization, trade) The rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary and its causes.?Marked progress of science and technology.?Socio-economic，political and cultural changes.?The influence of other cultures and languages.1.2 Classification of English WordsThree main criteria:By origin: 1. native words 本族词2. loan words 外来词By level of usage: 1. common words 普通词2. literary words 书面词3. colloquial words 口头词4. slang words 俚语5. technical words 术语By notion: 1. function words 功能词2. content words 实义词By origin:1. native words 本族词2. loan words 外来词Native words: words of Anglo-Saxon origin or of old EnglishFeatures of native words:?Most are monosyllabic?forming the great majority of the basic word stockLoan / borrowed words: those borrowed from other languagesBasic word stock:?auxiliary, modal verbs, numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, the most frequently used words (essential to life)?National character?Stability?Word-forming ability?Ability to form collocationsBy level of usage:1. Common words 普通词2. Literary words 书面词3. Colloquial words 口头词4. Slang words 俚语5. Technical words 术语*There are no clear-cut boundaries between the various classes of words.Common words普通词:?connected with the ordinary things or activities necessary to everyday life?The core of the common words is the basic word stock.?Stylistically neutralLiterary words书面词:?chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents, or in formal speeches.?Most are of French, Latin or Greek origin.?Among the literary word, two categories are noteworthy:?archaic words (c.f. obsolete words)?poetical wordsSlang俚语:?Language, words or phrases of a vigorous, colorful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses or derived from the unconventionaluse of the standard vocabulary?Not generally used in informal conversation unless the speakers are on intimate terms?Embracing those daring and new expression that have not been accepted as standard EnglishThe chief reason for use of slang: secure freshness and noveltyTechnical words术语:?used in various fields: science, profession or trade, art, sport?increasing precision in nomenclature?one specific meaning?Latin or Greek in originBy notion:1. function words 功能词2. content words 实义词Function words:?determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries?not having much lexical meaning?serving grammatically:Behaving like grammatical signals or functional markers,Expressing the kinds of connection between content wordsConstructing acceptable English sentences?small in number and stable:In relatively closed listsBelonging to a relatively small and permanent set of words)?high frequency。

一、单选题1.The plural morpheme “-s” is realized by /s/after the following sounds EXCEPT ______.A、/t/B、/g/C、/p/D、/k/答案： B2.30% to 40% of the total number of new words in English are produced through ______.A、compoundingB、affixationC、conversionD、shortening答案： B3._____ is NOT a pair of homophones.A、Fair (lovely) and "fair" (a regular gathering of people for barter and sale of goods)B、"Flea" (any of various small， wingless， bloodsucking insects) and "flee" (to escape)C、Lead (to guide) and "lead" (metal of a dull bluish-grey colour that melts easily)D、"compliment" (an expression of praise， admiration， or congratulation) and "complement" (something that completes， makesup a whole， or brings to perfection)答案： C4.By ______ motivation, we mean that the meaning of a word is related to its origin.A、onomatopoeicB、morphologicalC、semanticD、etymological答案： D5.__________refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences,trades, and professions communicate among themselves.A、SlangB、JargonC、Dialectal wordsD、Argot答案： B6.The information about the word class of a word is part of its _____ meaning.A、lexicalB、grammaticalC、centralD、derived答案： B二、 判断题7.A word is the combination of form and ________.A 、spellingB 、writingC 、meaningD 、denoting答案： C8.The following words have derivational affixes EXCEPT ______.A 、worksB 、prewarC 、postwarD 、bloody答案： A1.The most important mode of vocabulary development in present - day English is creation of newwords by means of word formation.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 正确2.Simple words in English are usually non-motivated.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 正确3.When a prefix is added to a word, its word-class is usually changed.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 错误4.Lexical meaning is dominant in content words.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 正确pounds are words formed by combining affixes and stem.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 错误6.Quite a number of derivational affixes have more than one meaning.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 正确三、 名词解释四、 问答题7.Unlike conceptual meaning, associative meaning is unstable and indeterminate.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 正确ponential analysis has no disadvantages.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 错误9.In most cases, the native term is more literary than the foreign one.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 错误10.Grammatical meaning refers to the part of speech tenses of verbs and stylistic features of words.A 、正确B 、错误答案： 错误1.Acronymy答案： is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.2.Morphs答案： Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.3.Etymological Motivation答案： The history of the word explains the meaning of the word4.Sentence Idioms答案： are mainly proverbs and sayings including colloquialisms and catchphrases. Each function as a sentence.1.Contradictory terms 有一个最大的特点是什么？答案： Mutually exclusive and are non-gradable, They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualify them.。

5.1 Conventionality and Motivation约定俗成与有理据词
The sound and meaning of words related
Two ways:
1.Conventionality约定俗成
Most English words are conventional, arbitrary symbol.
