洛铂基础篇 (1)

卡洛·罗韦利《七堂极简物理课》笔记◆ 第一课最美的理论>> 牛顿试图解释物体下落和行星运转的原因。

他假设在万物之间存在一种相互吸引的“力量”，他称之为“引力”。

>> 牛顿想象物体是在空间中运动的，他认为空间是一个巨大的空容器，一个能装下宇宙的大盒子，也是一个硕大无朋的框架，所有物体都在其中做直线运动，直到有一个力使它们的轨道发生弯曲。

>> 英国的两位大物理学家——法拉第（Michael Faraday）和麦克斯韦（James Maxwell）——为牛顿冰冷的世界添加了新鲜的内容：电磁场。

所谓“电磁场”，是一种无处不在的真实存在，它可以传递无线电波，可以布满整个空间；它可以振动，也可以波动，就像起伏的湖面一样；它还可以将电力“四处传播”。

>> 引力场不“弥漫”于空间，因为它本身就是空间。

这就是广义相对论的思想。

>> 其实，牛顿的那个承载物体运动的“空间”与“引力场”是同一个东西。

>> 空间不再是一种有别于物质的东西，而是构成世界的“物质”成分之一，一种可以波动、弯曲、变形的实体。

>> 我们不再身处一个看不见的坚硬框架里，而更像是深陷在一个巨大的容易形变的软体动物中。

>> 无论是行星绕着太阳转，还是物体下落，都是因为空间发生了弯曲。

>> 卡尔·弗里德里希·高斯（Carl Friedrich Gauss）已经写出了描述二维曲面（比如小山丘的表面）的公式。

>> 黎曼论文的结论是，任何一个弯曲空间的特征都可以用一个数学量来描述，如今我们称之为“黎曼曲率”，用大写的“R”来表示。

>> 后来爱因斯坦也写了一个方程，将这个R与物质的能量等价起来，也就是说：空间在有物质的地方会发生弯曲。

>> 爱因斯坦的方程还指出，空间不可能一直保持静止，它一定是在不断膨胀的。

铂族金属简介PGM Introduce1、矿产性质：1)物理性质。

铂族金属包括铂（pt),钯(Pd),铑(Rh),铱(10,锇(Os)、钌（Ru）六个元素位于元素周期表中第VIII副族。

它们具有类似的性质，如高熔点、高强度、耐腐蚀、良好的催化活性和电热性。

铂、钯、铑、铱为银白色，锇、钌（周期表中上下排列）为钢灰色。

钌、铑在有氧存在和强热下，容易与氧化合为四氧化物，具有挥发性，钌的挥发速度较慢，锇则较快。

铂（大于 1000℃时）、铱和铑（大于2000℃时）能形成挥发性氧化物。

铂族金属密度大。

轻铂金属密度大于12 g/cm},重铂金属密度大于21g/cm3。

铂族金属的沸点都很高。

按元素周期表顺序，从左向右逐渐降低．从上向下逐渐提高。

其中钯的沸点最低，锇的沸点最高。

锇、钌和铑的特点是硬度高并且脆，故能研磨成细粉末，它们都很难机械加工。

铂和钯具有延展性，可以辗制和拉丝。

纯净的铂具有高度的可塑性，将铂冷轧可以制得厚度为0.0025 mm的箔。

铱仅当升温至红热时才能承受机械加工。

铂族金属的特殊性质是其表面具有吸附气体（特别是氢气）的性能，呈粉末和胶体状态时其吸附能力大为增强。

钯对氢的吸附能力最强．常温下1个体积的钯能吸附901个体积以上的氢。

钯中吸附的氢易全部放出。

按照钯、铱、铑、铂、钌、锇的次序，它们吸附氢的性能依次降低。

2)化学性质。

铂族金属电离电位很高，在常温下对许多化学试剂（如酸、碱和最活泼的非金属）有很高的抗腐蚀能力。

但在一定条件下，它们可与酸、碱、氧和卤素反应。

铂族金属在热处理过程中被钝化，这是由于在金属表面形成一层稳定的氧化薄膜。

