Division 5 Seventeenth Century

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READING PASSAGE 1You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.Johnson’s DictionaryFor the centur y before Johnson’s Dictionary was published in 1775, there had been concern about the state of the English language. There was no standard way of speaking or writing and no agreement as to the best way of bringing some order to the chaos of English spelling. Dr Johnson provided the solution.There had, of course, been dictionaries in the past, the first of these being a little book of some 120 pages, compiled by a certain Robert Cawdray, published in 1604 under the title A Table Alphabeticall ‘of hard usuall English wordes’. Like the various dictionaries that came after it during the seventeenth century, Cawdray’s tended to concentrate on ‘scholarly’ words; one function of the dictionary was to enable its student to convey an impression of fine learning.Beyond the practical need to make order out of chaos, the rise of dictionaries is associated with the rise of the English middle class, who were anxious to define and circumscribe thevarious worlds to conquer —lexical as well as social and commercial. it is highly appropriate that Dr Samuel Johnson, the very model of an eighteenth-century literary man, as famous in his own time as in ours, should have published his Dictionary at the very beginning of the heyday of the middle class.Johnson was a poet and critic who raised common sense to the heights of genius. His approach to the problems that had worried writers throughout the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries was intensely practical. Up until his time, the task of producing a dictionary on such a large scale had seemed impossible without the establishment of an academy to make decisions about right and wrong usage. Johnson decided he did not need an academy to settle arguments about language; he would write a dictionary himself and he would do it single-handed. Johnson signed the contract for the Dictionary with the bookseller Robert Dosley at a breakfast held at the Golden Anchor Inn near Holbom Bar on 18 June 1764.He was to be paid ￡1.575 in instalments, and from this he took money to rent Gou gh Square, in which he set up his ‘dictionary workshop’.James Boswell, his biographer, described the garret where Johnson worked as ‘fitted up like a counting house’ with a long desk running down the middle at which the copying clerks would work standing up. Johnson himself was stationed on a rickety chair at an ‘old crazy deal table’ surrounded by a chaos of borrowed books. He was also helped by six assistants, two of whom died whilst the Dictionary was still in preparation.The work was immense; filling about eighty large notebooks (and without a library to hand), Johnson wrote the definitions of over 40,000 words, and illustrated their many meanings with some 114,000 quotations drawn from English writing on everysubject, from the Elizabethans to his own time. He did not expect to achieve complete originality. Working to a deadline, he had to draw on the best of all previous dictionaries, and to make his work one of heroic synthesis. In fact, it was very much more. Unlike his predecessors, Johnson treated English very practically, as a living language, with many different shades of meaning. He adopted his definitions on the principle of English common law —according to precedent. After its publication, his Dictionary was not seriously rivalled for over a century.After many vicissitudes the Dictionary was finally published on 15 April 1775. It was instantly recognised as a landmark throughout Europe. ‘This very noble work,’ wrote the leading Italian lexicographer, ‘will be a perpetual monument of Fame to the Author, an Honour to his own Country in particular, and a general Benefit to the republic of Letters throughout Europe" The fact that Johnson had taken on the Academies of Europe and matched them (everyone knew that forty French academics had taken forty years to produce the first French national dictionary) was cause for much English celebration.Johnson had worked for nine years, ‘with little assistance of the learned, and without any patronage of the great; not in the soft obscurities of retirement, or under the shelter of academic bowers, but amidst inconvenience and distraction, in sickness and in sorrow’. For all its faults and eccentricities his two-volume work is a masterpiece and a landmark, in his own words, ‘setting the orthography, displaying the analogy, regulating the structures, and ascertaining the significations of English words’. It is the cornerstone of Standard English an achievement which, in James Boswell’s words ‘conferred stability on the language of his country.’The Dictionary, together with his other writing, made Johnson famous and so well esteemed that his friends were able to prevail upon King George Ⅲ to offer him a pension. From then on, he was to become the Johnson of folklore.Questions 1-3Choose THREE letters A-H.Write your answers in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet.NB Your answers may be given in any order.Which THREE of the following statements are true of Johnson’s Dictionary?A It avoided all scholarly words.B It was the only English dictionary in general use for 200 years.C It was famous because of the large number of people involved.D It focused mainly on language from contemporary texts.E There was a time limit for its completion.F It ignored work done by previous dictionary writers.G It took into account subtleties of meaning.H Its definitions were famous for their originality.Questions 4-7Complete the summary.Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.Write your answers in boxes 4-7 on your answer sheet.In 1764 Dr Johnson accepted the contract to produce a dictionary. Having rented a garret, he took on a number of 4…………, who stood at a long central desk. Johnson did not have a 5………… available to him, but eventually produced definitions of in excess of 40,000 words written down in 80 large notebooks.On publications, the Dictionary was immediately hailed in many European countries as a landmark. According to his biographer, James Boswell, Johnson’s principal achievement was to bring 6……… to the English language. As a reward for his ha rd work, he was granted a 7………by the king.Questions 8-13Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?In boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet, writeTRUE if the statement agrees with the informationFALSE if the statement contradicts the informationNOT GIVEN if there is no information on this8 The growing importance of the middle classes led to an increased demand for dictionaries.9 Johnson has become more well known since his death.10 Johnson had been planning to write a dictionary for several years.11 Johnson set up an academy to help with the writing of his Dictionary.12 Johnson only received payment for his Dictionary on its completion.13 Not all of the assistants survived to see the publication of the Dictionary.READING PASSAGE 2You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.Nature or Nurture?A A few years ago, in one of the most fascinating and disturbing experiments in behavioural psychology, Stanley Milgram of Yale University tested 40 subjects from all walks of lifefor their willingness to obey instructions given by a ‘leader’ in a situation in which the subjects might feel a personal distaste for the actions they were called upon to perform. Specifically M ilgram told each volunteer ‘teacher-subject’ that the experiment was in the noble cause of education, and was designed to test whether or not punishing pupils for their mistakes would have a positive effect on the pupils’ ability to learn.B Milgram’s expe rimental set-up involved placing the teacher-subject before a panel of thirty switches with labels ranging from ‘15 volts of electricity (slight shock)’ to ‘450 volts (danger —severe shock)’ in steps of 15 volts each. The teacher-subject was told that whenever the pupil gave the wrong answer to a question, a shock was to be administered, beginning at the lowest level and increasing in severity with each successive wrong answer. The supposed ‘pupil’ was in reality an actor hired by Milgram to simulate receiving the shocks by emitting a spectrum of groans, screams and writings together with an assortment of statements and expletives denouncing both the experiment and the experimenter. Milgram told the teacher-subject to ignore the reactions of the pupil, and to administer whatever level of shock was called for, as per the rule governing the experimental situation of the moment.C As the experiment unfolded, the pupil would deliberately give the wrong answers to questions posed by the teacher, thereby bringing on various electrical punishments, even up to the danger level of 300 volts and beyond. Many of the teacher-subjects balked at administering the higher levels of punishment, and turned to Milgram with questioning looks and/or complaints about continuing the experiment. In these situations, Milgramcalmly explained that the teacher-subject was to ignore the pupil’s cries for mercy and carry on with the experiment. If the subject was still reluctant to proceed, Milgram said that it was important for the sake of the experiment that the procedure be followed through to the end. His final argument was ‘you have no other choice. You must go on’. What Milgram was trying to discover was the number of teacher-subjects who would be willing to administer the highest levels of shock, even in the face of strong personal and moral revulsion against the rules and conditions of the experiment.D Prior to carrying out the experiment, Milgram explained his idea to a group of 39 psychiatrists and asked them to predict the average percentage of people in an ordinary population who would be willing to administer the highest shock level of 450 volts. The overwhelming consensus was that virtually all the teacher-subjects would refuse to obey the experimenter. The psychiatrists felt that ‘most subjects would not go beyond 150 volts’ and they further anticipated that only four per cent would go up to 300 volts. Furthermore, they thought that only a lunatic fringe of about one in 1,000 would give the highest shock of 450 volts.E What were the actual results? Well, over 60 per cent of the teacher-subjects continued to obey Milgram up to the 450-volt limit in repetitions of the experiment in other countries, the percentage of obedient teacher-subjects was even higher, reaching 85 per cent in one country. How can we possibly account for this vast discrepancy between what calm, rational, knowledgeable people predict in the comfort of their study and what pressured, flustered, but cooperative ‘teachers’ actually do in the laboratory of real life?F One’s first inclination might be to argue that there must be some sort of built-in animal aggression instinct that was activated by the experiment, and that Milgram’s teache-subjects were just following a genetic need to discharge this pent-up primal urge onto the pupil by administering the electrical shock. A modern hard-core sociobiologist might even go so far as to claim that this aggressive instinct evolved as an advantageous trait, having been of survival value to our ancestors in their struggle against the hardships of life on the plains and in the caves, ultimately finding its way into our genetic make-up as a remnant of our ancient animal ways.G An alternative to this notion of genetic programming is to see the teacher-subjects’ actions as a result of the social environment under which the experiment was carried out. As Milgram himself pointed out, ‘Most subjects in the experiment see their behaviour in a larger context that is benevolent and useful to society —the pursuit of scientific truth. The psychological laboratory has a strong claim to legitimacy and evokes trust and confidence in those who perform there. An action such as shocking a victim, which in isolation appears evil, acquires a completely different meaning when placed in this se tting.’H Thus, in this explanation the subject merges his unique personality and personal and moral code with that of larger institutional structures, surrendering individual properties like loyalty, self-sacrifice and discipline to the service of malevolent systems of authority.I Here we have two radically different explanations for why so many teacher-subjects were willing to forgo their sense of personal responsibility for the sake of an institutional authorityfigure. The problem for biologists, psychologists and anthropologists is to sort out which of these two polar explanations is more plausible. This, in essence, is the problem of modern sociobiology — to discover the degree to which hard-wired genetic programming dictates, or at least strongly biases, the interaction of animals and humans with their environment, that is, their behaviour. Put another way, sociobiology is concerned with elucidating the biological basis of all behaviour.Questions 14-19Reading Passage 2 has nine paragraphs, A-I.Which paragraph contains the following information?Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet.14 a biological explanation of the teacher-subjects’ behaviour15 the explanation Milgram gave the teacher-subjects for the experiment16 the identity of the pupils17 the expected statistical outcome18 the general aim of sociobiological study19 the way Milgram persuaded the teacher-subjects to continueQuestions 20-22Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.Write your answers in boxes 20-22 on your answer sheet.20 The teacher-subjects were told that were testing whetherA a 450-volt shock was dangerous.B punishment helps learning.C the pupils were honest.D they were suited to teaching.21 The teacher-subjects were instructed toA stop when a pupil asked them to.B denounce pupils who made mistakes.C reduce the shock level after a correct answer.D give punishment according to a rule.22 Before the experiment took place the psychiatristsA believed that a shock of 150 volts was too dangerous.B failed to agree on how the teacher-subjects would respond to instructions.C underestimated the teacher-subjects’ willingness to comply with experimental procedure.D thought that many of the teacher-subjects would administer a shock of 450 volts.Questions 23-26Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?In boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet, writeTRUE if the statement agrees with the informationFALSE if the statement contradicts the informationNOT GIVEN if there is no information on this23 Several of the subjects were psychology students at Yale University.24 Some people may believe that the teacher-subjects’ behaviour could be explained as a positive survival mechanism.25 In a sociological explanation, personal values are more powerful than authority.26 Milgram’s experiment solves an important question in sociobiology.READING PASSAGE 3You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40,which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.The Truth about the EnvironmentFor many environmentalists, the world seems to be getting worse. They have developed a hit-list of our main fears: that natural resources are running out; that the population is ever growing, leaving less and less to eat; that species are becoming extinct in vast numbers, and that the planet’s air and water are becoming ever more polluted.But a quick look at the facts shows a different picture. First, energy and other natural resources have become more abundant, not less so, since the book ‘The Limits to Growth’ was published in 1972 by a group of scientists. Second, more food is now produced per head of the world’s population than at any time in history. Fewer people are starving. Third, although species are indeed becoming extinct, only about 0.7% of them are expected to disappear in the next 50 years, not 25-50%, as has so often been predicted. And finally, most forms of environmental pollution either appear to have been exaggerated, or are transient —associated with the early phases of industrialisation and therefore best cured not by restricting economic growth, but by accelerating it. One form of pollution — the release of greenhouse gases that causes global warming — does appear to be a phenomenon that is going to extend well into our future, but its total impact is unlikely to pose a devastating problem. A bigger problem may well turn out to be an inappropriate response to it.Yet opinion polls suggest that many people nurture the belief that environmental standards are declining and four factors seem to cause this disjunction between perception and reality.One is the lopsidedness built into scientific research. Scientific funding goes mainly to areas with many problems. That may be wise policy, but it will also create an impression that many more potential problems exist than is the case.Secondly, environmental groups need to be noticed by the mass media. They also need to keep the money rolling in. Understandably, perhaps, they sometimes overstate their arguments. In 1997, for example, the World Wide Fund for Nature issued a press release entitled: ‘Two thirds of the world’s forests lost forever.’ The truth turns out to be nearer 20%.Though these groups are run overwhelmingly by selfless folk, they nevertheless share many of the characteristics of other lobby groups. That would matter less if people applied the same degree of scepticism to environmental lobbying as they do to lobby groups in other fields. A trade organisation arguing for, say, weaker pollution controls is instantly seen as self-interested. Yet a green organisation opposing such a weakening is seen as altruistic, even if an impartial view of the controls in question might suggest they are doing more harm than good.A third source of confusion is the attitude of the media. People are clearly more curious about bad news than good. Newspapers and broadcasters are there to provide what the public wants. That, however, can lead to significant distortions of perception. An example was America’s encounter with El Nino in 1997 and 1998. This climatic phenomenon was accused of wrecking tourism, causing allergies, melting the ski-slopes and causing 22 deaths. However, according to an article in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, the damage it did was estimated at US$4 billion but the benefits amounted to some US$19 billion. These came from higher winter temperatures(which saved an estimated 850 lives, reduced heating costs and diminished spring floods caused by meltwaters).The fourth factor is poor individual perception. People worry that the endless rise in the amount of stuff everyone throws away will cause the world to run out of places to dispose of waste. Yet, even if America’s trash output continues to rise as it has done in the past, and even if the American population doubles by 2100, all the rubbish America produces through the entire 21st century will still take up only one-12,000th of the area of the entire United States.So what of global warming? As we know, carbon dioxide emissions are causing the planet to warm. The best estimates are that the temperatures will rise by 2-3℃ in this century, causing considerable problems, at a total cost of US$5,000 billion.Despite the intuition that something drastic needs to be done about such a costly problem, economic analyses clearly show it will be far more expensive to cut carbon dioxide emissions radically than to pay the costs of adaptation to the increased temperatures. A model by one of the main authors of the United Nations Climate Change Panel shows how an expected temperature increase of 2.1 degrees in 2100 would only be diminished to an increase of 1.9 degrees. Or to put it another way, the temperature increase that the planet would have experienced in 2094 would be postponed to 2100.So this does not prevent global warming, but merely buys the world six years. Yet the cost of reducing carbon dioxide emissions, for the United States alone, will be higher than the cost of solving the world’s single, most pressing health problem: providing universal access to clean drinking water and sanitation. Such measures would avoid 2 million deaths every year, andprevent half a billion people from becoming seriously ill.It is crucial that we look at the facts if we want to make the best possible decisions for the future. It may be costly to be overly optimistic — but more costly still to be too pessimistic.Questions 27-32Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 3?In boxes 27-32 on your answer sheet, writeYES if the statement ag rees with the writer’s claimsNO if the statement contradicts the writer’s clamsNOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this27 Environmentalists take a pessimistic view of the world fora number of reasons28 Data on the Earth’s natural resources has only been collected since 1972.29 The number of starving people in the world has increased in recent years.30 Extinct species are being replaced by new species.31 Some pollution problems have been correctly linked to industrialisation.32 It would be best to attempt to slow down economic growth.Questions 33-37Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.Write your answers in boxes 33-37 on your answer sheet.33 What aspect of scientific research does the writer express concern about in paragraph 4?A the need to produce resultsB the lack of financial supportC the selection of areas to researchD the desire to solve every research problem34 The writer quotes from the Worldwide Fund for Nature to illustrate howA influential the mass media can be.B effective environmental groups can be.C the mass media can help groups raise funds.D environmental groups can exaggerate their claims.34 What is the writer’s main point about lobby groups in paragraph 6?A Some are more active than others.B Some are better organised than others.C Some receive more criticism than others.D Some support more important issues than others.35 The writer suggests that newspapers print items that are intended toA educate readers.B meet their readers’ expec tations.C encourage feedback from readers.D mislead readers.36 What does the writer say about America’s waste problem?A It will increase in line with population growth.B It is not as important as we have been led to believe.C It has been reduced through public awareness of the issues.D It is only significant in certain areas of the country.Questions 38-40Complete the summary with the list of words A-I below.Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 38-40 on your answer sheet.GLOBAL WARMINGThe writer admits that global warming is a 38…………….challenge, but says that it will not have a catastrophic impact on our future, if we deal with it in the 39…………… way. If we try to reduce the levels of greenhouse gases, he believes that it would only have a minimal impact on rising temperatures. He feels it would be better to spend money on the more 40………… health problem of providing the world’s population with clean drinking water.A unrealisticB agreedC expensiveD rightE long-termF usualG surprisingH personalI urgent剑桥雅思阅读5原文参考译文(test1)TEST 1 PASSAGE 1参考译文：Johnson’s Dictionary约翰逊博士的字典For the century before Johnson’s Dictionary was published in 1775, there had been concern about the state of the English language. There was no standard way of speaking or writing and no agreement as to the best way of bringing some order to the chaos of English spelling. Dr Johnson provided the solution.约翰逊博士的《字典》于1775年出版，在此之前的一个世纪，人们一直对英语的发展状况担忧。