Chapter 5Word meaning and Semantic Features词义与语义特征
5.1 Conventionality and Motivation约定俗成与有理据词
5.2 Main Types of Word Meaning词义的分类
5.3 Componential Analysis and Semantic Features语义成分分析与语义特征
Eg.△
□English –houseFrench –maisonChinese –fángziRussian –domSpanish –casa
2. Motivation有理据词
Motivation:refers to the connection between word-symbol and its sense.
Arbitrary:adj.decided by or based on chance or personal opinion rather than facts or reason.
Conventional or arbitrary: there is no intrinsic relation between the sound-symbol and its sense.
E.g. anticancer抗癌的
kilogram公斤，千克

Chapter 7 Sense Relations Between Words■7」Synonymy同义关系■7.2 Antonymy反义关系■7.3 Hyponymy上下义关系■7.4 Semantic Field 语义场7.1 SynonymySynonyms: words differing in sound fonn but identical or similar in meaning.* Synonymy: a relationship of 'sameness of meaning5 that may hold between two words. Synonym: a wordthat means the same as anothe匚*Or exactly one of two or more words which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning.•Kinds of synonymsThere are two kinds of synonyms1)Complete synonyms: are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects.*They're rare.Two words are totally synonyms only if they are fully identical in meaning and interchangeable inany context without the slightest alteration in connotative ,affective and stylistic meanings . Eg.spirants fricative (phonetics ) caecitis -typhlitis (medicine ) vvord-formation - word-building (lexicology )2)Relative synonyms : also called quasi-synonyms.Differ from complete synonyms in the following respects:a)In degree of a given quality or in shade of meaning;Eg. small .tiny .diminutive .minute .microscopic .infinitesimal -一they denote different degrees ofsmallnessanger .rage 9fuiy .indignation .wrath -they denote the emotional excitement induced by intense displeasure .b)In affective meaning, and stylistic meaning;i.affective meaning(emotive meaning )Eg. little -smalllittle -emotion is associate with the designationsmall -has no affective meaningthrifty /frugal -niggardly /miserly black -niggerii.stylistic meaning: words which refers to the same thing but belong to different stylistic layers :neutral (common ),colloquial,literary ,slang ,vulgar ,scientific and technical ,ect・ Eg.chide (literary )berate(neutral ) scold(neutral) blame(neutral) carpet(colloquial ,esp. BrE) tell^(colloquial) bawl out (AmE.,slang )c)In collocation and distribution:Eg. pretty -girl /child /flower /garden /colour /village/cottagehandsome -boy /masterpiece /car /table /overcoat /airliner /housed)Some sets of synonyms belong to different dialects of the language•Synonymous patternsa)The double scale patternEg・b)The triple scale patternEg・• The choice and appropriate use of synonyms1)Difference in denotationSynonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning・ Some words have a wider range ofmeaning than others.comprehend / understandextend / increase / expandlau^h: chortle, chuckle, giggle, guffaw, snicker/sniper, titter2)Difference in connotation.By connotation, we mean the stylistic and emotive coloring of words. Some words share the samedenotation but differ in their stylistic (emotional) appropriateness.unlike / dissimilar homely / domesticLook at that lovely little boy.Look at that small boy.Look at that tiny boy.3)Difference in application.Many words are synonymous in meaning but different in usage in simple4)Difference in applicationMany words are synonymous in meaning but different in usage in simple terms. They form differentcollocations and fit into different sentence patterns (distribution: pre- or post- modifier).empty (box, street, room), vacant (seat, chair, apartment), blank (check, a blank sheet of paper)accuse....of, charge...with, rebuke・.・for, reproach...with/for水synonyms also includes three other aspects:(1)synonyms of different word-class (jealous -jealousy)(2)words synonymous with phrases (to tolerate -to put up with )(3)different sentence patterns expressing roughly the same ideaeg. He was the sole provider of the family •He alone had to support the family .He was the only person to provide for the family .7-2 Antonymy反义关系Antonyms: words which are opposite in meaning.(opDOsiteness of meaning )• Types of antonymsA. antonyms classified on the basis of semantic contrasta) Contraries相对反义词Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles orextremes. The two opposites are gradable.-hot, warm, cool, cold-beautiful, pretty, good-looking, plain, ugly- old-young, open-close, big-small, poor-richb) Complementaries绝对反义词/互补反义词These antonyms truly represent oppositeness. They are so opposed to each other that theyare mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them (non-gradable).The assertion of one is the denial of the other.