《新编语言学教程》课后答案

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版 第1-3章练习题 参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction P13 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language ？答：答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe observe language language language facts facts facts first, first, first, which which which are are are found found found to to to display display display some some some similarities, similarities, similarities, and and and generalizations generalizations generalizations are are are made made made about about about them; them; them; then then then he he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed observed facts facts facts to to to fully fully fully prove prove prove their their their validity. validity. validity. In In In linguistics, linguistics, linguistics, as as as in in in any any any other other other discipline, discipline, discipline, data data data and and and theory theory theory stand stand stand in in in a a a dialectical dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答：答： The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication; (2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words; (4) (4) syntax: syntax: syntax: it it it studies studies studies the the the rules rules rules which which which govern govern govern how how how words words words are are are combined combined combined to to to form form form grammatically grammatically grammatically permissible permissible permissible sentences sentences sentences in in languages; (5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language; (6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use. 3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? 答：答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways. Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence. Then, Then, modem modem modem linguistics linguistics linguistics differs differs differs from from from traditional traditional traditional grammar grammar grammar also also also in in in that that that it it it does does does not not not force force force languages languages languages into into into a a a Latin-based Latin-based framework. 4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why? 答：答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. 5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? 答：答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any langu age is always “invented” by its users to reco rd speech when the need arises. arises. Even Even Even in in in today's today's today's world world world there there there are are are still still still many many many languages languages languages that that that can can can only only only be be be spoken spoken spoken but but but not not not written. written. written. Then Then Then in in in everyday everyday communication, communication, speech speech speech plays plays plays a a a greater greater greater role role role than than than writing writing writing in in in terms terms terms of of of the the the amount of amount of information information conveyed. conveyed. conveyed. And And And also, also, also, speech speech speech is is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of spe ech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from from everyday speech, everyday speech, which they regard as authentic. 6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence andperformance?答：答： Saussure's Saussure's distinction distinction distinction and and and Chomsky's Chomsky's Chomsky's are are are very very very similar, similar, similar, they they they differ differ differ at at at least least least in in in that that that Saussure Saussure Saussure took took took a a a sociological sociological sociological view view view of of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：答： First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess. 8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system? （2．2语言的识别性特征）美国语言学家 C. Hockett 提出了人类语言的 12种识别性特征，其中最重要的识别性特种有5种：即语言的任意性、创造性、二重性、移位性和文化传递性。

第1章导言1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2.The definition and the origins of language语言的定义与起源3.The design feature and the function of language语言的特征和功能4.Some major concepts in linguistics语言学中重要的概念本章考点：1.有关语言学的常考考点(1)语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的区别。

(2)语言学中几组重要概念，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。

(3)普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。

(4)宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

2.有关语言的常考考点(1)语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、互换性、专门性和文化传递性)；(2)语言的功能(寒暄、指示、信息、疑问、表达、劝说和施为)；(3)语言的起源(叮咚说、唱歌说、哒哒说、汪汪、噗噗、哟嘿吼理论等。

)本章内容索引：I.Definition of linguisticsII.Linguistics vs.traditional grammarIII.Scope of linguistics1.Microlinguistics2.MacrolinguisticsIV.Definition of languageV.Origins of language1.Ding-Dong Theory2.Sing-Song Theory3.Pooh-Pooh Theory4.Yo-He-Ho Theory5.Ta-Ta Theory6.Bow-Wow TheoryVI.Design features of language1.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Productivity4.Interchangeability5.Displacement6.Specialization7.Cultural transmissionVII.Functions of language1.Phatic function/communion2.Directive functionrmative function4.Interrogative function5.Expressive function6.Evocative function7.Performative functionVIII.Some major concepts in linguistics1.Descriptive and prescriptive grammar2.Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsngue and parolepetence and performance5.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations6.Functionalism and formalismI.Definition of linguistics(语言学的定义)【考点：名词解释】The scientific or systemic study of language,which is always guided by the-three canons ofscience:exhaustiveness,consistency and economy.语言学是对语言的科学或系统的研究。