以金属细粉（铂黑）形式存在的铂族金属最容易溶解。

海绵状和粉末状的铂族金属不易溶解，致密状态的金属更难溶。

铂族金属有一种特殊的性质：当它们与比较活泼的金属熔融成合金时，就有可能用无机酸溶解。

容易与铂族金属形成合金的金属有铅、锡、铋和锌。

①铂族金属对酸和其他试剂的作用。

铂：抗酸、碱的腐蚀性能良好，致密状的铂不与单独的无机酸起作用，熔融状态的碳酸盐、硫酸盐和卤化物对它略起作用。

铂金的生长原理铂金的生长原理涉及其晶体结构、热力学和动力学等方面的知识。

以下将从这些方面详细回答，共1500字以上。

铂金（Pt）是一种贵金属，具有优异的化学稳定性、电化学性质和耐高温性能，因此在许多重要的工业领域得到广泛应用。

研究铂金的生长原理，对于深入理解其性质和应用具有重要意义。

首先，我们需要了解铂金的晶体结构。

铂金属在常温下为面心立方（FCC）结构，即具有由两个位置和两种原子构成的晶胞。

每个晶胞中，有一个铂原子位于中心位置，被称为A位，周围有六个铂原子处于顶点位置，被称为B位。

这种晶体结构具有较高的对称性和紧密堆积度，使得铂金具有良好的力学性能和导电性能。

其次，铂金的生长过程受到热力学和动力学因素的影响。

热力学是研究物质在不同温度和压力下的性质和行为的科学，而动力学则是研究物质的变化速率和机理的科学。

对于铂金的生长过程来说，热力学主要涉及能量和熵的变化，而动力学则涉及反应速率和晶体的生长机制。

在热力学方面，铂金的生长过程要满足能量和熵的变化。

能量上的要求是热力学第一定律，即能量守恒定律，要求铂金生长时的能量输入必须与输出相等。

在生长过程中，铂原子从熔融的金属中吸收能量，形成固态晶体结构。

熵的变化则可以通过热力学第二定律来描述，即熵增原理。

铂金生长时，晶体结构的有序化过程会导致熵的减小，从而增加了生长的难度。

在动力学方面，铂金生长的速率和机制需要考虑原子的扩散和表面吸附等因素。

扩散是指原子在晶体中移动的过程，它受到温度、真空度、晶体结构和原子尺寸等因素的影响。

铂金生长时，高温下原子的扩散速率加快，有利于生长过程。

表面吸附是指原子在表面附近吸附的过程，它决定了生长的速率和方向。

在铂金生长中，铂原子会优先吸附在晶体表面，通过与其他吸附原子相互作用，形成新的晶胞并生长。

综合考虑热力学和动力学因素，可以了解铂金的生长机制。

在高温下，铂金的熔点较高，熔融的铂金金属具有较高的扩散速率。

当金属熔体冷却到合适的温度时，铂原子开始从熔融的金属中扩散出来，进入到晶体表面附近并吸附在表面。

注射用洛铂百科名片注射用洛铂本品属烷化剂对多种动物和人肿瘤细胞株有明确的细胞毒作用，与顺铂的抑瘤作用相似和较强，对耐顺铂的细胞株，仍有一定的细胞毒作用。

主要用于治疗乳腺癌、小细胞肺癌及慢性粒细胞白血病。

目录[隐藏]药品名称药理毒理用量用法不良反应[编辑本段]药品名称通用名：注射用洛铂曾用名：商品名：英文名：Lobaplatin for Injection汉语拼音：Zhusheyong Luobo本品化学名称为：1，2二氨甲基-环丁烷-乳酸合铂。

其结构式为：分子式：C9H18N2O3Pt·3H2O分子量：451.38【性状】本品为白色冻干粉末。

[编辑本段]药理毒理1. 药理：具烷化作用，属烷化剂（广义）本品对多种动物和人肿瘤细胞株有明确的细胞毒作用，与顺铂的抑瘤作用相似和较强，对耐顺铂的细胞株，仍有一定的细胞毒作用。