-dead-alive,approval-disapprovalpresent-absent, male-female, true-false,capable-incapable一Prefixes: dis-, in-, il-, ir-, im-, un-c)Coversives换位反义词/关系反义词This third type consists of relational opposites, one member of the antonyms pairpresupposes the other member.一Husband-wife, fiance-fiancee, employer-employee, debtor-creditor- Above-below, in front of-behind, up-down一Buy-sell, give-receive, go-come, gain-loseB. antonyms classified on the basis of the morphological structurea) Marked and unmarked members (有标记项和无标记项)E.g.： tiger(unmarked), tigress(marked)•The unmarked member is used much more widely than merely as a contrast with the marked one,which is more specific in denotation.•Old/young; “How old/young are you?"•big/small; "How big …?"•wide/naiTow; “How wide ...?M•Heavy/light*The cover teim is called "unmarked,\ i.e. usual; and the covered "marked", or unusual.b) Some words without antonyms*Not all words have antonyms:Eg. House, window, forest, hook, coal...d)Different antonyms under different circumstancee)Lexical antonyms vs syntactic negationLexical antonyms is often stronger than syntactic negation.(using not)Eg. impossible -not possibleunfair -not fair disloyal-not loyal to disobey -not to obeyf)Word order of antonymous pairs Eg.Eg. an old man -a young man athin slice -a thick slice a tallbuilding -a low buildingan old house -a modern /new housea thin man -a fat mana tall man -a short manheaven and earth 天地man and wife 夫妻cause and effect 因果come and go 来去far and near /wide 远近black and white 黑白thick and thin 厚薄fire and water 水火heat and cold 寒暑eat and drink 饮食right and left 左右rich and poor 聘夫old and new 新旧heavy and light 轻重sooner or later 迟早• Use of antonymsAntonyms are often used for the sake of contrast to impress one ' s listeners or readers. Eg. in proverbial sayingsSweet as honey .bitter as gall .Art is long Jife is shortMore haste .less speed •Light come ,light go .7.3 Hyponymy 上下义关系Hyponymy: is the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items Eg. cat is a hyponymy of animal flute of instrument .chair of furnitureThis sense relation may be shown by thefollowing diagram ：foodFood is a superordinate （•上 义i 司），meat, vegetable and fruit arehyponyms （卜 义词）or subordinates of food, and they are co-hyponyms （共下 义词）.But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms.7.4 Semantic Field 语义场Semantic Field Theory 语义场理论…•德国Jost Trier 20世纪30年代> The set of terms which are hyponyms of the same superordinate terms are called co-hyponyms, which are also knows as semantic fields.> The words of language can be classified into sets which are related to conceptual fields and divide up the semantic space or the semantic domain in certain ways. For example, apple, pear, date and etc. make up the semantic field of u fruits ,\ > The German linguist Jost Trier saw vocabulary as 'an integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sensei Therefore, the 'words of language can be classified into semantically related sets of fields.Eg. -Semantic field of colours: red, orange...-Semantic field of kinship: son,fat her...-The semantic field of kinship: father, mother, son, daughter, brother, sister... ■联系性 I like lemon. orange, apple, grapered, black, green■层次性 鸟、鱼、昆虫、哺乳动物Imeat vegetable Beef pork mutton celery spinach cabbage apple orange禽兽猪、牛、马…• Characteristics1)Words in the same field are joined by a common semantic feature, such asthe concept of color or of the kinship.2)Word frequency in the same field varies,e.g. in the field of color:The words with the highest frequency: white, black, green, blue, red, yellowThe ones with the second highest frequency: pink, orange, scarlet, crimson, violet The ones with the least frequency: lemon, emerald, sandy, coral3)Words of the same field are semantically interdependent: the meaning ofone word in a semantic field is limited by the meaning of its neighbors, or is determined by the position the word occupies in the field. Only theneighbouring words can identify the semantic fieldLemon: orange, apple, bananaLemon: red, orange, blueI like lemon.4)Words in the same semantic field are likely to have a number ofcollocations in common.(raw / taste /fiy)pork, beef, mutton。

