Cognitive development in gifted children

大脑及发育的词汇中英对照小编为大家整理了大脑及发育的词汇中英对照，希望对你有帮助哦!大脑及发育的词汇中英对照：dorsal root 背根nerve 神经ventricle 脑室cerebellum 小脑cortex 皮质又称“皮层”。

cerebral cortex 大脑皮质neocortex 新皮质white matter 白质gray matter 灰质frontal lobe 额叶prefrontal cortex 前额皮质premotor area 运动前区motor area 运动区Broca's area 布罗卡区temporal lobe 颞叶auditory area 听觉区auditory center 听觉中枢parietal lobe 顶叶central sulcus 中央沟occipital lobe 枕叶visual area 视觉区visual cortex 视觉皮质association area of cerebral cortex 大脑皮质联合区association fiber 联合纤维limbic system 边缘系统hippocampal formation 海马结构hippocampus 海马olfactory area 嗅觉区cingulate gyrus 扣带回amygdala 杏仁核septal area 隔区medial forebrain bundle 内侧前脑束olfactory tract 嗅束commissural fiber 连合纤维corpus callosum 胼胝体basal ganglia 基底神经节diencephalon 间脑thalamus 丘脑hypothalamus 下丘脑suprachiasmatic nucleus 视交叉上核lateral hypothalamus area, LHA 外侧下丘脑区ventromedial hypothalamus, VMH 腹内侧下丘脑pineal body 松果体pituitary gland 脑垂体pyramidal system 锥体系统extrapyramidal system 锥体外系统specific thalamo-cortical projection system 丘脑-皮质特异投射系统nonspecific thalamo-cortical projection system 丘脑-皮质非特异投射系统brain stem 脑干corpora quadrigemina 四叠体lateral geniculate nucleus 外侧膝状体核medial geniculate nucleus 内侧膝状体核formatic reticularis 网状结构cochlear nucleus 耳蜗神经核nerve cell 神经细胞nerve fiber 神经纤维nerve degeneration 神经退变neural regeneration 神经再生autonomic nervous system, ANS 自主神经系统cranial nerve 脑神经myelin sheath 髓鞘nervi olfactory 嗅神经nervi statoacusticus 听神经又称“位听神经”。

3到六岁儿童发展指南语言认知English Answer.Language Development.Language development in young children is a complex and fascinating process. Between the ages of 3 and 6, children make significant progress in their language skills, including:Vocabulary: Children's vocabularies grow rapidly during this time, as they learn new words every day. They begin to use more complex words and phrases, and they are able to express themselves more clearly.Grammar: Children's grammar skills also improve significantly during this time. They learn to use correct grammar rules, and they are able to construct more complex sentences.Pragmatics: Pragmatics is the ability to use language in social situations. Children learn how to use language to communicate effectively with others, and they develop an understanding of social conventions.Cognitive Development.Cognitive development in young children is also a complex and fascinating process. Between the ages of 3 and 6, children make significant progress in their cognitive abilities, including:Attention: Children's attention spans increase during this time, and they are able to focus on tasks for longer periods of time.Memory: Children's memories improve significantly during this time. They are able to remember more information, and they are able to recall information more easily.Problem-solving: Children's problem-solving skillsalso improve during this time. They are able to think more creatively and to come up with new solutions to problems.Developmental Milestones.The following are some general developmental milestones for language and cognitive development in children between the ages of 3 and 6:Language:By age 3, children should be able to speak in sentences of at least three words.By age 4, children should be able to use correct grammar most of the time.By age 5, children should be able to tell stories and describe events in detail.By age 6, children should be able to use language to communicate effectively in a variety of socialsituations.Cognitive:By age 3, children should be able to follow simple instructions and solve simple problems.By age 4, children should be able to remember more information and recall it more easily.By age 5, children should be able to think more creatively and come up with new solutions to problems.By age 6, children should be able to reason logically and to understand basic concepts.Individual Differences.It is important to remember that all children develop at their own pace. Some children may reach these milestones earlier than others, while others may take a little longer. There is a wide range of normal when it comes to childdevelopment. If you are concerned about your child's development, please talk to your child's doctor.中文回答：语言认知发展。

