第四章语法第一节语法和语法学一、什么是语法语法研究组词成句的规则。
二、多种语法:1. 传统语法、结构主义语法和转换—生成语法(Crystal, p. 88)传统语法、结构主义语法和转换—生成语法是理论语言学史上的三大著名学派。
传统语法可以追溯到公元前4世纪古希腊时期的苏格拉底、柏拉图、亚里士多德和斯多噶学派以及稍后一些的古罗马语法。
到了18世纪, 传统语法已经羽翼丰满, 并影响到欧洲现代语言语法体系的建立。
我国最早的汉语语法《马氏文通》也是建立在传统语法基础上的汉语语法著作。
结构主义语法出现较晚, 属于现代语法范畴。
结构主义还可以分为欧洲结构主义语法和美国结构主义语法, 欧洲结构主义语法以布拉格学派和哥本哈根学派为代表, 是欧洲功能主义的先驱。
美国结构主义语法以布龙菲尔德为代表, 其继承人有海里斯和霍凯特等。
转换—生成语法出现于本世纪50年代, 是由美国麻省理工学院的乔姆斯基创建的, 后来成为当代国际上影响力最大的语法理论, 被成为语言学界的“革命”。
尽管人们转换—生成语法颇有争论, 但它至今仍然起着国际上语言学界领先地位的作用。
2. 三种语法的区别传统语法、结构主义语法和转换—生成语法有着本质的不同。
传统语法是在一个相当长的历史时期内逐渐形成和完善的, 对后世的影响极大。
人们常用“规定”还是“描写”来区分传统语法和现代语法的差别。
其实, 在最初建立古希腊语法和拉丁语法的时候, 其目的和方法也是描写性的, 只是后来人们将传统语法的构架和模式原封不动地强加于现代语言时, 性质发生了变化。
例如, 汉语的传统语法和英语的传统语法都明确规定应该怎样说和不应该怎样说。
结构主义语法基于索绪尔的描写语言观以及萨丕尔和布龙菲尔德等人的人类学研究方法, 通过大量采集语言事实来揭示语言的规律。
转换—生成语法则使语法研究进入到“解释”阶段, 它的哲学基础是迪卡尔的唯理主义, 亦即运用唯理主义哲学和数学的方法来揭示人脑内在的语言能力。
举个简单的例子来说, 在汉语中, 我们常以不同的句式表达同样的内容, 如:1) 你吃饭了吗?2) 饭你吃了吗?3) 吃饭了吗你?4) 饭吃了吗你? (主—动—宾) (宾—主—动) (动—宾—主) (宾—动—主)5) 你饭吃了吗? (主—宾—动)传统语法会告诉我们, 汉语是“主—动—宾”结构, 上述2)—5)句是错的, 不符合语法规则的, 应该避免的。
结构主义则认为应该承认汉语中句式的多样, 重要的是要归纳出汉语中所有可能的句式来。
转换—生成语法却要解释为什么汉语中允许有这么多种不同的句式同时存在。
3. 对三种语法的评价怎样评价这三种语法呢？传统语法有过历史的辉煌, 至今也还主宰着汉语教学语法的理论框架。
在我国的汉语研究中, 语法的教学和研究仍然使用传统语法的术语和方法, 语言学则多是采用结构主义理论, 转换—生成语法是少数几个人的事, 甚至无法被许多人接受。
语言首先是约定俗成的, 是不依语言学家的意志为转移的。
因此, 传统语法的弊病也是显而易见的。
严格意义上的传统语法主观、偏颇, 不实事求是。
结构主义语法可以比较全面地揭示语言表层结构的规律, 对语言教学有益, 而至今汉语在表层结构的描写这一层面上还有许多工作要做。
转换—生成语法目前还处于基础研究和理论探究的阶段, 它的成功也许能解决有关心理学、认知和人脑生物学的一些重大问题, 对于人工智能也会有帮助。
当然, 基础研究的意义还远不止这些。
或许, 几百年乃至上千年以后, 理论语言学上的突破才会给人类带来应用技术上的大的变革。
第二节语法层次和语法范畴一、语法层次语素、词、短语、分句(小句、子句)、句、段、篇（举例说明）二、语法范畴人称、性、数、格、时、体、态（举例说明）第三节词类、短语和基本句型一、词类开放词类: 名词、动词、形容词、副词封闭词类: 连词、冠词、介词、代词、数词、感叹词、限定词（请学生举例）二、短语名词短语、动词短语、形容词短语、介词短语（举例说明）三、英语的基本句型SV: Iron rusts. Everybody laughed.SVC: The man is a tea cher. He looks fine. Dinner is at six o’clock.The tape-recorder is on the table.SVO: I want a ticket. Liverpool won the game.SVOO: I sent him an email. Mary lent me her car.SVOC: We made him leader of the team. They elected him president. 请学生自己提供更多例句。
第四节英语句子结构和句子分析一、句子结构S→NP VPNP→Det AP N PPVP→Adv V NP AdvAP→Adv AdjPP→P NP二、句子分析树形图1. John went to school every day.SNP VPN VP NPV PP Adj NP NJohn went to school every day2. The woman killed the man with a knife.1) SNP VPDet N VP PPV NP P NPDet N Det Nthe woman killed the man with a knife2) SNP VPDet N V NPNP PPDet N P NPDet Nthe woman killed the man with a knife第五节英语句子的类型和句型转换一、陈述句、肯定句、主动句, 疑问句、否定句、被动句请学生自己提供例句。
二、简单句、并列句、复合句、复杂句请学生自己提供例句。