Unit 5Meeting your ancestors———————————◄基础盘点·自测自评►———————————重点词汇阅读单词快速排查本单元阅读词汇并在不认识的词汇前划√□beast n.□quilt n．□onion n.□skateboard n.□yogurt n.□melon n.□wrinkle n．□spear n．□eyebrow n．□arrowhead n．□excavate v t.□craftsmanship n．□hammer n．□tentative adj.□ample adj.□scratch n．& v t.□dizzy adj.□primitive adj.□howl v t.& v i.& n．□worship v t.& v i.& n.核心单词1.spit v t.吐出(唾液、食物等)v i.吐痰2.alternative n．可能的选择adj.供选择的；其他的3.regardless ad v.不管；不顾4.somehow ad v.以……方式；不知怎么地5.pulse v i.强烈而有规律地跳动；搏动n．脉搏；节拍6.category n．种类；类别；范畴7.arrest v t.逮捕；吸引n．逮捕；拘留8.kindergarten n．幼儿园9.acute adj.有观察力的；敏锐的；严重的；深刻的10.album n．相册；集邮册；唱片11.delete v t.删；删除拓展单词1.identify v t.确认；识别；鉴别→identification n．辨认；鉴定2.starvation n．挨饿；饿死→starve v i.挨饿；饿死3.accuracy n．精确；准确→accurate adj.精确的→inaccurate adj.不准确的4.interrupt v t.& v i.打断……讲话；打岔；暂时中断或中止→interruption n．中断；干扰5.sharpen v i.& v t. (使)锋利；尖锐；清晰→sharpener n．磨具；削具→sharp adj.锋利的6.analysis n. (pl. analyses)分析→analyse v t.分析→analyst n．分析者；化验员(拓展速记1)7.significance n．意义；意思；重要性；重要意义→significant adj.重大的；意义重大的8.systematic adj.有系统的；有计划的；有条理的→system n．系统9.division n．分割；划分；分配；分界线→divide v．分割；划分；分配10.applaud v i.& v t.鼓掌欢迎；赞赏→applause n．鼓掌欢迎；欢呼11.skilful adj.有技巧的；熟练的→skill n．技能；技巧→skilled adj.有技巧的；熟练的(拓展速记2)[语境活用]用所给词的适当形式填空1.The pencil was not sharp, so he sharpened it with a sharpener. (sharpen)2.In the final analysis, I think we must try to analyse the causes of his many shallow and wrong analyses that he showed to the pupils. (analysis)3.To be a skilled worker, you need to acquire some basic skills. (skill)4.She used to suffer from starvation but now she is starving herself to try to lose weight. (starve)5.At the meeting, Tom interrupted Jane with a question, but Jane carried on, totally ignoring his interruption. (interrupt)6.His family's wealth is divided into four parts, but they don't think the division is fair. (divide)7.In the past 30 years, the economy of China has developed significantly, which is of great significance to the world economy. (significant)8.While working out the problem, you should pay more attention to the accuracy. You must measure the length accurately in order to get the accurate number. (accurate)走进高考1.assume 熟义：v t.假定(设)；设想；认为生义：v.装出；假装He assumed an air of concern.2.sharpen 熟义：v i.& v t. (使)锋利；尖锐；清晰生义：v．变得清晰The outline of the trees sharpened as it grew lighter.高频短语1.show...round带……参观2.regardless of不管；不顾3.keep out of阻止……进入；(使)留在外面4.at most至多；最多5.cut up切碎；伤心的6.be aware of意识到7.fed up with受够了；饱受；厌烦8.look ahead向前看；为将来打算9.with relief欣慰地；如释重负地10.date back (to...)追溯到……；始于……(拓展速记3)[语境活用]用左栏短语的适当形式填空1.The little boy is required to play computer games for at most 2 hours a day.2.Whenever we are in trouble, we must look ahead and encourage ourselves.3.My mother would always cut up meat for our dog.4.I didn't come to Spain for my holidays to keep out of the sun, just in contrary, in fact.5.Children are fed up with their studies because they are expected to do far better than they can.6.The history of this country can date back to the Stone Age.7.He continued speaking, regardless of my feelings about the matter.重点句式1.might have done 表示对发生事情的可能性推测[原句]We have been excavating layers of ash almost six metres thick, which suggests that they might have kept the fire burning all winter.我们一直在挖掘一层层的积灰，几乎有六米厚，这说明他们可能整个冬季都在烧火。