2. 毒理：大鼠、犬的长期毒性试验表明，其毒性与卡铂相似，主要毒性为骨髓造血抑制。

3. 肾毒性较低，在体内外试验均表现出致突变作用，尚未进行致癌试验，但这类烷化剂均有致畸和致癌的潜在作用。

【药代动力学】静脉注射后，血清中游离铂的血药浓度-时间曲线与完整的洛铂基本上相同，在血液循环中没有或很少有代谢产物存在。

洛铂的两种立体异构体曲线也完全相同。

用药患者的血清总铂和游离铂的浓度时间曲线，在1小时内相似，在11小时后，血循环中约25％的总铂浓度和血清蛋白结合。

游离铂的终末半衰期（t1/2）为131±15min，总铂为6.8±4.3天。

游离铂标准化曲线下面积（AUC）（50mg/m2）为13.9±1.8 min·m2/L,总铂为57±19 min·m2/L。

游离铂标准化平均血浆清除率（1.73 m2）约为125±14ml/min, 总铂为34±11ml/mi n。

游离铂平均分布容积为0.28±0.51L/kg, 总铂为4.8±2.61L/ kg。

药品名称:通用名称：注射用洛铂英文名称：Lobaplatin for Injection商品名称：注射用洛铂成份:洛铂。

适应症:本品主要用于治疗乳腺癌、小细胞肺癌及慢性粒细胞性白血病。

规格:50mg（以无水物计）。

用法用量:使用前用5ml注射用水溶解，此溶液应4小时内应用（存放温度2-8℃）。

静脉注射按体表面积一次50mg/m2，再次使用时应待血液毒性或其他临床副作用完全恢复，推荐的应用间歇期为3周。

如副作用恢复较慢，可延长使用间歇。

用药的持续时间：治疗持续时间应根据肿瘤的反应，最少应使用2个疗程。

如肿瘤开始缩小，可继续进行治疗，总数可达6个疗程。

不良反应:1、血液毒性：在洛铂的剂量限制性毒性中，血小板减少最为强烈，约有26.9%实体瘤患者的血小板计数低于50，000/mm3。

在已用大剂量化疗后的卵巢癌患者中，血小板减少发生的频率高达75%。

血小板数降低常在注射洛铂后2周（14天）开始，血小板计数常在下降后1周恢复到100，000/mm3。

在15%患者中（在大量化疗后卵巢癌患者中达32 5%）白细胞计数低于2000/mm3。

血象改变呈可逆性，但可引起继发的副作用，如血小板减少引起出血，白细胞减少引起感染。

2、胃肠道毒性：34.3%患者发生呕吐，但仅有6.7%患者的呕吐比较严重：14.8%患者发生恶心，建议使用预防性止吐剂。

3.5%的患者发生腹泻。

3、神经毒性：1.3%患者发生感觉异常，神经疾病、神经痛、耳毒性，精神错乱和视觉异常等，仅在不到0.5%患者中发生。

4、肾毒性：在应用洛铂时，大多数患者不需大量输液或/和强制利尿，发生肾功能异常很罕见。

食欲缺乏患者应用洛铂后，液体摄入不足，严重呕吐可引起毒性肾功能衰竭。

5、肝毒性：应用洛铂后，偶然有轻度的可逆性SAST和SALT升高这种升高也可由于肝转移所致，但和洛铂的因果关系不能除外。

6、电解质变化：电解质变化不是洛铂的副作用。

7、过敏性反应：约有1.9%患者发生过敏性反应（如疹状紫癜、皮肤潮红、皮肤反应）这些副作用往往发生在过去用大量铂类化合物治疗的卵巢癌患者中，在慢性粒细胞性白血病中，无这种副作用。