Chapter 9 Changes in Word Meaning⏹9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning⏹9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change⏹9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of WordsDefinition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words.9.1 Causes of Changes in Word MeaningA.Historical cause 历史原因It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed .*Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common in the history of science.Eg.pencil ==is from a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”毛笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a “pencil”.atom ==It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos ,invisible. Thus atom meant originally “an particle too small to be divided”. This meaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split.B.Social cause 社会原因Change in word meaning resulting from a constant verbal traffic between common words and various technical words is referred to as social cause of semantic change.Some technical words have lost their specialized meaning and have come to be used in more general senses.Eg.feedback (Electr.) =means “response” in common use ,as in “The teacher likes to have feedback from his students”;allergic (Med.)=means “being unusually sensitive to the action of particular foods, pollens, insect-bites ,etc.”*A specific environment may add a fresh and highly technical sense to a word of general use .Eg.energy =(Phys.) ability of matter or radiation to do workdecline =(Gram.) inflect, state the case-forms ofC.Foreign influences 外来文化影响A particularly important cause .eg.-pig ,sheep ,ox(cow)denote the names of both the animals and their meat in the Old English period ,but since the meat was called pork ,mutton and beef respectively among the Norman conquerors, the original terms are now used only as the names of the animals.-dream meant “joy” in OE, it gets its modern sense from the related Scandinavian word draumr.D.Linguistic cause 语言上的原因*Two tendencies: towards ellipsis省略and towards analogy类推.-Ellipsis as a cause of semantic change often occurs in habitual collocations, such as adj.+n.,or attributive n.+n.,in which the noun is often deleted and only the first element (the attributive )is left ,but retaining the sense of the whole phrase .eg.a general –a general officer 一位将军an editorial–an editorial article一篇社论bugle–bugle horn 号角gold–gold medal ,as in the Olympic Games金牌uniform–uniform dress 制服transistor–transistor radio 收音机daily–daily newspaper 日报duplicate –duplicate copy 副本-Analogical tendency: New meanings developed in one part of speech are passed on to other parts of speech from the same lexical base.eg.diplomatic (外交的，外交上的)which had earlier meant only “skillful in managing international relations,”had by 1826 developed the sense of “tactful in the management of relations of any kind ;artful management it dealing with others.” By 1848，this new meaning had been passed on to the noun diplomacy. （外交；外交手腕；交际手段）E.Psychological cause 心理学上的原因*Three formsa)Euphemism委婉People have a tendency to use mild, agreeable language when speaking of an unpleasant or embarrassing fact (such as death, disease, unfortunate events or crime), and of taboo subjects as sex and the excretive processes of the body.eg. hence death and things related to death-to pass away-to breathe one’s last -to cease to think-to fall asleep -to go west-to kick the bucket -to be no moreb)Grandiloquence 夸张Grandiloquence refers to the use of long, important-sounding words for effort .The desire to upgrade or raise the social status of a position, occupation, or institution by changing its common name to one felt to confer greater dignity or importance is another psychological factor in the change of word meaning.eg.janitor看门人；守卫；门警–custodian管理人；监护人；保管人gardener园丁；花匠；园艺家–landscape architect造园技师；环境美化设计家reform school教养院；少年犯管教所–community home少年感化院；c)Cynicism 嘲讽Cynicism: the desire to sneer and to be sarcastic.eg .pious虔诚的；敬神的；可嘉的；尽责的--hypocritically virtuous 伪善地善良fanatic狂热的；盲信的—unreasonably enthusiastic ,almost approaching to madnessgrandiloquent夸张的；夸大的；大言不惭的—pompous in language ;given to beautiful talk sanctimonious假装虔诚的；假装圣洁的；假装诚实的–devout ,holy or sacre d9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic ChangeA.Restriction of meaning (specialization) 词义的缩小/具体化♦Restriction of meaning means that a word of wide meaning acquires a narrow , specialized sense which is applicable to only one of the objects it had previously denoted.B.Extension of meaning (generalization) 词义的扩大/普遍化♦Extension of meaning: means the widening of a word’s sense until it covers much more than what it originally conveyed.