2.12.比:ratio 比例:proportion 利率:interest rate 速率:speed 除:divide 除法:division 商:quotient 同类量:like quantity 项:term 线段:line segment 角:angle 长度:length 宽:width高度:height 维数:dimension 单位:unit 分数:fraction 百分数:percentage3.(1)一条线段和一个角的比没有意义,他们不是相同类型的量.(2)比较式通过说明一个量是另一个量的多少倍做出的,并且这两个量必须依据相同的单位.(5)为了解一个方程,我们必须移项,直到未知项独自处在方程的一边,这样就可以使它等于另一边的某量.4.(1)Measuring the length of a desk, is actually comparing the length of the desk to that of a ruler.(3)Ratio is different from the measurement, it has no units. The ratio of the length and the width of the same book does not vary when the measurement unit changes.(5)60 percent of students in a school are female students, which mean that 60 students out of every 100 students are female students.2.22.初等几何:elementary geometry 三角学:trigonometry 余弦定理:Law of cosines 勾股定理/毕达哥拉斯定理:Gou-Gu theorem/Pythagoras theorem 角:angle 锐角:acute angle 直角:right angle 同终边的角:conterminal angles 仰角:angle of elevation 俯角:angle of depression 全等:congruence 夹角:included angle 三角形:triangle 三角函数:trigonometric function直角边:leg 斜边:hypotenuse 对边:opposite side 临边:adjacent side 始边:initial side 解三角形:solve a triangle 互相依赖:mutually dependent 表示成:be denoted as 定义为:be defined as3.(1)Trigonometric function of the acute angle shows the mutually dependent relations between each sides and acute angle of the right triangle.(3)If two sides and the included angle of an oblique triangle areknown, then the unknown sides and angles can be found by using the law of cosines.(5)Knowing the length of two sides and the measure of the included angle can determine the shape and size of the triangle. In other words, the two triangles made by these data are congruent.4.(1)如果一个角的顶点在一个笛卡尔坐标系的原点并且它的始边沿着x轴正方向，这个角被称为处于标准位置.(3)仰角和俯角是以一条以水平线为参考位置来测量的,如果正被观测的物体在观测者的上方,那么由水平线和视线所形成的角叫做仰角.如果正被观测的物体在观测者的下方,那么由水平线和视线所形成的的角叫做俯角.(5)如果我们知道一个三角形的两条边的长度和对着其中一条边的角度,我们如何解这个三角形呢?这个问题有一点困难来回答,因为所给的信息可能确定两个三角形,一个三角形或者一个也确定不了.2.32.素数:prime 合数:composite 质因数:prime factor/prime divisor 公倍数:common multiple 正素因子: positive prime divisor 除法算式:division equation 最大公因数:greatest common divisor(G.C.D) 最小公倍数: lowest common multiple(L.C.M) 整除:divide by 整除性:divisibility 过程:process 证明:proof 分类:classification 剩余:remainder辗转相除法:Euclidean algorithm 有限集:finite set 无限的:infinitely 可数的countable 终止:terminate 与矛盾:contrary to3.(1)We need to study by which integers an integer is divisible, that is , what factor it has. Specially, it is sometime required that an integer is expressed as the product of its prime factors.(3)The number 1 is neither a prime nor a composite number;A composite number in addition to being divisible by 1 and itself, can also be divisible by some prime number.(5)The number of the primes bounded above by any given finite integer N can be found by using the method of the sieve Eratosthenes.4.(1)数论中一个重要的问题是哥德巴赫猜想,它是关于偶数作为两个奇素数和的表示.(3)一个数,形如2p-1的素数被称为梅森素数.求出5个这样的数.(5)任意给定的整数m和素数p,p的仅有的正因子是p和1,因此仅有的可能的p和m的正公因子是p和1.因此,我们有结论:如果p是一个素数,m是任意整数,那么p整除m,要么(p,m)=1.2.42.集:set 子集:subset 真子集:proper subset 全集:universe 补集:complement 抽象集:abstract set 并集:union 交集:intersection 元素:element/member 组成:comprise/constitute包含:contain 术语:terminology 概念:concept 上有界:bounded above 上界:upper bound 最小的上界:least upper bound 完备性公理:completeness axiom3.(1)Set theory has become one of the common theoretical foundation and the important tools in many branches of mathematics.(3)Set S itself is the improper subset of S; if set T is a subset of S but not S, then T is called a proper subset of S.(5)The subset T of set S can often be denoted by {x}, that is, T consists of those elements x for which P(x) holds.(7)This example makes the following question become clear, that is, why may two straight lines in the space neither intersect nor parallel.4.(1)设N是所有自然数的集合,如果S是所有偶数的集合,那么它在N中的补集是所有奇数的集合.(3)一个非空集合S称为由上界的,如果存在一个数c具有属性:x<=c对于所有S中的x.这样一个数字c被称为S的上界.(5)从任意两个对象x和y，我们可以形成序列（x，y），它被称为一个有序对，除非x=y，否则它当然不同于（y，x）.如果S和T是任意集合，我们用S*T表示所有有序对（x,y),其中x术语S，y属于T.在R.笛卡尔展示了如何通过实轴和它自己的笛卡尔积来描述平面的点之后，集合S*T被称为S和T的笛卡尔积.2.52.竖直线:vertical line 水平线:horizontal line 数对:pairs of numbers 有序对:ordered pairs 纵坐标:ordinate 横坐标:abscissas 一一对应:one-to-one 对应点:corresponding points圆锥曲线:conic sections 非空图形:non vacuous graph 直立圆锥:right circular cone 定值角:constant angle 母线:generating line 双曲线:hyperbola 抛物线:parabola 椭圆:ellipse退化的:degenerate 非退化的:nondegenerate任意的:arbitrarily 相容的:consistent 在几何上:geometrically 二次方程:quadratic equation 判别式:discriminant 行列式:determinant3.(1)In the planar rectangular coordinate system, one can set up aone-to-one correspondence between points and ordered pairs of numbers and also a one-to-one correspondence between conic sections and quadratic equation.(3)The symbol can be used to denote the set of ordered pairs（x，y）such that the ordinate is equal to the cube of the abscissa.（5）According to the values of the discriminate，the non-degenerate graph of Equation （iii） maybe known to be a parabola， a hyperbolaor an ellipse.4.（1）在例1，我们既用了图形，也用了代数的代入法解一个方程组（其中一个方程式二次的，另一个是线性的）。

五年级英语世界著名建筑词汇单选题50题1.The Eiffel Tower is in _____.A.ParisB.LondonC.New YorkD.Beijing答案：A。

本题考查世界著名建筑埃菲尔铁塔所在的城市。

选项A 是巴黎，埃菲尔铁塔在巴黎；选项B 是伦敦；选项C 是纽约；选项D 是北京。

2.The Great Wall is in _____.A.IndiaB.ChinaC.JapanD.America答案：B。

本题考查长城所在的国家。

选项B 是中国，长城在中国；选项A 是印度；选项C 是日本；选项D 是美国。

3.Big Ben is in _____.A.ParisB.LondonC.New YorkD.Beijing答案：B。

本题考查大本钟所在的城市。

选项B 是伦敦，大本钟在伦敦；选项A 是巴黎；选项C 是纽约；选项D 是北京。

4.The Statue of Liberty is in _____.A.ParisB.LondonC.New YorkD.Beijing答案：C。

本题考查自由女神像所在的城市。

选项C 是纽约，自由女神像在纽约；选项 A 是巴黎；选项B 是伦敦；选项D 是北京。

5.The Taj Mahal is in _____.A.IndiaB.ChinaC.JapanD.America答案：A。

本题考查泰姬陵所在的国家。

选项A 是印度，泰姬陵在印度；选项B 是中国；选项C 是日本；选项D 是美国。

6.The Eiffel Tower is located in _____.A.LondonB.ParisC.New YorkD.Tokyo答案：B。

解析：埃菲尔铁塔位于法国巴黎。

选项A 伦敦是英国首都，没有埃菲尔铁塔。

选项C 纽约是美国城市，也没有埃菲尔铁塔。

选项D 东京是日本首都，同样没有埃菲尔铁塔。

7.The Statue of Liberty is in _____.A.WashingtonB.Los AngelesC.New YorkD.Chicago答案：C。