儿童心理学英语Here is an essay on the topic of "Child Psychology" in English, with a word count exceeding 600 words. The essay does not include the title and does not have any additional punctuation marks.Child psychology is a critical field of study that examines the cognitive, emotional, social, and behavioral development of children from birth to adolescence. Understanding the complexities of child psychology is essential for parents, educators, and professionals who work with young individuals. This essay will delve into the key aspects of child psychology and explore the significance of this discipline.Firstly, cognitive development in children is a fundamental area of study in child psychology. This encompasses the processes by which children acquire, process, and store information, as well as how they develop problem-solving skills, language, and memory. Renowned theorists like Jean Piaget have proposed stage-based models of cognitive development, highlighting the unique ways in which children think and reason at different ages. Recognizing and nurturing cognitive abilities in children can lead to better educational outcomes and enhance their overall intellectual potential.Emotional development is another crucial aspect of child psychology. Children experience a wide range of emotions, from joy and excitement to fear and frustration. Understanding how children navigate and express their emotions is crucial for fostering their social and personal well-being. Factors such as attachment, temperament, and environmental influences play a significant role in shaping a child's emotional landscape. By supporting the healthy emotional development of children, professionals and caregivers can help them build resilience, empathy, and self-regulation skills.Social development is another key focus in child psychology. As children grow, they gradually expand their social circles, learn to interact with peers, and develop a sense of self within a larger social context. Theories like Erikson's stages of psychosocial development highlight the importance of social experiences in shaping a child's identity, sense of belonging, and ability to form meaningful relationships. Addressing social-emotional learning and fostering positive peer interactions can greatly benefit children's social development and overall well-being.Behavioral development is another crucial aspect of child psychology. This encompasses the observable actions and responses of children, including their habits, routines, and patterns of behavior. Factors such as attachment, discipline, and environmental influences cansignificantly impact a child's behavioral development. Understanding and implementing effective behavior management strategies can help caregivers and educators support children in developing self-control, prosocial behaviors, and healthy coping mechanisms.The significance of child psychology extends beyond the academic realm. Professionals in fields like education, counseling, and pediatrics rely on the insights and research findings of child psychologists to inform their practices and better support the needs of young individuals. Early intervention and preventive measures, informed by child psychology, can significantly improve outcomes for children facing developmental challenges or mental health concerns.Moreover, the study of child psychology has broader societal implications. By understanding the complex factors that shape a child's development, policymakers and community leaders can implement policies and programs that promote the overall well-being of children. This includes areas such as educational reform, family support services, and public health initiatives that prioritize the needs of young individuals.In conclusion, child psychology is a multifaceted discipline that offers invaluable insights into the cognitive, emotional, social, and behavioral development of children. By embracing the principles andfindings of child psychology, parents, educators, and professionals can work together to create nurturing environments that foster the healthy growth and well-being of children. As we continue to expand our understanding of child psychology, we can unlock new opportunities for supporting the next generation and shaping a brighter future for all.。

《3—6岁儿童发展指南》中英语活动Developmental milestones in early childhood play a crucial role in shaping a child's overall growth and learning. The "Guidelines for the Development of Children Aged 3-6" is a comprehensive resource that outlines various activities and strategies to support children's development during this critical stage.1. Language Development:Language development in children aged 3-6 is a key focus area. To support language development, interactive activities such as storytelling, imaginative play, and role-playing can be highly beneficial. Reading books together, engaging in conversations, and singing songs are also effective strategies to enhance language skills.2. Cognitive Development:Cognitive development involves building problem-solving skills, memory, and thinking abilities. Activities such as puzzles, sorting games, matching games, and building blocks can help enhance cognitive development in young children. Encouraging children to explore their surroundings, ask questions, and engage in imaginative play can also foster cognitive growth.3. Social and Emotional Development:Social and emotional development is crucial for children aged 3-6 as they learn to interact with others and regulate their emotions. Activities such as group play, cooperative games, and role-playing can help children develop social skills, empathy, and emotional intelligence. Teaching children to express their feelings, resolve conflicts, and show kindness towards others can further support their social and emotional development.4. Physical Development:Physical development in young children is essential for their overall health and well-being. Engaging in physical activities such as running, jumping, climbing, and dancing can help children develop gross motor skills and coordination. Fine motor skills can be enhanced through activities such as drawing, coloring, cutting, and stringing beads.5. Creative Development:Creativity plays a significant role in children's development as it allows them to express themselves and explore their interests. Encouraging children to engage in art activities, music, dance, and imaginative play can foster their creative skills.Providing open-ended materials such as paint, clay, and musical instruments can stimulate children's creativity and imagination.Overall, the "Guidelines for the Development of Children Aged 3-6" offers a holistic approach to supporting children's development in various domains. By incorporating a range of activities and strategies that cater to children's individual needs and interests, parents and educators can help children thrive during this critical stage of early childhood.。