第7章语篇分析7.1复习笔记本章要点：1.Discourse and discourse analysis语篇及语篇分析2.Given and new information已知信息与新信息3.Cohesion and coherence衔接与连贯4.Conversational analysis对话分析常考考点：语篇及语篇分析的定义；已知信息与新信息的异同；衔接手段包括指称、替代、省略、连接与词汇衔接；语篇标记的定义与特征；对话分析中的配组会话、偏好结构及前序列；批判性语篇分析。

本章内容索引：I.Definition of discourse and discourse analysisrmation structure1.Given and new information2.Topic and comment3.ContrastIII.Cohesion and coherence1.Cohesion.(1)Reference(2)Substitution(3)Ellipsis(4)Conjunction(5)Lexical cohesion2.CoherenceIV.Discourse markers1.Definition2.Functional-pragmatic nature3.Features of discourse markersV.Conversational analysis1.Adjacency pairs2.Preference structure3.PresequencesVI.Critical discourse analysisI.Definition of discourse and discourse analysis(语篇及语篇分析的定义)1.Discourse(语篇)A general term for examples of language use,nguage which has been produced as the result of an act of communication.It refers to the larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations,and interviews.泛指语言的运用，也就是说，语篇是人们进行交流的产物。

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, atheory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答： The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-basedframework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always“invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky'sare very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答： First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system? 答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets ofstructures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taughtand learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration. 答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For e xample: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused? 答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks forgeneral purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrowtranscription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ]. Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: closevowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowelsis the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4)[ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop(2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate(4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short(6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ intheir focus of study? Who do you think willbe more interested in the difference between,say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phoneticianor a phonologist? Why?答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language–– the speech sounds. But while both arerelated to the study of sounds,, they differin their approach and focus. Phonetics is ofa general nature; it is interested in all thespeech sounds used in all human languages:how they are produced, how they differ fromeach other, what phonetic features theypossess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different froma phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environmentsare called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/. 9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part,caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that followsit. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet –indiscreet, correct –incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding formssignature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning? 答：The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift ofstress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done oris possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial formof ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial formof 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving theactionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who worksin a company”interviewee, “one who isinterviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectives examples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nouns exam ples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns oradjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e.specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP → (Det) N (PP) ...VP → (Qual) V (NP) ...AP → (Deg) A (PP) ...PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namelymeaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as workand help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional factstogether with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number ofcoordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinatephrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semanticand syntactic roles. Semantically, ithelps to make more precise the meaningof the head. Syntactically, ittypically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrasesand provide information aboutentities and locations whoseexistence is implied by the meaning ofthe head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rulein accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det NAdvb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, acomplement, and a specifier. Draw theappropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) → specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) → specifier (the) Det + head(argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg +d) The apple might hit the man.S → NP (The apple) + Infl (might) + VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S → NP (He) + VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences containmodifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all containconjoined categories. Draw a treestructure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all containembedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences containsa relative clause. Draw the deep structureand the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the followingsentences involve the inversion。

新编语⾔学教程第2版第4章答案《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》第⼆版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).第7—13⼩题⼤部分要求画树形图，这⾥省略。

Introduction[check your understanding]1. f Syntax and semantics each have their own strengths.2. f Pragmatics is also interested in how language use affects the language system.3. t4. f5. tIn-Class Activities1. ASK(1) Yes, he’s ing.(2) Yes. [No, he isn’t ing](3) His knowledge about whether Pat likes cognitive linguistics or not.2.(1) a. John is obviously not Hitler. There is only one Hitler in the world.b. Golf as an inanimate object can’t play a human being (John).c. It is a case of tautology that conveys no new information.d. “Idea” doesn’t have color and can’t sleep since it is inanimate. The whole sentence doesn’t make sense.(2) a. it can be used for munication in a context where John shares some personality with Hitler.b. when John is a poor player of golf.c. in a context where a certain boy has done something wrong (out of naughtiness).(3) when the sentence is used in poetry to personalize the word "idea".3.(1) a. In an entrance of a park.b. In the restroom of some public places like an airport.a. People are forbidden to bring dogs into the park.b. This place is for adults to change infant diapers.4. (1) Here the speaker wants to express his plaint that the couple are talking too loudly (and the implicit request for them to stop talking).(2) By saying so, the young man wants to convey their refusal to “my” request.The background knowledge we need is that since it is usually impolite to listen to other people’ private conversation, it is normal that “I” can’t hear a word (thus the couple can continue their talk).5.(1) This notice implies that all those who jump the red light are uncivilized, whatever the reason.(2)讲卫生的人不会随便吐痰。