The Seventeenth CenturyGeneral IntroductionIn the 17th century, Europe advanced from the Middle Ages to the modern times."The modern world, so far as mental outlook is concerned, begins in the seventeenth century".----Bertrand Russell: A History of Western PhilosophyThis advance began in science, in astronomy, physics and pure mathematics, owing to the work of Galileo, Kepler, Newton and Descartes. Their work helped to create modern science and in a sense the modern world.These scientists abandoned the traditional reliance on authority and the accepted method of deductive reasoning. Instead, they attached great importance to direct observation of nature and experimentation.Numerous revolutionary concepts and inventions were developed during this period."Almost everything that distinguishes the modern world from earlier centuries is attributable to science, which achieved its most spectacular triumphs in the seventeenth century".----Bertrand Russell: A History of Western PhilosophyThe outlook of educated men was transformed. There was a profound change in the conception of men's place in the universe which revived human pride.This new outlook shattered the deeply established Scholasticism and brought about modern philosophy, which was materialist in nature.The new science and philosophy gave a great push to the political struggle waged by the newly emerged class, the bourgeoisie, and other classes.The 17th century saw the intense political struggle, shown in revolution in England and the end of absolute monarchy in France, which marked the growth of modern state power.ScienceThe sciences advanced in logical progression through modern history.First, a breakthrough in physics and mathematics in the 17th century, followed by rapid developments in the field of chemistry in the 18th century and then advances in biology in the 19th century and psychology in the 20th century.From Copernicus to KeplerThe first major advance of modern science occurred in astronomy and Italy was the scene with Copernicus(1473-1543) as the leading figure.Although he did not belong to the 17th century,Nicolaus Copernicus was the immediate forerunner of modern science.The Revolutions of Heavenly Orbs (1543)Copernicus put forward his theory that the sun, not the earth, is the center of the universe."In the middle of all sits the Sun enthroned. In this most beautiful temple, could we place this luminary in any better position from which he can illuminate the whole at once? He is rightly called the Lamp, the Mind, the Ruler of the Universe, ... So the Sun sits as upon a royal throne, ruling his children, the planets which circle round him."By this time, the Ptolematic system had been accepted by almost all learned men, which said that the earth was the center of the universe, which was in agreement with religious doctrines.Using logic and mathematics, Copernicus concluded that Ptolemy's system was wrong. Copernicus's hypothesis was regarded as heresy, for according to Scripture, Joshua had caused the sun to stand still in heaven.Copernicus had no wish to quarrel with the church. It was only at the urging of other scholars and scientists that he allowed his book to be published.The publication of the Copernican theory was the first serious irruption of science. It laid the foundation for many future scientific discoveries."The revolutionary act by which nature science declared its independence ... was the publication of the immortal work by which Copernicus threw down the gauntlet to ecclesiastical authority in the affairs of nature. The emancipation of natural science from theology dates from this act."----Engles, Dialectics of NatureHowever, Copernicus's heliocentric theory was put forward only as a hypothesis.No doubt, it was the boldest one in his own time, but Copernicus was not in a position to give any conclusive evidence in favor of his hypothesis.German scientist Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)Kepler is best known for his discovery of the three laws of planetary motion, the three laws being called Kepler's Law published in 1609 and 1619.Each planet moves in an ellipse, not a perfect circle, with the sun at one focus;Each planet moves more rapidly when near the sun than farther from it.The distance of each planet from the sun bears a definite relation to the time period the planet took to complete a revolution around the sun.A mathematical formula: the square of the period of revolution of a planet about the sun is proportional to the cube of the mean distance of the planet from the sun.Kepler's laws supported, clarified and amended the Copernican system and turned the system from a general description of the sun and the planets into a precise mathematical formula.These three laws formed the basis of all modern planetary astronomy and led to Newton's discovery of the laws of gravitation.Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)Galileo is the greates name in the field of physics of this period.His father, a Florentine, taught him Latin, Greek, mathematics and music. He also liked to draw and paint.At 17, he was sent to study medicine at the University of Pisa, but soon his interest was drawn to physics and mathematics.A convinced Copernican, Galileo was eager to use newly invented instruments to observe heavenly bodies.He was the first to apply the telescope to the study of the skies.His telescope magnified objects a thousand times.Sidereus Nuncius (The Starry Messenger), 1610"By the aid of a telescope anyone may behold this in a manner which so distinctly appeals to the senses that all the disputers which have tormented philosophers through so many ages are exploded aat once by the irrefragable evidence of our eyes, and we are freed from wordy disputesupon this subject, for the Galaxly is nothing else but a mass of innumerable stars planted together in cluster...""Upon whatever part of it you direct the telescope straightway a vast crowd of stars presents itself to views; many of them are tolerably large and extremely bright, but the number of small ones is quite beyond determination".Proved that Ptolemy's geocentric system would not work and that Copernicus's powerful hypothesis had been right.Discovered the importance of acceleration in dynamics.Every body, if left alone, will continue to move in a straight line with uniform velocity; any change, either in the rapidity or the direction of motion, requires to be explained as due to the action of some "force".This principle is called the law of inertia.The first to establish the law of falling bodies.When a body is falling freely, its acceleration is constant, except in so far as the resistance of the air may interfere, and the acceleration is the same for all bodies, heavy or light, great or small. The acceleration of a falling body does not depend on its mass.Galileo's discoveries proved the validity of the Copernican theory and struck a frightening blow at the holy establishment.Many theologians felt that Copernican astronomy was sharply incompatible with the Bible and that if this theory was widely accepted, the Bible would lose authority and Christianity would suffer.Galileo's disputes with the church finally led to his trial by the Inquisition.He was forced to give up his view in public declaration but later published a book about the Copernican and anti-Copernican systems.Put in prison, allowed to return home after falling ill, technically remained a prisoner.Died in the arms of his pupils, blind and deaf and still a prisoner.His findings had an unsettling and disturbing effect on the conventional thinking, but his impact on the thoughtful mind was overwhelming.Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)As a school boy, "idle" and "inattentive".Took his degree from Tirinity College, Cambridge and became a mathematics teacher (not successful).Few students went to his lectures and fewer could understand him, sometimes he had so few auditors that he read his lectures to the wall.As a mathematician, he invented calculus.In optics, he discovered that white light is composed of all the colors of the spectrum.(red, orange, yellow, green, indigo, blue, violet)It was in the field of physics that Newton established his name as one of the most outstanding and influential figure in the history of natural science.The law of the universal gravitationEvery body attracts every other with a force directly proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.To put it simply, all bodies in the universe move in accordance with the same basic force, which is called gravitation.From this law, Newton was able to deduce the orbits of comets, the tides, and even the minute departures from elliptical orbits on the part of the planet.The law of universal gravitation is considered to be one of the most important discoveries in the history of science.Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687)His analytical method, the way he approached natural laws by observation, experiment and calculation, began to be applied to human society, to all branches of knowledge and thought.For centuries, Newton had been regarded as a perfect scientist, the greatest one that ever lived in the entire history of science."Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night,God said, "Let Newton be," and all was light."____ Alexander Pope However, since Einstein discovered the law of relativity, the Newtonian system has been questioned.As a matter of fact, modern theoretical physics has abandoned Newton's absolute space and time. As explained by Einstein, motion and space are relative too.Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716)German philosopher, scientist, mathematician, historian and diplomat.Early university studies made him familiar with the Aristotelian tradition and the ideas from the Scholastics, but later decided in favor of the modern thought.He and Newton invented independently the differential and integral calculus.he describes space and time as merely system of relationship or order, and calls Newton's treatment of time and space as absolute entities a reversion to medieval notions.In his book New Essays Concerning Human Understanding (1704), he refutes John Locke's major premise that the senses are the source of all understanding.He distinguishes three levels of understanding: the self-conscious, the conscious and the unconscious or subconscious.Many of his theories have given rise of important developments of modern science, ranging from Freudian psychology and Einsteinian physics.Discourse and Metaphysics (1686)New System of Nature (1695)Invention of New InstrumentsThe microscope was invented in 1590.the telescope in 1608 by a DutchmanGalileo invented the thermometer and one of his pupils made the barometer.The pendulum clock in 1656.Scientific observation became immensely more exact and more extensiveMerits Shared by ScientistsFirst, they showed boldness in framing hypotheses. They had the courage to challenge the deep-rooted beliefs and assume that what had been accepted as true since ancient times might be false.Second, they all had immense patience in observation. They put their hypotheses to tests and drew conclusions on the basis of patient observation and careful collection of facts. Modern scientific method emphasized observation and experimentation before formulating a final explanation or generalization.Philosophy and PoliticsFrancis Bacon (1561-1626)The whole basis of his philosophy was practical: to give mankind mastery over the forces of nature by means of scientific discoveries and inventions.He held that philosophy should be kept separate from theology, not intimately be blended with it as in Scholasticism.In his Novum Organum, Bacon begins by declaring that "Man, being the servant and interpreter of Nature, can do and understand so much and so much only as he has observed in fact or in thought of the course of nature; beyond this he neither knows anything nor can do anything.""Nature to be commanded must be obeyed."Man can command and conquer nature, the power to do so is knowledge, therefore knowledge is power.He examined the contemporary logic and method and founded modern inductive method.He argued that the contemporary syllogism started by Aristotle did more harm than good. Induction means reasoning from particular facts or individual cases to a general conclusion.The deductive method emphasizes reasoning from a known principle to the unkown and from the general to the specific.The Great InstaurationTo expect any great advancement in science, we must begin anew. The fresh start required the mind to overcome all the preconception, prejudices and assumptions, sweep away all the fallacies and false beliefs, in a word, to break with the past, and to restore man to his lost mastery of the natural world.Baconian Materialism"To Bacon, natural philosophy is the only true philosophy, and physics based upon the experience of the senses is the chiefest part of natural philosophy."