*Two main reasons for this tendency :1. The predominant developmental trend is in the direction of differentiation rather than ofsynthesis;2. Related to the first ,is that the formation of general concepts from specific terms is of lesserimportance in non-scientific communication though it is rather a characteristic of scientific endeavor .C. Degeneration of meaning (pejoration) 词义的降格/语义转贬 ♦ Two main forms:1. The failing of word meaning into disrepute, for one reason or another . eg. silly1) Originated from the ASs œlig meaning “blessing and happy ”2) Since the blessed people are usually those innocent of evil ,the word came to mean “innocent ” inthe 17th century3) As innocent people are so often those leading simple lives, it later came to mean “simple ” and“simple-minded ”, which is often associated with “lack of intelligence ” 4) hence the modern meaning of the word silly :“foolish ”.2. This form may take the form of the gradual extension to so many senses that any particular meaning which a word may have had is completely lost.*This form refers to the weakening of meaning resulting from habitual use of particular words on unsuitable occasions.D. Elevation of meaning (amelioration) 词义的升格/语义改良♦ Elevation of meaning: a word meaning takes a turn for the better in the course of time, and haseither risen from a “snarl ” word to a “purr ” word ,or from a slang term to a common word.9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of WordsA. Metaphor隐喻，暗喻♦Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison based on association of similarity, in which a word or a phrase ordinarily and primarily used for one thing in applied to another, a process which often results in semantic change or figurative extension of meaning.eg. food for thought ,a heart of stone ;thunderous applausea cunning person –foxa beautiful woman –vision美景♦Two types:a)The similarity between tenor and vehicle may be based on likeness in form or appearance; on aresemblance in relative position; in quality or in function.eg. eye of a needlethe teeth of a combthe bridge of a pair of eyeglassesthe crest of a mountainb)There is one psychological process which also produces linguistic results similar to those ofmetaphor:eg. synaesthesia. 联觉“which is based on transportation from one sense to another”*Many words have been used so frequently as metaphors that their metaphorical sense have become well-established in people’s minds. They are called faded metaphors and appear as one of the word’s meanings listed in any standard dictionaries.B. Metonymy 借喻，转喻，借代♦Metonymy is a figure of speech by which an object or idea is described by the name of something closely related to it.eg. the white house –the president or for the presidential staff of the US♦Categories of metonymy:a)Sign for the person or thing signified;eg. from the cradle to the grave (for “from infancy until death”)b)Container for its contents; the place for the people occupying it;eg. the bottle (for alcoholic drink ) wardrobe (for a person’s collection of clothes)c)The abstract for the concrete;eg. the pride (of our university ) the management (for governing body ,board of directors ect.)d)The concrete for the abstract;eg. tongue(for language ) the floor(the right of one member to speak, as in “to have the floor )e) A part for the whole and vice versa;eg. a sail for a ship (as in “a fleet of fifty sail )f)The material for the ting made.eg. silver for coins made of silver (as in “£20 in notes and £3 in burglars)。

Word :a minimum free form of a language. With a unity of s ound and meaning(both lexical meaning and grammatical meaning),performing syntactic meaningCriteria of words: by origin(native—old English )( and loan language—borrowed English),by level of usage(common words, literary ,colloquial, slang and technical words);by notions(function and content words)Morpheme: smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller form. A morpheme is also two-facet language unit which possesses sound and meaning.Classification of morphemes: free morpheme-utter alone with meaning(a free morpheme is a word in traditional sense); bound morpheme—must appear with one other morpheme, free or bound)Root: the basic unchangeable part of the word, convey the main lexical meaning of the word. Either free or bound.(free roots and bound roots)Affixes: ----inflectional affixes(have only particular grammatical meaning)and derivational affixes.(added morpheme to create new words.）