Chapter 1Introduction1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) linguistics语言学: the scientific or systematic study of language.(2) language语言: a system of arbitrary vocal 任意的声音symbols used for human communication.用于人类交流的任意声音符号系统(3) arbitrariness任意性: the absence of similarity betweenthe form of a linguistic sign and what it relates to in reality,语言符号的形式与现实的关系缺乏相似性e.g. the worddog does not look like a dog.(4) duality双重性: the way meaningless elements of languageat one level (sounds and letters) combine to formmeaningful units (words) at another level.在一个层面上（语言和字母）的无意义的语言元素结合在另一个层次上形成有意义的单位（词）(5) competence语言能力: knowledge of the grammar of alanguage as a formal abstraction and distinct from thebehavior of actual language use作为一种形式抽象的语言的语法知识，区别于实际语言使用的行为, i.e.performance.(6) performance语言运用: Chomsky’s term for actuallanguage behavior as distinct from the knowledge thatunderlies it, or competence.乔姆斯基对实际语言行为的术语不同于它的知识，或能力。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后习题答案chapter8Chapter 8 Language and Society1. How is language related to society?答：There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society. One ofthem is that while language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used toestablish and maintain social relationships. This social function of language is embodied in the useof such utterances as “Good morning!”, “Hi!”, “How's you r family?”, “Nice day today, isn Another indication is that users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. Andlanguage, in its turn, reveals information about its speaker. When we speak, we cannot avoidgiving clues to our listeners about ourselves.Then to some extent, language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both thephysical and the social environments of a society. For example while there is only one word inimo. This is a reflection of the need for the Eskimos toEnglish for “snow”, there are several in Eskmake distinctions between various kinds of snow in their snowy living environment.As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in whichit is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social. To a linguist, all language formsand accents are equally good as far as they can fulfill the communicative functions they areexpected to fulfill. Therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguisticvarieties are social rather than linguistic. A case in point is the use of the postvocalic [r]. While inEnglish accents without postvocalic [r] are considered to be more correct than accents with it, inNew York city, accents with postvocalic [r] enjoys more prestige and are considered more correctthan without it.2. Explain with an example that the evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic.答：The evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic. This is because every languageor language variety can express all ideas that its native speakers want to express. That is to say,language and language variety are equal in expressing meaning. For example, themuch-prejudiced Black English can be used by the black people to communicate with each otherwithout feeling any hindrance. But many other people think Black English is not pure Englishbecause it does not conform to their grammar and not adopted by educated people. As a result,many people feel shameful to use Black English. From this example we can know that theevaluation of language is social, not linguistic.3. What are the main social dialects discussed in this chapter? How do they jointly determineidiolect?答：The main social dialects discussed in this chapter are regional dialect, sociolect, gender andage. Idiolect is a personal dialect, of an individual speaker that combines elements regardingregional, social, gender, and age variations. These factors jointly determine the way he/she talks.While the language system provides all its users with the same set of potentials, the realization ofthese potentials is individualized by a number of social factors, resulting in idiolects.4. In what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language?答：First of all, the standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language, usually it isthe local speech of an area which is considered the nation's political and commercial center. Forexample, standard English developed out of the English dialects used in and around London asthey were modified over the centuries by speakers in the court, by scholars from universities andwriters. Gradually the English used by the upper classes in the capital city diverged markedly fromthe English used by other social groups and came to be regarded as the model for all those whowished to speak and write well.Second, the standard dialect is not dialect a child acquires naturally like his regionaldialect. It is a superimposed variety; it is a variety imposed from above over the range of regionaldialects. Some government agency writes grammar books and dictionaries to ‘fix’ this variety everyone agrees on what is correct usage of the language. So it has a widely accepted codifiedgrammar and vocabulary. Once codification takes place, it is necessary for an ambitious citizen tolearn to use the correct language and to avoid ‘incorrect’ language. Therefore, the standard diale is the variety which is taught and learnt in schools.Then the standard dialect has some special functions. Also designated as the official ornational language of a country, the standard dialect is used for such official purposes asgovernment documents, education, news reporting; it is the language used on any formaloccasions.5. What is register as used by Halliday? Illustrate it with an example of your own.答：According to Halliday, “Language v aries as its function varies; it differs in differentThe type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is asituations.”register. Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field ofdiscourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.For example, a lecture on linguistics could be identified as Field: scientific (linguistic)Tenor: teacher — students (formal, polite)Mode: oral (academic lecturing)6. What linguistic features of Black English do you know? Do you think Black English is anillogical and inferior variety of English? Why (not)?答：(1) A prominent phonological feature of Black English is the simplification of consonantclusters at the end of a word. According to this consonant deletion rule, the final-position[men], desk [des], and toldconsonants are often deleted; thus “passed” is pronounced [pa:s], mend[t??l].A syntactic feature of Black English that has often been cited to show its illogicality is thedeletion of the link verb “be”. In Black English we frequently come across sentences without thecopula verb: “They mine”, “You crazy”, “Her hands cold”, and “That house big”. In fac verb deletion is not a unique feature of Black English; it is also found in some other dialects ofEnglish and in languages like Russian and Chinese. Another syntactic feature of Black Englishthat has been the target of attack is the use of double negation constructions, e.g.(8 — 2) He don't know nothing. (He doesn't know anything.)(8 — 3) I ain't afraid of no ghosts. (I'm not afraid of ghosts.)Some people consider these sentences illogical because they claim that two negatives makea positive. But in fact such double negative constructions were found in all dialects of English ofthe earlier periods.(2) (略)7. What peculiar features docs pidgin have?答：Pidgins arose from a blending of several languages such as Chinese dialects and English, African dialects and French, African dialects and Portuguese. Usually a European language serves as the basis of the pidgin in the sense that some of its grammar and vocabulary is derived from the European language used by traders and missionaries in order to communicate with peoples whose languages they did not know.Pidgins typically have a limited vocabulary and a very reduced grammatical structurevariety performs its characterized by the loss of inflections, gender end case, The “simplified”functions as trading and employment.8. How do bilingualism and diglossia differ, and what do they have in common?答：Bilingualism refers to the situation that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs whenthe situation changes. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varietiesof a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.The two languages of bilingualism and the two varieties of diglossia each has different roleto play as situation changes.。