戴炜栋语言学-Language Acquisition●10.1 Introduction●语言习得(language acquisition）是指儿童习得母语的过程，即儿童是如何逐渐理解和说其社区语言的。

(Language acquisition refers to the child's acquisition of his mother tongue ,i. e. how the child comes to understand and speak thelanguage of his community.●10.2 Theories of child language acquisition儿童语言习得理论●10.2.1 A behaviourist view of languageacquisition 行为主义者眼中的语言习得观●传统的行为主义者把语言看作是一种行为，认为语言的学习只是一种模仿和习惯的养成。

(Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believethatlanguage learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.●人物：B.F. Skinners●局限之处：The behaviorist theory of child language acquisition offers a reasonableaccount of how children acquire some of the regular and routine aspects of thelanguage, yet it fails to explain how they acquire more complex grammaticalstructures of the language.●10.2.2 An innatist view of language acquisition天赋主义者眼中的语言习得观●语言学家诺姆·乔姆斯基声称人天生具有语言能力，而且语言的发展与儿童的其他生物功能，如行走,是一样的。

儿童发展水平差异英文表达英文回答：Variations in Developmental Levels in Children.Developmental milestones are a series of skills and abilities that most children reach at specific ages. These milestones are divided into four main areas: physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development.Physical development refers to the growth and development of a child's body, including their motor skills, coordination, and strength.Cognitive development refers to the development of a child's thinking skills, including their ability to learn, solve problems, and remember information.Social development refers to the development of achild's ability to interact with others, including theirability to make friends, cooperate, and resolve conflicts.Emotional development refers to the development of a child's emotional regulation skills, including theirability to manage their emotions, express their feelings, and cope with stress.All children develop at their own pace, and there is a wide range of normal variation in developmental levels. However, if a child is significantly behind or ahead of their peers in one or more areas of development, it may be a sign of a developmental delay or disorder.There are a number of factors that can contribute to variations in developmental levels, including:Genetics: Some children are more likely to develop certain skills and abilities than others based on their genes.Environment: A child's environment, including their home, school, and community, can have a significant impacton their development.Health: A child's health can also affect their development. For example, children who are born prematurely or who have chronic health conditions may experience developmental delays.It is important to note that variations in developmental levels are not always a cause for concern. However, if you are concerned about your child's development, it is important to talk to your child's doctor or a developmental specialist.中文回答：儿童发育水平差异。

完善政府财务报告制度的路径探究作者：于洋来源：《中国市场·营销研究方向》 2018年第2期于洋（黑龙江省农业科学院齐齐哈尔分院，黑龙江齐齐哈尔161006）［摘要］文章结合新时期权责发生制政府综合财务报告制度发展特点问题，从明确政府财务报告需求主体、建立政府财务报告审计鉴证制度、权责发生制的改革、拓展政府财务报告内容、建立政府财务对外报告制度等方面具体分析怎样完善政府财务报告制度，旨在为政府财务管理发展提供更多支持。

［关键词］政府财务报告制度；权责发生制；国家治理；完善策略［DOI］10�13939/j�cnki�zgsc�2018�04�214在2014年年底，国务院进一步批准和完善了《权责发生制政府综合财务报告制度改革方案》，明确了新时期完善、健全政府综合财务报告制度的目标，迎来我国政府会计改革新时期，对推动我国权责发生制政府综合财务报告制度革新发展起到了重要作用。

《权责发生制政府综合财务报告制度改革方案》以政府综合问责和良知发展为基本评价目标，对健全政府综合财务报告制度中需要完善的技术问题做出了探讨，旨在能够进一步发挥出政府财会发展在推动民主、法治社会建设中的作用。

1权责发生制政府会计职能发生变化权责发生制政府综合财务报告制度的建立对政府部门会计改革发挥了重要作用，也深刻影响着政府会计制度职能定位的变化，对推进政府财会改革发展起到了重要作用。

从预算会计制度到政府综合财务报告制度是政府会计职能发生的本质变化，具体表现在两个方面：第一，财务预算和政府会计关系发生变化。

权责发生制政府综合财务报告制度改变了政府会计预算发展情况，将政府会计职能从预算体系规范中脱离出来，对推动政府财会在国家治理中更为广泛的作用具有重要意义；第二，政府财务会计核算点和核算目标发生了变化。