___ Marx & Engels, The Holy FamilyThomas Hobbes (1588-1679)Author of Leviathan(1651), one of the most celebrated political treatises in European literature. During the English Revolution, he took refuge in France and wrote Leviathan on account of his royalist convictions.He argues that our knowledge comes from experience."The cause of sense is the external body, or object, which presseth the organ proper to each sense either immediately, as in the taste and touch; or mediately, as in seeing, hearing and smelling."He believes that only material things are perceptible, and knowable to us. Our own experience alone is ceratin.He said men could not know anything about the existence of God because they could not have any idea of Him in their minds answerable to His nature.Concerning motion, Hobbes said that when a thing lies still, unless sth. else stirs it, it will lie still for ever. When a body is once in motion, it moves (unless sth. else hinders it) eternally.Hobbes systematized Baconian materialism, but basically he was a mechanical materialist.The Natural State of WarHobbes held that men are by nature equal in bodily and mental capacity.From this equality of ability arises equality of hope in the attaining of their ends.If any two men desire the same thing, which they can not both enjoy, they become enemies.The fact that every individual seeks his own conservation and his own enjoyment leads to competition and mistrust of others. So, Hobbes believed that man is selfish by nature.Unless such times as men live under a common power, they are in a state of war with one another. This natural state of war, therefore, is the state of affairs in which the individual is dependent for his own security on his own strength and his own wits, and where "every man is enemy to every man."The Laws of NatureBecause the condition of man is a condition of war of every man against every man, it is obviously in man's interest to emerge from this natural state of war.The possibility of doing so is provided by nature itself; for by nature men have their passions and their reasons.It is human passions that bring about the state of war; the fear of death and need for security drive man to accept certain laws of nature.Reason tells men that peace is necessary for survival and also suggests certain articles of peace, upon which men may be drawn to agreement. These articles are called the Laws of nature.In Leviatha n, Hobbes stated nineteen laws of nature.According to Hobbes, the fundamental law of nature is the general rule of reason that every man ought to endeavor for peace.The Theory of Social ContractHobbes maintained that in order to get men out of the miserable condition of war, keep them in awe, and tie them by fear of punishment to the performance of their agreements, and observation of the laws of nature, it is necessary that there should be a common power or government backed by force and able to punish.Individuals should "confer all their power and strength upon one man or upon one assembly of men, that may reduce all their wills by plurality of voices, unto one will."The transfer of rights takes place "by covenant of every man with every man, in such manner, as if every man should say to every man, I authorize and give up my right of governing myself to this man, or to this assembly of men, on this condition that thou give gup thy right to him andauthorize all his actions in like manner. This done, the multitude so united in one person, is called a Commonwealth, in Latin, Civitas. This is the generation of that great Laviathan".To escape anarchy, men enter into a social contract, by which they submit to the sovereign. in return for conferring all their powers and strength to the sovereign, men attain peace and security. In Hobbes' s thoery, the powers of the sovereign must be absolute, and it is only the centralization of authority in one person that the evil can be avoided.The sovereign is not a party himself to the social contract.The subjects cannot either change the form of government or repudiate the authority of the sovereign. Rebellion is wrong, which will lead men back to the natural state of war.As to the form of government, monarchy.Hobbes believed that government was not created by God, but by men themselves."The merits of Hobbes appear most clearly when he is contrasted with earlier political theorists. He is completely free from superstition; he does not argue from what happened to Adam and Eve at the time of the Fall."____Russell, A History of Western PhilosophyJohn Locke (1632-1704)Oxford, philosophyDisliked Scholasticism and regarded it as perplexed with obscure terms and useless questions. Locke inherited and developed the materialist views expounded by Bacon and Hobbes.Materialist ViewsEssay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)All our ideas are ultimately derived from sensation or from reflection, that these two make up experience and that all our knowledge springs from experience.Locke argued against Plato, Descartes and the scholastics, that neither principles nor ideas are innate.Political PhilosophyTreatises of Civil Government (1690)Rejected the theory of divine right of king.Ridiculed the theory of transmission of royal authority by saying that there was no evidence that Adam possessed a divinely granted royal authority, nor is there any evidence that his heirs had it. “All men are naturally free and equal in the state of nature.”“Men living together according to reason without a common superior on earth, with no authority to judge between them, is properly the state of nature”“The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges everyone, and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind who will but consult it, that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty of possession”.The Social ContractLocke believed that society is out of necessity, convenience and man’s own interest, therefore, society is natural to man. Political society and government should rest on a rational foundation.The institution of political society and government must proceed from the consent of those who are incorporated into political society and subject themselves to government.Locke emphasized that the social contract must be understood as involving the individual’s consent to submit to the will of the majority and that the will of the majority must prevail.The absolute monarchy is contrary to the original social contract and the danger to liberty comes mainly from absolute monarchy.Locke believed that the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract. If he violates the social contract, then government is effectively dissolved. In this case, rebellion is justified.As to who is to judge when circumstances render rebellion legitimate, Locke replied, “The people shall be judge”, which is welcomed by the Americans during the American Revolution.Question?Both Thomas Hobbes and John Locke used the term “social contract”, what is the difference between them?Hobbes argued men enter a social contract to escape the state of war, for, in his view, men are enemies and at war with each other. Locke argued men are equal and that they enter a social contract by reason.Hobbes argued that individuals surrender their rights to one man, the sovereign whose power is absolute. Locke argued that the individuals surrender their rights to the community as a whole. According to Locke, by majority vote, a representative is chosen, but his power is not absolute. If the fails to implement the people’s will, the people have the right to ovethrow him.The English Revolutionin the middle of the 17th century.The causes:1) the growth of capitalism2) the break-up of serfdom3) the Puritan movementThe Growth of CapitalismCapitalism had started growing in England much earlier and faster than any other European country.The leading industry in the early development was textile, which pushed the development of coal-mining and other industries.The English bourgeoisie was not only economically powerful, but also politically strong.The English bourgeoisie had a political body, the parliament, to speak for them.SerfdomThe serfdom in the English countryside had begun breaking up from the 15th century as a result of the Enclosure Movement.Many serfs and poor peasants were driven out of their farm lands and homes, who went to the cities and became the source of cheap labor for the early capitalists.PuritansBy the end of the 16th century, Calvinism had spread to England. As a result,the Puritan Movement started in England.The Puritan principle emphasized the liberty of the individual soul before God, which reflected the desire of the early rising bourgeoisie for free development of capitalism.The Puritans were subjected to the suppression and persecution by the feudal monarchy. This was the religious cause of the English Revolution.MayflowerThe Land of the FreeThanksgivingThe English RevolutionIn 1642, Civil War broke out between the king and the Parliament.With the support of the people and the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, the English bourgeoisie won the victory.Charles I was captured and beheaded in front of his own palace in 1649.A republic was born, Cromwell became the head of the government known as the Protector. Oliver CromwellAfter the death of Cromwell in 1658, the country was in confusion and revolutionary movement was again on the rise.Fearing that the people might take over power, the upper bourgeoisie and feudal nobles collaborated and staged the restoration of the Stuart.In 1660, Charles II returned from France and was put on the throne.During the restoration, many revolutionary leaders were persecuted.Charles II was planning to turn England into a Catholic country.In 1688, the representatives of the parliament went to Holland to negotiate withe Dutch King William and his wife Mary, a member of the English royal family and yet a Protestant.William and Mary were invited to be the joint ruler of England. Thus, the shortlived restoration ended.The Glorious RevolutionIn December, 1689, the Bill of Rights was enacted by the Parliament.It established the supremacy of the parliament and put an end to divine monarchy in England. The Bill of RightsThe power of suspending the laws by royal authority was declared to be illegal; Parliament was responsible for all the law making;The king levy no money except by grant of parliament;The king should not keep a standing army in time of peace without consent of Parliament.No Roman Catholic, nor anyone marrying a Roman Catholic should succeed to the throne.The Bill of Rights is the foundation on which the constitutional monarchy of England rests."The bourgeoisie was victorious in these revolutions, but the victory of the bourgeoisie was at thattime the victory of a new social order, the victory of bourgeois ownership over feudal ownership... These revolutions reflected the need of the world at that time rather than the needs of those parts of the world where they occurred, that is England and France".___ Collected Works of Marx and EnglesRene Descartes (1596-1650)Philosopher, physicist and mathematicianIt is generally believed that modern philosophy begins with Francis Bacon in England and with Rene Descartes in France.He enlisted in the Dutch army and spent years of undisturbed quiet in Holland where he worked at geometry and philosophy.After serving in the army, he continued to live in Holland for twenty years as some of his contemporaries also found Holland a country of freedom of thought.Rules for the Direction of the Mind (1628)Discourse on Method(1637)Meditations Concerning First Philosophy and Objections and Replies (1642)His method of doubt is known as the method of Cartesian doubt.He believed that the overthrow of the present opinion and the break-up with the past philosophy, Scholasticism included, are necessary condition of establishing sth. first and lasting in eh science. "It is now some years since I detected how many were the false beliefs that I had from my earliest youth and admitted as true, and how doubtful was everything I had since constructed on this basis; and from that time I was convinced that I must once for all seriously undertake to rid myself of all the opinion which I had formerly accepted, and commence to build anew from the foundation, if i want to establish any firm and permanent structure in the science".In Discourse on Method, Descartes formulated four rules in expressing his method:The first was to accept nothing as true which i did not clearly recognize to be so.Carefully avoid precipitation and prejudice in judgments, and to accept in them nothing more than what was presented to my mind so clearly and distinctly that I could have no occasion to doubt it. The second was to divide up each of the difficulties which I examined into as many parts as possible, and as seemed requisite in order that it might be resolved in the best manner possible. The third was to carry on my reflections in due order, commencing with objects that were the most simple and easy to understand, in order to rise little by little, or by degrees, to knowledge of the most complex.The last was in all cases to make enumerations so complete and reviews so general that i should be ceratin of having omitted nothing.Theory of KnowledgeDescartes employed methodic doubt with a view to discovering whether there was any indubitable truth.He found his truth in this motto: "dubito ergo cogito; cogito ergo sum".I doubt, therefore I think; I think, therefore I am.This Cartesian doubt is the most important point in his philosophy.He believed that a thing that is thinking is one that doubts, understands, conceives, affirms, denies, wills, imagines, and feels.Doubting is thinking, thinking is the essence of the mind.All things that we conceive very clearly and distinctly are true, and theat knowledge of things must be by the mind.As to the senses, Descartes believed that they are not dependable.Innate IdeasDescartes believed that some ideas are innate.He claimed he discovered the first principles or first causes of everything which can be in the world without "deriving them from any other source than certain germs of truth which exist naturally in our souls".___ Discourse on MethodWe can construct metaphysics and physics by logic deduction from a number of innate ideas implanted in the mind by nature ,or by God.All clear and distinct ideas are innate. All scientific knowledge is knowledge of or by means of innate ideas.Knowledge of the universe and certain principles and laws of physics is innate.DualismDescartes turned his back on theological controversy and instead set out to apply the techniques of mathematical reasoning to questions of philosophy, attempting to build up a rigorous philosophy on the basis of reason alone.He argued that thought was the foundation of all knowledge while senses might deceive. (idealist) He believed that the external world existed, which is independent of the human mind. (materialist) In the Cartesian system, mind and matter are completely apart from one another.Descartes thus brought to completion the dualism of mind and matter which began with Plato.In mathematics, Descartes culminated in inventing analytical geometry.American linguist Noam Chomsky: "innate grammar".Pierre GassendiIn his early years, he began attacking Aristotelianism, and in 1641 he wrote his objections to Descartes's Meditation.He tried to show that the Cartesian criterion of true knowledge was useless, and insisted that our knowledge comes only from sensory experience."ambulo ergo sum" (I walk, therefore I am)French ClassicismSocial backgroundAfter the Hundred Years War between French and English invaders, France entered a period of comparatively steady development. In the latter half of the 17th century, Henry IV started a。