刘润清《新编语⾔学教程》笔记和课后习题（语⽤学）【圣才出品】第6章语⽤学6.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech act theory⾔语⾏为理论2. Cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3. Politeness principle礼貌原则常考考点：语⽤学的定义；语法分析与语⽤学的区别；微观语⽤学中的基本概念；宏观语⽤学中⾔语⾏为理论(发话⾏为、⾏事⾏为和取效⾏为)；合作原则；实例分析⾔语⾏为、合作原则的违反和会话含义；礼貌原则。

本章内容索引：I. Pragmatics1. Definition of pragmatics2. Difference between pragmatics analysis and grammatical analysis3. Definition of micropragmatics and macropragmaticsII. Micropragmatics1. Reference2. Deixis3. Anaphora4. PresuppositionIII. Macropragmatics1. Speech Act Theory(1) Theory of the Illocutionary Act①Locutionary act②Illocutionary act③Perlocutionary act(2) Classification of Illocutionary Act①Representatives②Directives③Commissives④Expressives⑤Declarations(3) Indirect speech acts2. The Cooperative Principle (CP)(1) Cooperative Principle and Its Maxims(2) Violation of the Maxims3. Politeness Principle (PP)I. Pragmatics（语⽤学）【考点：名词解释】1. Definition of pragmatics（定义）Pragmatics is the study of speakers’intended meaning, or even the “invisible”meaning, that is, how hearers recognize what is meant even when it isn’t actually said or written.语⽤学是研究语⾔实际运⽤的学科，集中研究说话⼈意义、话语意义或语境意义。