政府部门会计改革立足点是满足国家财政治理和国家宏观调控需要，会计核算重点也从对预算收支过程的控制转变为财政资金使用权责的履行以及各项财会评价指标、问责转变，加强了对政府部门财会管理过程的关注。

《3-6岁儿童学习与发展指南》英语Guidelines for Learning and Development for Children Aged 3-6Introduction:Learning and development play a crucial role in shaping a child's future. The early years, particularly from ages 3 to 6, are a critical period in a child's life where they are rapidly developing physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally. It is during this period that children are like sponges, absorbing information and experiences at a rapid pace. To help guide parents, caregivers, and educators in supporting children's learning and development during this important stage, the following guidelines have been compiled.Physical Development:Physical development involves the growth and coordination of a child's body. Children aged 3 to 6 are becoming more active and refining their motor skills. It is important to provide opportunities for children to engage in physical activities such as running, jumping, climbing, and playing with balls. Encouraging outdoor play and participating in sports can help children develop their gross motor skills. Fine motor skills can bedeveloped through activities such as drawing, painting, cutting, and threading beads.Cognitive Development:Cognitive development refers to how children think, learn, and solve problems. In the 3-6 age range, children's cognitive abilities are rapidly expanding. They are acquiring new language skills, developing their memory, and learning to categorize and classify objects. Encouraging literacy and numeracy skills through books, puzzles, and educational games can help stimulate cognitive development. Activities that involve problem-solving and critical thinking, such as building blocks or shape sorting games, can also support cognitive growth.Social Development:Social development entails how children interact with others and form relationships. During the early years, children are learning to share, take turns, and communicate effectively with their peers. Encouraging children to engage in group activities, such as playdates or preschool, can help develop their social skills. Teaching children about empathy, kindness, and cooperation can also support their social development.Emotional Development:Emotional development involves how children understand and manage their feelings. From ages 3 to 6, children are learning to identify and express their emotions in a healthy way. It is important to create a nurturing and supportive environment for children to feel safe expressing their emotions. Encouraging children to talk about their feelings, teaching them coping strategies, and providing positive reinforcement can help support their emotional development.Conclusion:The early years of a child's life are a time of rapid growth and development. By following these guidelines for learning and development for children aged 3 to 6, parents, caregivers, and educators can help support children in reaching their full potential. By providing opportunities for physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth, children can develop the skills and abilities they need to thrive in school and beyond. Remember, every child develops at their own pace, so it is important to be patient, supportive, and encouraging as they navigate this important stage of their development.。