1.sonnet cycle: A sonnet cycle is a group of sonnets, arranged to address a particular person or theme, and designed to be read both as a collection of fully-realized individual poems and as a single poetic work comprising all the individual sonnets. 【The Amoretti by Edmund Spensor2. Characteristics of Petrarchan sonnet: The Italian sonnet is divided into two sections by two different groups of rhyming sounds. The first 8 lines is called the octave with rhymes:a b b a a b b aThe remaining 6 lines is calledthe sestet and can have either two or three rhyming sounds, arranged in a variety of ways. The change from one rhyme group to another signifies the change in subject matter.The octave often introduces the theme or problem while the sestet gives solutions.【The SONNET 75 by Edmund Spensor is a typical Petrarchan sonnet.3. Characteristics of Elizabethan (Shakespearean) sonnet: The Shakespearean sonnet is made up of 14 lines with three quatrains and a couplet, and the typical rhyming scheme is a-b-a-b, c-d-c-d, e-f-e-f, g-g. 【Sonnet 29 and 734. Pastoral: In literature, the adjective 'pastoral' refers to rural subjects and aspects of life in the countryside among shepherds and other farm workers that are often romanticized and depicted in a highly unrealistic manner. Indeed, the pastoral life is sometimes depicted as being far closer to the Golden age than the rest of human life 【The Passionate Shepherd to His Love5. Scansion is the act of determining and (usually) graphically representing the metrical character of a line of verse. There are many methods and symbols in scansion of poems.6. The Great Chain of Being : The Great Chain of Being is a classical Christian and Western Medieval concept detailing a strict, hierarchical structure of all matter and life It composed of a great number of hierarchical links, from the most basic and foundational elements up through the very highest perfection. The level descends from God to Angelic Beings to Humanity Animals to Plants and finally to Minerals7. Allegory is a figurative mode of representation conveying meaning other than the literal. Allegory communicates its message by means of symbolic figures, actions or symbolic representation. 【The Faerie Queen8 Ptolemic cosmology: In the Ptolemaic system, each planet is moved by a system of two or more spheres: one called its deferent, the others, its epicycles. And the Ptolemaic order of spheres from Earth outward is: Moon Mercury Venus Sun Mars Jupiter Saturn Fixed Stars and Sphere of Prime Mover9. Humanism10. The Reformation: It was led by Martin Luther,John Calvin and other early Protestants. The efforts of the self-described "reformers", who objected to ("protested") the doctrines, rituals and ecclesiastical structure of the Catholic Church, led to the creation of new national Protestant churches.The Reformation opposed the false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice of Catholics—especially the teaching and the sale of indulgences or the abuses thereof, and simony, the selling and buying of clerical offices. 【Faerie Queen 11. Courtly love was a medieval European conception of nobly and chivalrouslyexpressing love and ad miration. Generally, courtly love was secret and between members of the nobility. The lover was prompted by an ecstactic impulse to submit himself to the sovereignity of a lady , who, as a consequence of her beauty, virtue, rank and, very often married status, was unapproachable and sexually unattainable.12. Carpe diem: It is popularly translated as "seize the day". In carpe diem poetry, the speaker puts emphasis on the fact that life is short and the time is fleeting., 【”To the virgins, to make much of time”13. Cavalier poets : English poets of the early seventeenth century are crudely classified by the division into Cavaliers and metaphysical poets, Cavalier poets came from the classes that supported King Charles I during the English Civil War. 【 Robert Herrick14. persona (per-SO-na): In literature, the persona is the narrator, or the storyteller, of a literary work created by the author. It could be a character in the work, or a fabricated onlooker, relaying the sequence of events in a narrative. 【Shakespeare’s sonnet 7315 The biographical fallacy is a term used in literature criticism to critique the view that works of literature can be interpreted as reflections of the life of their authors.T he term was introduced by exponents of the New Criticism who wished to emphasise that artworks should be interpreted and assessed as constructed artefacts rather than expressions of the emotions of specific individuals.16.Anaphora: the repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of several consecutive sentences or verses to emphasize an image ora concept.17. Anadiplosis is a rhetorical figure of speech that means to "double back" and repeat a word or phrase that appears at the end of sentence or clause at the beginning of the next sentence or clause.18. Chiasmus is a figure of speech based on inverted parallelism. It is a rhetorical figure in which two clauses are related to each another through a reversal of terms in order to make a larger point.19 Antithesis :it is figure of speech involving the bringing out of a contrast in the ideas by an obvious contrast in the words, clauses, or sentences, within a parallel grammatical structure,20. Metonymy is the substitution of one word for another with which it isassociated. This allows a reader to recognize similarities or common features among terms. It may provide a more common meaning to a word.21. Metaphor: a type of figurative language in which a statement is made that says that one thing is something else but, literally, it is not. Metaphor is a great contributor to poetry when the reader understands a likeness between two essentially different things.22. Oxymoron: Oxymorons (or oxymora) are literary figures of speech usually composed of a pair of neighbouring contradictory words (often within a sentence). Oxymorons can be used for dramatic effect,23. Simile: The use of language that does not mean exactly what it says, which makes a comparison between two otherwise unalike objects or ideas by connecting them with the words "like" or "as."。