镀铬基础知识（Basic knowledge of chrome plating）镀铬基础知识(Basic knowledge of chrome plating)Chromium is a microstrip sky blue silvery white metal. Although the electrode potential is very negative, but it has a strong passivation performance, quickly passivated in the atmosphere, showing the nature of precious metals, chrome plated iron and steel parts are cathodic coating. The chromium layer is very stable in the atmosphere and can maintain its gloss for a long time. It is very stable in the corrosive medium such as alkali, nitric acid, sulfide, carbonate and organic acid, but soluble in hydrochloric acid, such as hydrogen acid and hot concentrated sulfuric acidChromium is a microstrip sky blue silvery white metal. Although the electrode potential is very negative, but it has a strong passivation performance, quickly passivated in the atmosphere, showing the nature of precious metals, chrome plated iron and steel parts are cathodic coating. The chromium layer is very stable in the atmosphere and can maintain its gloss for a long time. It is very stable in the corrosive medium such as alkali, nitric acid, sulfide, carbonate and organic acid, but soluble in hydrochloric acid, such as hydrogen acid and hot concentrated sulfuric acid.The chromium layer has high hardness (HV800 ~ 110kg/mm2), good wear resistance, good reflection ability and good heat resistance. At 500 degrees Celsius, the brightness and hardness were not changed; thetemperature was greater than 500 degrees, began to oxidation discoloration; more than 700 degrees Celsius began to soften.As a result of the excellent performance of chrome plating, itis widely used as the outer coating and functional coating of protective decorative coating system.The traditional chrome plating process is based on chromic acid and sulfuric acid as catalyst. The ratio is 100:1. The advantages of the process are that the bath is stable and easy to operate. Whether it is bright chromium plating or hard chromium plating, the coating is of high quality and has the advantages of brightness, wear resistance and stability. Therefore, it has been widely used. The shortcoming is: (1) the cathodic current efficiency is very low, only 8% to 16%, so that the deposition rate is slow, the energy consumption is quite large; (2) chromate with high concentration of chromium containing waste water and waste pollution, serious waste of materials; (3) the bath temperature is higher, the waste energy; (4) dispersion and poor coverage of theplating solution, the shape of complex parts must use hieroglyphic anode, cathode and anode protection to get the film of uniform thickness. Therefore, electroplating industry at home and abroad has been committed to reform the traditional chromium plating process with high chromium.It has been extensively studied and explored for reducing the concentration of chromic acid, reducing its harm and improving the efficiency of chromium plating. Some achievements have been obtained.The traditional chrome plating process is improved by adding additives to the chromate bath. These additives can be divided into four categories: (1) inorganic anion additives (e.g., F, etc.); (2) organic anion additives (such as carboxylic acid, sulfonic acid); (3) rare earth cationic additives (such as La3+, Nd3+, Pr3+, Ce3+, and Sm3+ (4);) non rare earth cationicadditives (such as Sr2+, Mg2+ etc.).In the process of improving the traditional plating process appeared in the process of three kinds of the more prominent: (1) plating process by fluoride catalyst; (2) to chlorine, bromine, iodine and stable acid chrome plating catalyst; (3) with rare earth as a chrome plating additive.I. General characteristics of chrome plating(1) features of chrome plating1. chromium plating with oxygen acid salt, chromium and oxygenaffinity is strong, difficult to resolve electricity, low current efficiency;2. chromium valence metal, and oxygen ions, the cathodic reduction process is very complex;3. chrome plating, thoughHowever, the polarization value is very large, but the polarization is very small, so the dispersion and covering capacity of plating bath are very poor, and the auxiliary anode and cathodic protection are often adopted;4., chromium plating requires large current density, while thecurrent efficiency is very low, a large number of hydrogen precipitation, resulting in plating liquid ohmic voltage drop, so the voltage of chromium plating to be relatively high;With 5. chrome plated chromium anode, usually using insoluble anode pure lead, lead tin alloy, lead antimony alloy etc..(two) special phenomenon of chromium plating processCompared with other metal electrodeposition, chromium plating hasthe following special phenomena:(1) and the current efficiency decreased with the salt concentration of chromic anhydride;(2) the current efficiency increases with the increase of current density;(3) the current efficiency decreases with the increase of bath temperature;(4) the current efficiency is reduced and chromium plating can notbe improved even when the bath is stirred and strengthened.These peculiar phenomena are related to the particularity ofcathodic reduction of chromium plating.Two. Types and markings of chromium plating(I) protective decorative chromium platingProtective decorative chrome, commonly known as decorative chromium. It has double functions of corrosion protection and decorativeappearance. To this end, the zinc base or steel substrate must be coated with an adequate thickness of theintermediate layer, and then a bright intermediate coating with a0.25 to 0.5 m chromium layer. Such as copper plating on the steel base, nickel layer, chrome plating, chrome plating on low tin bronze, chromium plating on multi layer nickel, chrome plating on nickel iron alloy coating, etc..In modern electroplating, microporous or micro cracks are plated on multi layer nickel. Chromium is a protective decorative system which can reduce the overall thickness of the coating and obtain high corrosion resistance. It is the direction of the development of electroplating process.Sand blasted on brass or chrome plated on satin nickel to achieve satin finish without light. Used as Matt protection - decorative chrome plating.Decorative chrome plating is the most widely used in chrome plating. The characteristics of decorative chromium plating is: (1) coating requirements of light; (2) the ability to cover the solution is better, the main parts on the surface should be covered chromium; (3) the thickness of the coating is thin, usually between 0.25 ~ 0.5 m, with more than 0.3 domestic