Introduction[check your understanding]1. f Syntax and semantics each have their own strengths.2. f Pragmatics is also interested in how language use affects the language system.3. t4. f5. tIn-Class Activities1. ASK(1) Yes, he’s coming.(2) Yes. [No, he isn’t coming](3) His knowledge about whether Pat likes cognitive linguistics or not.2.(1) a. John is obviously not Hitler. There is only one Hitler in the world.b. Golf as an inanimate object can’t play a human being (John).c. It is a case of tautology that conveys no new information.d. “Idea” doesn’t have color and can’t sleep since it is inanimate. The whole sentence doesn’t make sense.(2) a. it can be used for communication in a context where John shares some personality with Hitler.b. when John is a poor player of golf.c. in a context where a certain boy has done something wrong (out of naughtiness).(3) when the sentence is used in poetry to personalize the word "idea".3.(1) a. In an entrance of a park.b. In the restroom of some public places like an airport.a. People are forbidden to bring dogs into the park.b. This place is for adults to change infant diapers.4. (1) Here the speaker wants to express his complaint that the couple are talking too loudly (and the implicit request for them to stop talking).(2) By saying so, the young man wants to convey their refusal to “my” request.The background knowledge we need is that since it is usually impolite to listen to other people’ private conversation, it is normal that “I” can’t hear a word (thus the couple can continue their talk).5.(1) This notice implies that all those who jump the red light are uncivilized, whatever the reason.(2)讲卫生的人不会随便吐痰。

第6章语用学6.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech act theory言语行为理论2. Cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3. Politeness principle礼貌原则常考考点：语用学的定义；语法分析与语用学的区别；微观语用学中的基本概念；宏观语用学中言语行为理论(发话行为、行事行为和取效行为)；合作原则；实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义；礼貌原则。

本章内容索引：I. Pragmatics1. Definition of pragmatics2. Difference between pragmatics analysis and grammatical analysis3. Definition of micropragmatics and macropragmaticsII. Micropragmatics1. Reference2. Deixis3. Anaphora4. PresuppositionIII. Macropragmatics1. Speech Act Theory(1) Theory of the Illocutionary Act①Locutionary act②Illocutionary act③Perlocutionary act(2) Classification of Illocutionary Act①Representatives②Directives③Commissives④Expressives⑤Declarations(3) Indirect speech acts2. The Cooperative Principle (CP)(1) Cooperative Principle and Its Maxims(2) Violation of the Maxims3. Politeness Principle (PP)I. Pragmatics（语用学）【考点：名词解释】1. Definition of pragmatics（定义）Pragmatics is the study of speakers’intended meaning, or even the “invisible”meaning, that is, how hearers recognize what is meant even when it isn’t actually said or written.语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。

完整版新编语用学教程课后答案In troductio n [check your un dersta nding]1. f Syn tax and sema ntics each have their own stre ngths.2. f Pragmatics is also in terested in how Ian guage use affects the Ian guage system.3. t4. f5. tIn-Class Activities1. ASK(1) Yes, he ' s coming.⑵ Yes. [No, he isn ' t comi ng](3) His kno wledge about whether Pat likes cog nitive lin guistics or not.2.(1) a. John is obviously not Hitler. There is only one Hitler in the world.b. Golf as aninanimate object can ' t play a human being (John).c. It is a case oftautology that conv eys no new in formati on.d. “Idea ” doesn ' t have color and can ' t sleep since it is inanimate. The whole sentence doesn' t make sense.(2) a. it can be used for com muni cati on in a con text where Joh n shares somepers on ality with Hitler.b. whe n Joh n is a poor player of golf.c. in a con text where a certa in boy has done someth ing wrong (out of n aught in ess).(3) whe n the sentence is used in poetry to pers on alize the word "idea".2. (1) a. In an entrance of a park.b. I n the restroom of some public places like an airport.a. People are forbidden to bring dogs into the park.b. This place is for adults to change infantdiapers.3. (1) Here the speaker wants to express his complaint that the couple are talking too loudly (and the implicit request for them to stop talking).(2) By saying so, the young man wants to convey their refusal to “ my” request.The background knowledge we need is that since it is usually impolite to listen to other people ' private conversation, it is normal that hear a word“(tIh”us cthaen ' t couple can continue their talk).4. (1) This notice implies that all those who jump the red light are uncivilized, whatever the reason.(2)讲卫生的人不会随便吐痰。