十七日的英文及例句关于十七日的英文及例句十七日的英文：seventeenth参考例句：they liberated Foochow on August 17 and amoy on October 17八月十七日解放福州，十月十七日解放厦门。

The fair opened on March 17.交易会于三月十七日开幕。

On the seventeenth, to all appearance, the cloud passed away again十七日，乌云总算又吹散了。

On April 17, Ford dealerships everywhere were mobbed with customers四月十七日，全国各地的福特承销店都挤满了顾客。

On the night of the seventeenth of February 1904 th prisoner was seen by two witnesses一九0四年二月十七日晚上，有两个证人目击到被告。

Xinhua News Agency, Tianjin, January 17, by wire (reporter Jianchang Su and intern Suhong Ge)新华社天津一月十七日电(记者栗建昌生葛素红)seventeenth是意思：num. 第十七,十七分之一的distilleries began to appear in Europe in the middle of the seventeenth century欧洲最早的`烧酒作坊出现于十七世纪中叶。

For the use of seventeen and seventeenth see the examples at five and fifth 关於seventeen和seventeenth的用法见five和fifth词条中的示例The seventeenth century was a great time for English poetry.17世纪是英文诗的繁荣时期。

-必修 5Unit 2 The United KingdomReadingPUZZLES IN GEOGRAPHYPeople may wonder why different words are used to describe these four countries: England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. You can clarify this question if you study British history.First there was England. Wales was linked to it in the thirteenth century. Now when people refer to England you find Wales included as well. Next England and Wales were joined to Scotland in the seventeenth century and the name was changed to "Great Britain". Happily this was accomplished without conflict when King James of Scotland became King of England and Wales as well. Finally the English government tried in the early twentieth century to form the United Kingdom by getting Ireland connected in the same peaceful way. However, the southern part of Ireland was unwilling and broke away to form its own government. So only Northern Ireland joined with England, Wales and Scotland to become the United Kingdom and this was shown to the world in a new flag called the Union Jack.To their credit the four countries do work together in some areas eg, the currency and international relations, but they still have very different institutions. For example, Northern Ireland, England and Scotland have different educational and legal systems as well as different football teams for competitions like the World CupEngland is the largest of the four countries, and for convenience it is divided roughly into three zones. The zone nearest France is called the South of England, the middle zone is called the Midlands and the one nearest to Scotland is known as the North. You find most of the population settled in the south, but most of the industrial cities in the Midlands and the North of England. Although, nationwide, these cities are not as large as those in China, they have world-famous football teams and some of them even have two It is a pity that the industrial cities built in the nineteenth century do not attract visitors. For historical architecture you have to go to older but smaller towns built by the Romans. There you will find out more about British history and culture.The greatest historical treasure of all is London with its museums, art collections, theatres, parks and buildings. It is the centre of national government and its administration. It has the oldest port built by the Romans in the first century AD, the oldest building begun by the Anglo-Saxons in the 1060s and the oldest castle constructed by later Norman rulers in 1066. There has been four sets of invaders of England. The first invaders, the Romans, left their towns and roads. The second, the Anglo-Saxons, left their language and their government. The third, the Vikings, influenced the vocabulary and place-names of the North of England, and the fourth, the Normans, left castles and introduced new words for food.If you look around the British countryside you will find evidence of all these invaders. You must keep your eyes open if you are going to make your trip to the United Kingdom enjoyable and worthwhile.人们可能会奇怪为什么用不同的词语来描述英格兰、威尔士、苏格兰和北爱尔兰这四个国家;如果你研究英国的历史,你就能够弄明白这个问题;首先是英格兰;威尔士于公元13世纪就同英格兰联合起来了;如今只要有人提起英格兰,你就会发现威尔士总是包括在内的;然后,于17世纪英格兰、威尔士同苏格兰联合起来,名字改为大不列颠;令人庆幸的是,当苏格兰的詹姆士国王成为英格兰和威尔士的国王时,这三个国家在无军事冲突的情况下实现了联合;最后在20世纪初通过同样的和平方式,英国政府尽力把爱尔兰也纳入进来,组成了联合王国;然而,爱尔兰的南部却不情愿这样并分离出去建立了自己的政府;因此只有北爱尔兰同英格兰、威尔士、苏格兰联合起来组成了联合王国,这一点从新的联合王国国旗“联合杰克”上就可以看得出来;值得称赞的是：这四个国家在一些方面比方说在货币和国际关系上,它们的确是共同合作的,但是有些制度仍然区别很大;例如,北爱尔兰、英格兰和苏格兰在教育体制和立法体制上都存在着差异,并且它们有着各自的足球队参加像世界杯之类的比赛在这四个国家中,英格兰是最大的;为了方便,它大致可以划分为三个地区;最靠近法国的那个地区叫做英格兰南部,中部地区叫英格兰中部,最靠近苏格兰的那个地区叫英格兰北部;你会发现大部分人口居住在南部,但是大部分工业城市在中部和北部;虽然就全国范围来说,这些城市都不像中国的城市那样大,但是它们都有着世界闻名的足球队,有的城市甚至还有两个队令人遗憾的是这些建于19世纪的工业城市并不能吸引游客;要找历史性的建筑你得去罗马人建造的更古老的但是比较小的城镇;在那儿你能找到更多有关英国历史和文化的东西;。