M. This high concentration of commonly used decorative chromium plating 300 ~ 400g/L in recent years, adding rare earth additive concentration can be reduced to 150 ~ 200g/L, covering power and current efficiency is obviously improved, is the developmentdirection of research and development and application of industrial production.Protective decorative chromium plating is widely used in automobiles, bicycles, daily hardware, household appliances,instruments and meters, machinery, exposed parts in ship cabins, etc.. The polished chrome layer has a high reflectivity and can be used as a reflector.In accordance with international ISO standards, protectivedecorative chrome marking methods are as follows:Classification mark constitution:Fe - chemical symbols for base metals and steels.Cu - chemical symbol for copper, digital indicating minimumthickness of copper coating (m);Ni - chemical symbol for nickel, digital indicating minimumthickness of nickel coating (m).A symbol indicating the type of nickel coating:B -- bright nickel coating;P - dark nickel or semi bright nickel coating. Polishing is required for full bright plating;D -- double or three layers nickel coating;Cr -- chemical symbol for chromium.Represents the type of chromium plating and its minimum thickness: R - ordinary (standard) chromium;F -- chromium without crack;MC - microcrack chrome;MP -- microporous chromium.Classification mark example: the classification mark of the coating consisting of 20 m (minimum) copper, 25 m (minimum) bright nickel and0.3 m (minimum) micro crack chromium on iron and steel can be written as: Fe/Cu20/Ni25b, Cr, mc0.3Interpretation of several terms: minimum thickness - the part on which the main part of the surface can be contacted by a ball with a diameter of 20mm; the minimum value that the plating thickness must reach.Main surface - refers to certain surfaces on a part, the surface of which plays a major role in the appearance and performance of the part.Chromium free crack (Crf) - no crack occurs when checked by ISO.Chromium (Cr, MC) -- according to the test method specified by ISO, there are more than 250 cracks per 1cm length in all directions of the effective face, and the cracks are in a net hole like structure.Microporous chromium (Cr, MP) - Test method according to ISO test,the micropore density is at least 10000 holes /cm2 above.(two) hard chromium (wear-resisting chromium, industrial chrome plating)Chromium coating deposited under certain conditions with high hardness and abrasion resistance, the hardness of Vivtorinox hard chromium reaches 900 ~ 1200kg/mm2, is commonly used in the coating of chromium plating hardness is the highest, which can improve the wearresistance of parts, prolong the service life. Such as industry, mold, and clamp; machine, excavator, automobile and tractor spindle;Hard chromium plating on cutting tools. Hard chromium plating can be used to repair the size tolerances of worn parts. Strict control of chromium plating process, accurate according to the specified size of chromium plating, after plating without mechanical processing, is called size chromium plating method.(three) chrome white coatingAt elevated temperatures (65~75 DEG C) and lower current densities (20 + 5A/dm2), the milky, dull chromium is called chrome white. The coating has good toughness, low hardness, little pore, little crack,soft color and good extinction performance. It is commonly used in measuring tools, dial plates and instrument panels.Chrome plated chromium on chrome white is called double layer chrome plating. It is widely used in aircraft, ship parts and gun bore.(four) loose hole chrome platingUsually after hard chromium plating by chemical or electrochemical method, chromium layer roughcracks further broaden deepen, so that the occlusion more lubricating grease, improve its wear resistance, which is called loose hole chrome. The porous chromium plated layer is applied to heavy pressure sliding friction parts and heat resistant, corrosion resistant and wear-resistant parts, such as the inner cavity of the internal-combustion engine, the piston ring and so on.(five) black chromiumIn the absence of sulfate and the catalyst containing chrome,plating from pure black chromium layer, with chromium oxide as main component, the corrosion resistance and extinction performance, used in aviation, optical instruments, solar absorption plate and protection - daily necessities of decoration.Three, chromium plating liquid types and characteristics(a) ordinary chromium plating solution;This is the application of a large quantity of a wide range of a solution, the basic component is chromic acid and sulfuric acid in chromic acid concentration can be divided into low, medium and high concentration of three.Low concentration usually refers to the chromic acid content for120g/L of the solution. The utility model has the advantages of reducing pollution, reducing cost, high current efficiency (18%to 20%), good brightness of the coating, wide brightness, wide current density range, etc.. The disadvantage is that the groove voltage is higher, the plating bath coverage is poor, and it is suitable for the parts with simple shape.Usually refers to the concentration of chromic acid content is 180 ~ 250g/L bath. If 250g/L, 2.5g/L sulfate bath called standard chromium liquid, used for hard chromium plating. Join in this kind of additivesin the plating solution, especially the mixed additives of rare earth metal salt bath performance has greatly improved within the chromic acid concentration can be reduced to 150 ~ 180g/L, plating bath weresignificantly improved, more than high concentration liquid; critical current density can reduce the analysis of chromium can be. The low current density (8 ~ 10A/dm2), and the current efficiency can reach above 20%, the cell voltage is lower than 10V, so it has obvious energy saving effect can be realized at room temperature; the electroplating, between 15 to 50 DEG C can be plating, can save energy, improve work efficiency. Comprehensive economic and environmental benefits. This is the development direction of modern electroplating chromium process.High concentration refers to the chromic acid concentration is 300 ~ 400g/L bath. It has high dispersion and covering ability, mainly usedfor decorative chrome plating. This kind of plating liquid brings much loss and serious pollution to the environment. Current efficiency is low (8% ~ 13%). The development and application of rare earth additives such as chromium plating, such plating solution has been gradually reduced.。