---prefixes and suffixesWord-formationThree major processes : compounding(joining tow or more bases to form a new unit of compound words)Derivation(forming a new word by addition of a word element)Conversion(a word of certain word-class is shifted into another word-class without any affixes)Eight minor processes :Acronymy (Initialisms –using the first letter from proper name ,phrase, technical words)Ainitialism is pronounced letter by letter) and acronyms—from the initial letters of the name of an organization or scientific term)==are pronounced as words.Clipping(deletion of one or more syllables from a word—usually a noun, which is also available in its full form)Classification—back clipping, front clipping ,front and back clipping and phrase clipping.)Blending---formed by combining the meanings and sound of tow words.one of which is not full form or both of which are not full form. ）不完整拼缀Back-formation（coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.）Words from proper names(including names of scientists, names of politicians and statesman, names of places, trademark, literature)Reduplication(a compound word is created by the repetition(1)of one word like go-go(2)almost identical words with a change in the vowel’s such as ping-pong.(3)of two almost identical words with a change in the initial consonants ,as in teenyweeny.Neoclassical(new words are formed from elements derived from Latin and Greek)The majority of neoclassical formations are scientific and technical.MiscellaneousWord meaning and sense relations1,conventionality—no way to explain why this or that sound-symbol and its sense.2,motivation—phonetic ,morphological, sematic3,main types of word meaning(interrelated andinterdependent)---class and inflectionalparadigm)andmeaning; connotative meaning—emotional association; social or stylistic meaning and affective meaning)Binary opposites.二相对立Polysemy—a term used in sematic analysis to refer to lexical item which has a range of meanings.)T wo approaches—diachronic and synchronic.---primary meaning and derived meaning, central meaning and secondary meaning(in some cases, the primary meaning and the central meaning coincide.)Two processes leading to polysemy---radiation(each of the secondary meanings may become a center of further radiation),concatenation(linking together, like the links of a chain.Homonymy(---pronounced alike, spell alike, or both.)---types of homonyms(perfect homonyms—word identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning)(Homophones---identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning.)(Homographs—identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning.)Polysemic and homonymous words are stylistically useful to achieve humour or irony, or to heighten dramatic effect. Synonymy(—identical in meaning but different in sound and spelling.)--- Complete synonyms(absolute),Relative synonyms.Antonymy (--opppsiteness of meaning)---contrary, complementary and conversives ….Antonyms classified on the basis of morphological structure: root antonyms and derivational antonyms.Marked and unmarked words---subsume.(Marked members can not be used to include unmarked member.) Hyponymy—(relationship which obtains specific and general lexical items)Superordinate term(an upper term),Subordinate terms(a lower term)===hierarchical system Sematic field---is not simply a listing of independent items, organized into areas or field.Charateristic of the same sematic field.1),word frequency in the same semantic varies 2)these words are semantically interdepent.3) words in the same semantic field are likely to have a number of collocation on common. Changes in word meaning---1,causes:historical,social,foreign influence, linguistic and psychological .2, Four tendencies in sematic change---restriction, extension, degeneration, elevation (of meaning)具体化，普遍化，语义转贬，语义改良。

第一章词的概述；1．识记：词的定义2．声音与意义识记：声音与意义的关系3．声音与拼写识记：读音与拼写不一致的原因4．词汇识记词汇的含义5．词汇的分类识记：词汇的分类原则；基本词汇的特点；四类外来语词的特点。

领会：基本词汇及本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性What is word ?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。

1) A word is a minimal free form of a language;2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释词的分类（classification of a word）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？1) simple words 2) complex words单音节词例子：e.g. Man and fine are simple多音节词例子：e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmailmanagement 可以次划分为manage 和-mentmisfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和fortuneblackmail 次划分为black 和mailWhat is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is ‘no logical relationship between the s ound and actual thing.e.g. dog. cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds. What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form, such as English language.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English3)With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two.What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship or irregularity between sound and form?1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.要记住以上四句话中的关键词：1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing你能不能举出外来语对英语发音,拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是‘sound and form ’不一致。