Introduction[check your understanding]1. f Syntax and semantics each have their own strengths.2. f Pragmatics is also interested in how language use affects the language system.3. t4. f5. tIn-Class Activities1. ASK(1) Yes, he’s coming.(2) Yes. [No, he isn’t coming](3) His knowledge about whether Pat likes cognitive linguistics or not.2.(1) a. John is obviously not Hitler. There is only one Hitler in the world.b. Golf as an inanimate object can’t play a human being (John).c. It is a case of tautology that conveys no new information.d. “Idea” doesn’t have color and can’t sleep since it is inanimate. The whole sentence doesn’t make sense.(2) a. it can be used for communication in a context where John shares some personality with Hitler.b. when John is a poor player of golf.c. in a context where a certain boy has done something wrong (out of naughtiness).(3) when the sentence is used in poetry to personalize the word "idea".3.(1) a. In an entrance of a park.b. In the restroom of some public places like an airport.a. People are forbidden to bring dogs into the park.b. This place is for adults to change infant diapers.4. (1) Here the speaker wants to express his complaint that the couple are talking too loudly (and the implicit request for them to stop talking).(2) By saying so, the young man wants to convey their refusal to “my” request.The background knowledge we need is that since it is usually impolite to listen to other people’ private conversation, it is normal that “I” can’t hear a word (thus the couple can continue their talk).5.(1) This notice implies that all those who jump the red light are uncivilized, whatever the reason.(2)讲卫生的人不会随便吐痰。

In troductio n [check your un dersta nding]1. f Syn tax and sema ntics each have their own stre ngths.2. f Pragmatics is also in terested in how Ian guage use affects the Ian guage system.3. t4. f5. tIn-Class Activities1. ASK(1) Yes, he ' s coming.⑵ Yes. [No, he isn ' t comi ng](3) His kno wledge about whether Pat likes cog nitive lin guistics or not.2.(1) a. John is obviously not Hitler. There is only one Hitler in the world.b. Golf as aninanimate object can ' t play a human being (John).c. It is a case oftautology that conv eys no new in formati on.d. “Idea ” doesn ' t have color and can ' t sleep since it is inanimate. The whole sentence doesn' t make sense.(2) a. it can be used for com muni cati on in a con text where Joh n shares somepers on ality with Hitler.b. whe n Joh n is a poor player of golf.c. in a con text where a certa in boy has done someth ing wrong (out of n aught in ess).(3) whe n the sentence is used in poetry to pers on alize the word "idea".2. (1) a. In an entrance of a park.b. I n the restroom of some public places like an airport.a. People are forbidden to bring dogs into the park.b. This place is for adults to change infantdiapers.3. (1) Here the speaker wants to express his complaint that the couple are talking too loudly (and the implicit request for them to stop talking).(2) By saying so, the young man wants to convey their refusal to “ my” request.The background knowledge we need is that since it is usually impolite to listen to other people ' private conversation, it is normal that hear a word“(tIh”us cthaen ' t couple can continue their talk).4. (1) This notice implies that all those who jump the red light are uncivilized, whatever the reason.(2)讲卫生的人不会随便吐痰。

Introduction[check your understanding]1. f Syntax and semantics each have their own strengths.2. f Pragmatics is also interested in how language use affects the language system.3. t4. f5. tIn-Class Activities1. ASK(1) Yes, he’s coming.(2) Yes. [No, he isn’t coming](3) His knowledge about whether Pat likes cognitive linguistics or not.2.(1) a. John is obviously not Hitler. There is only one Hitler in the world.b. Golf as an inanimate object can’t play a human being (John).c. It is a case of tautology that conveys no new information.d. “Idea” doesn’t have color and can’t sleep since it is inanimate. The whole sentence doesn’t make sense.(2) a. it can be used for communication in a context where John shares some personality with Hitler.b. when John is a poor player of golf.c. in a context where a certain boy has done something wrong (out of naughtiness).(3) when the sentence is used in poetry to personalize the word "idea".3.(1) a. In an entrance of a park.b. In the restroom of some public places like an airport.a. People are forbidden to bring dogs into the park.b. This place is for adults to change infant diapers.4. (1) Here the speaker wants to express his complaint that the couple are talking too loudly (and the implicit request for them to stop talking).(2) By saying so, the young man wants to convey their refusal to “my” request.The background knowledge we need is that since it is usually impolite to listen to other people’ private conversation, it is normal that “I” can’t hear a word (thus the couple can continue their talk).5.(1) This notice implies that all those who jump the red light are uncivilized, whatever the reason.(2)讲卫生的人不会随便吐痰。