The Theory of Cognitive Development in Early Childhood EducationHow do children grow up and get new knowledge from their surroundings? Before the Swiss child psychologist Jean Piaget, the majority of scientists believed that the externality (e.g. parents’ guide, their living environment, etc.), not the children themselves, played the most important role on children’s growth. However, with his devotion to the research of children’s development, Piaget proposed that children are active subjects who develop their intelligence at different stages of their growth (Wood and Elizabeth 2013). This review will first outline the theory of cognitive development, then discuss two applications derived from the theory and finally make an assessment of this theory.Firstly, the focus is placed on the theory itself. According to Piaget (1964, p.1), “development is a process which concerns the totality of the structure of knowledge”, which implies the development is the change in structure (Phillips 1981). At the same time, the way children build their cognitive structure is through functional constructs of adaptation (Ault 1982). There are two acts in adaptation, namely, assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation means to absorb new knowledge into the existing system, while accommodation means to adjust the gained knowledge to the new things. Piaget stated that functional constructs do not change with age, however cognitive structure do change with age (Ault 1982). Four stages are identified in the construction of the structuresin Piaget’s theory of cognitive development: the sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage, the concrete operational stage and the formal operational stage.The sensorimotor stage is the first stage of children’s cognitive development, beginning at birth and ending at about 2 years old. At this stage, children sense the world through physical contact (touching, sucking and hearing). The hallmark of this stage is that children know how to pronounce some sounds and learn that environment is different from themselves (Santrock 2008).The pre-operational stage is the second stage from two to seven years old. Children learn much new knowledge, many ideas and concepts through playing, including playing with objects, playing with peers and role playing. Children can understand concrete concepts but yet abstract ones, so the logic has not been formed yet. For example, given the information of A is greater than B, B is greater than C, children still have difficulty to figure out whether A is greater than C (Piaget 1964). Furthermore, children in this stage still do egocentric thinking, which means they are not able to tell the different between their point of view and other’s point of view (Piaget 1967).The third stage is called concrete operational stage ranging from seven to eleven years old. Children could solve problems in a more logical way, applyinginductive thinking, not yet the deductive thinking (Ginsburg and Opper 1979). That is to say, they have gained the ability to summarize general principle from specific events. However, they are not able to understand abstract concept at this stage, such as the idea of future. Other symbols include the understanding of conservation and the elimination of egocentrism.The last period is Formal operational stage which ends at adulthood. This stage is characterized by (a) generating multiple hypotheses: children may think of more than one solutions to one problem, (b) systematic checking of all possible solutions: rather than the trial-and-error method, children would choose the optimum solution, and (c) operating on operations: children organize their operations in a specific order to meet the demand (Ault 1982).After stating the four stages, Piaget discusses the way children learn new knowledge. He argues that the most important thing in children’s learning and development is self-directed problem-solving skill. Children learn knowledge through discovery, experience, playing and social interaction. The internal construction places at the heart of his theory, which implies that “educators should create environment, combine different materials, and create and solve problems through their self-chosen, self-directed activities” (Wood and Elizabeth, 2013, p.24).To conclude, the theory of cognitive development emphasizes it is the children that are most responsible for their development. They experience four different stages during their growth and absorb new knowledge through the act of assimilation and accommodation.Secondly, this assignment will discuss two applications of the theory，the first of which is the widely used Mathematical instructions based on the cognitive development theory.Bobby Ojose gave a presentation at National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) in 2005 in Anaheim, California. He (2008) claimed that Piaget’s theory gave Mathematics educators many inspirations about how to convey mathematical ideas effectively to the children and exemplified the Mathematical instructions matching the characteristics of each stage in the theory of cognitive development.In the sensorimotor stage, having been able to separate object from subject, children are also gaining the ability to connect numbers to objects (Piaget 1977; Ojose 2008). Their cognitive ability may be improved significantly if they are exposed to massive number related training (Martin 2000; Ojose 2008). Teachers and parents are encouraged to ask children questions like “how manydolls are there” and “who has more” in order to build the concrete mathematical foundation for them. In the pre-operational stage, children have known the concept of concrete objects, however, they still have problems with reversing, seeing objects from different dimensions. Therefore, the activities such as characterizing objects will help them know the multi-dimension world better. Educators could ask the children to classify different geometric shapes and ask them the reasons (Thompson 1990; Ojose 2008). At the concrete operational stage, the idea of seriation and classification has formed, but children cannot understand abstract ideas yet. Hand-on experiences are highly recommended at this stage, because they make children connect the mathematical concepts to the activity. After some time, they can extract abstract ideas from specific events. At the last stage, the formal operational stage, children are able to make hypotheses and do deducing thinking. At this stage, parents and teachers should focus on improving children’s reasoning skills, including clarification, inference, evaluation and implication. For example, evaluation refers to making judgement to the issue through certain criteria, which helps children be critical. Though these Mathematical instructions are widely used from kindergarten to secondary school, Ojose (2008, p.4) pointed out that “all students are not necessarily operating at the same level”, which means teachers need to know every student’s