三、特殊句式1. 分裂句: Mary keeps a pig in the garden shed.Mary is the person who keeps a pig in the garden shed.The person who keeps a pig in the garden shed is Mary.A pig is what Mary keeps in the garden shed.What Mary keeps in the garden shed is a pig.The garden shed is (the place) where Mary keeps a pig.(The place) where Mary keeps a pig is the garden shed.He screamed.What he did was (to) scream/screamed.She writes science fiction.What she does is (to) write/writes science fiction.The car broke down.What happened was (that) the car broke down.You pay here.This/Here is where you pay.We live there.That/There is where we live.(独立句式): All I want is a home somewhere.All I did was to touch the window, and it broke.All you need is love.The only thing I remember is a terrible pain in my head.The first thing was to make some coffee.The first journey abroad is something I shall never forget.It was not until I met you that I knew real happiness.It was only when I read her letter that I realised what was happening. (强调句): My secretary sent the bill to Mr Hardy yesterday.It was my secretary that sent the bill to Mr Hardy yesterday.It was the bill that my secretary sent to Mr Hardy yesterday.It was Mr Hardy that my secretary sent the bill to yesterday.It was yesterday that my secretary sent the bill to Mr Hardy.2. 间接引语:“What time is it?” she asked.→She asked me what time it was.She asked me the time.3. 比较句:John’s apple is big. Mary’s apple is even bigger.→Mary’s apple is bigger than John’s.John’s apple is smaller than Mary’s.John’s apple is not as big as Mary’s.Mary has a bigger apple than John.John does not have as big an apple as Mary.John has a smaller apple than Mary.四、非谓语动词1) 不定式I hope to become a doctor in the future.She was to stand up when he came in.It’s not easy to learn a foreign language.2) 动名词Seeing is believing.Working is the best way to earn money.3) -ing分词Seeing a friend of hers, she stopped and went up to her.Having to work late, he decided to call his wife.4) –ed/-en分词Seen by the police, the thief was nowhere to hide. (一般式表示被动)Having seen the police, the thief disappeared in the crowd. (完成式表示过去或先发生的动作)5) 独立主格结构The rain having stopped, the children all went out.Mary working late, John made a cup of coffee for her.五、句子的合并举例：John went to school every day. John was a student at that time.John, who was a student at that time, went to school every day. John, being a student at that time, went to school every day. Being a student at that time, John went to school every day. John, a student at that time, went to school every day.A student at that time, John went to school every day. John, who went to school every day, was a student at that time. John, going to school every day, was a student at that time. Going to school every day, John was a student at that time.。