characteristic to apply these instructions.The second application is children-centered and play-oriented classroom. In thepaper “Study of the Application of the ipad-based Digital Learning in English Game Teaching in Primary School”, Liu J. and Zhang Y. (2015) claimed that according to Piaget, the internal construction of cognitive structure is the key to children’s learning process and play contributes to that process. Therefore, combining education with recreation and giving children the autonomy maybe an effective way for them to improve their observation, memory, thinking, imagination and creation. The case study in a primary school in Henan Province, China showed how the teachers designed self-oriented learning games assisted by the ipad to enhance primary students’ English level.Take the learning of colors as an example. During the games, the whole class is arranged into groups of three with an ipad within each group. These third-graders are told that they need to take turns to click their favourite color on the APP and read aloud with the English recordings. After a few turns, the three students in the same group can match the color with the word together to see which group get the highest score. The purpose of the game is to let students become interested in the context first, then let them make their own choice and finally foster their team work spirit. The teachers involved in the program states that students’ interest are highly motivated and the skills of listening, reading and speaking in English are improved.The last part of the assignment is an assessment on the theory of cognitive development from positive and negative perspective respectively.Piaget’s theory has made a significant influence on both education and society. In terms of education, the children-centered opinion makes parents and teachers pay more attention to children themselves during their growth. Interventionist teaching may actually hinder their self-learning process (Wood and Elizabeth 2013). Applying this theory, Children are more likely to find their interest and learn new knowledge independently during their childhood. Furthermore, the theory leads to instructions. Piaget and his colleges were good at experimental pedagogy. Later on, some of these experiments were turned into real applications, such as Child-centered classroom, open education and Mathematical instructions. These applications and instructions provide a better environment or offer highly-qualified methods for children to learn and grow with. Piaget’s theory also shows a framework for teachers, especially early childhood teachers who relied on pure intuition to direct children before. Equipped with the cognitive theory, teachers now hold the fundamental principles about how to guide their students and have a better understanding about what to do at different stages (Almy 1979).In terms of society, the theory of cognitive development was the first one that tried to explain the children’s growth instead of simply describe it and it laid afoundation for many other related theories. For example, Kohlberg's stages of moral development was a heritage of the Piaget’s theory, which stated that children experienced six stages in their moral development. Nearly all scientists who studied cognitive development would refer to Piaget’s work. They did their research on the giant’s shoulder. Statistics shows that Piaget’s 1964 paper was cited 1684 times, while his 1976 paper was cited 3570 times. It was Piaget that led many psychologists to begin focusing on the field of cognitive development. In short, Piaget is definitely one of the most influential figures in this field.There are some limitations to the theory of cognitive development. Firstly as Piaget admitted himself, the theory is a stage theory, whereas the development of children is a continuous process. In reality, the stage border is not easy to define and the cognitive development does not always proceed in stages. Sometimes the sequence of development might be changed by external environment, such as cultural experiences. In addition, many scholars claimed that Piaget underestimated the ability of the children in sensorimotor stage and pre-operational stage. Piaget thought children at these stages only understand very simple concepts, however current evidence shows that children under age seven have already grasped the idea of conservation, the perspectives of other people. One possible reason why Piaget did not predict children’s capacity correctly in the first two stages is that his experiment subjects tended to be individuals instead of the mass samples. As a result, some of the conclusionsreached then may have experimental errors.Secondly, the theory largely ignored the importance of learning. For one thing, Piaget argued that interventionist teaching may hinder the process of children’s learning ability. Teachers or parents should not push too hard to make their children study. For another reason, Piaget stresses that play, rather than learning, helps children express ideas, use extra energy and create imagination. Both of his points do not consider schooling and parenting as an essential part in children’s education, which is obviously not accurate, or at least not complete.In general, Piaget’s theory of cognitive development synthesizes a wide range of issues including the children’s understanding of knowledge, their physical and mental development. Massive experiment is a highlight of his theory and some of the experiments has been developed to practical applications. Thanks to Piaget, we enjoy the abundance of literature in the field of cognitive development. For all the drawbacks in the research methods and the way he theorized due to the limitations of his time, Piaget showed his originality through the innovative questions and solutions on the issue of children’s cognitive development, giving insights and inspirations to other researchers.REFERENCE LISTPiaget, J. (2003). Part I: Cognitive Development in Children--Piaget Development and Learning.Journal Of Research In Science Teaching,40(1), S8-S18.Science of education and the psychology of the child. Trans. D. Coltman. Piaget, J. Oxford, England: Orion Science of education and the psychology of the child. Trans. D. Coltman. (1970). 186 pp.Phillips, J. L. (1981).Piaget's theory : a primer. San Francisco : W. H. Freeman, c1981.Ault, R. L. (1983).Children's cognitive development. New York : Oxford University Press, 1983.Murray, F. B., & Almy, M. (1979).The Impact of Piagetian theory : on education, philosophy, psychiatry, and psychology. Baltimore : University Park Press, c1979.Santrock, J.W. (2008). A Topical Approach To Life-Span Development (pp.211-216). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.Herbert Ginsburg and Sylvia Opper (1979),Piaget's Theory of Intellectual Development, Prentice Hall,ISBN 0-13-675140-7, p. 152.Cognitive Development: Piaget and Vygotsky. (2011, July). Retrieved from /sites/0072820144/student_view0/chapter9/i ndex.html。