Logical fallacies

Love is a Fallacy 练习题答案/answerⅠ．Ruskin：John Ruskin(1819—1900)，English critic and social theorist，was the virtual dictator of artistic opinion in England during the mid-19th century. Ruskin attended Oxford from 1836 to 1840 and won the Newdigate Prize for poetry. In 1843 appeared the first volume of Modern Painters. This work elaborates the principles that art is based on national and individual integrity and morality and also that art is a "universal language". The Seven Lamps of Architecture applied these same theories to architecture. About 1857, Ruskin’s art criticism became more broadly social and political. In his works he attacked bourgeois England and charged that modern art reflected the ugliness and wa ste of modern industry. Ruskin’s positive program for social reform appeared in Sesame and Lilies (1865), The Crown of Wild Olive (1866), Time and Tide (1867), and Fors Clavigera (8 vols. , 1871-- 1884). Many of his suggested programs--old age pensions, nationalization of education, organization of labor--have become accepted doctrine.Ⅱ . 1. The writer humorously uses words like "limp", "flaccid" and " spongy " to describe his essay . Nationally he doesn't believe his essay to be bad, or else he would not have written nor would it have been published. Max Shulman iswell-known for his humor.2. The purpose of this essay, according to the writer, is to demonstrate that logic, far from being a dry, pedantic subject, is a living, breathing thing, full of beauty, passion, and trauma. Logic may be an interesting subject, but it is definitely not a living, breathing, full of beauty, passion and trauma. The writer is exaggerating for the sake of humor.3. The narrator considers Petey Burch dumb as an ox because he thinks Petey to be unintelligent, an emotional and impressionable type of person. However, Petey’s worst fault is that he is a faddist, he is swept up in every new craze that comes along.4. He decided to teach Polly Espy logic because he wanted not only a beautiful wife but also an intelligent one. The narrator wanted a wife who would help to further his career as a lawyer. He found Polly had all the necessary qualities except intelligence. This he decided to remedy by teaching her logic. He succeeded only too well for in the end Polly refused to go steady with him and employed all the "logical fallacies" she had been taught to reject his offer.5. (1) The fallacy of accident is committed by an argument that applies a general rule to a particular case in which some special circumstances ("accident") makes the rule inapplicable. This is the "Dicto Simpliciter" fallacy in the text.(2) The converse fallacy of accident argues improperly from a special case to a general rule. The fact that a certain drug is beneficial to some sick persons does not imply that it is beneficial to all men. This is the fallacy of "Hasty Generalization" in the text.(3) The fallacy of irrelevant conclusion is committed when the conclusion changes the point that is at issue in the premises. Special cases of irrelevant conclusion are presented by the so- called fallacies of relevance. These include: (a) the argument "Ad Hominem " (speaking "against the man" rather than to the issue, or the fallacy of *'Poisoning the Well" mentioned in the text) in which the premises may only make a personal attack on a person who holds some thesis, instead of offering grounds showing why what he says is false; (b) the argument "Ad Miserieordiam" (an appeal to "pity"), as when a trial lawyer, rather than arguing for his client's innocence, tries to move the jury to sympathy for him.(4)The fallacy of circular argument or "begging the question" occurs when the premises presume, openly or covertly, the very conclusion that is to be demonstrated (example :"Gregory always votes wisely. ""But how do you know? Because he always votes Libertarian. ").(5)The fallacy of false cause mislocates the cause of one phenomenon in another that is only seemingly related. The most common version of this fallacy, called "post hoc, ergo propter hoc", mistakes temporal sequence for causal connection--as when a misfortune is attributed to a "malign event", like the dropping of a mirror.(6)The fallacy of many questions consists in demanding or giving a single answer toa question when this answer could either be divided (example: "Do you like the twins?" "Neither yes nor no; but Ann yes and Mary no. ")or refused altogether, because a mistaken presupposition is involved (example-"Have you stopped beating your wife?").(7)The fallacy of "non Sequitur" ("it does not follow"), still more drastic than the preceding, occurs when there is not even a deceptively plausible appearance of valid reasoning, because there is a virtually complete lack of connection between the given premises and the conclusion drawn from them.Ⅲ.1. The title of the story is humorous and well chosen. It has two meanings. When "fallacy" is taken in its ordinary sense, the title means: "There is a deceptive or delusive quality about love. " When it is taken as a specific term in logic, the title means. "Love cannot be deduced from a set of given premises. "2. Yes, I can. The whole story is satirizing a smug, self-conceited freshman in a law school. The freshman is made the narrator of the story who goes on smugly boasting and singing praises of himself at every chance he could get. From the very beginning in paragraph 4, he begins to help on himself all the beautiful words of praise he can think: cool, powerful, precise and penetrating. At the same time the narrator takes every opportunity to downgrade Petey Burch. For example, he calls him "dumb", "nothing upstairs ", "'unstable ", "impressionable" and "'a faddist ".And as for Polly Espy, she is "a beautiful dumb girl", who would smarten up under hisguidance.3. The purpose of this essay is to demonstrate that logic, far from being a dry, pedantic subject, is a living, breathing thing, full of beauty, passion, and trauma. Logic may be an interesting subject. The writer is exaggerating for the sake of humor. The writer employs a whole variety of writing techniques to make his story vivid, dramatic and colorful. The lexical spectrum is colorful from the ultra learned terms used by the conceited narrator to the infra clipped vulgar forms of Polly Espy. He uses figurative language profusely and also grammatical inversion for special emphasis. The speed of the narration is maintained by the use of short sentences, elliptical sentences and dashes throughout the story. This mix adds to the realism of the story,4. The writer deliberately makes Polly Espy use a lot of exclamatory words like "Gee," "Oo", "' wow-dow " and clipped vulgar forms like "delish", "marvy", "sesaysh", etc. to create the impression of a simple and rather stupid girl. This contrasts strongly with the boasting of the narrator and thus helps to increase the force of satire and irony.5. The narrator does such a final attempt to make Polly forget the fallacies he has taught her. He may yet be able to convince Polly that he loves her and that she should go steady with him.6. The topic sentence of paragraph 50 is the second sentence--"He was a torn man. " The writer develops the paragraph by describing the behavior of the torn man. In other words, he uses illustrative examples to develop the theme stated in his topic sentence.7. Because he begged Polly's love, which was refused. He might get the same result as Frankenstein, who created a monster that destroyed him, not as Pygmalion, who was loved by his own statue of Galatea.8. The conclusion is ironic because the whole thing backfires on the narrator when Polly refutes all his arguments as logical fallacies before finally rejecting him. The end of the story finds that the narrator has got what he deserves. He has been too clever for his own good.IV. 1. The fallacy of unqualified generalization or "a dicto simpliciter ad dictum secundum quid".2. The fallacy of Hasty Generalization.3. The fallacy of "post hoc, ergo propter hoc".4. The fallacy of Hypothesis Contrary to Fact.5. The fallacy of "post hoc, ergo propter hoc".6. The fallacy of Ad Misericordiam.7. The fallacy of unqualified generalization.8. The fallacy of Hasty Generalization.V. See the translation of the text.Vl. 1. discipline :a branch of knowledge or learning2. dynamo: an earlier form for generator, a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy3. flight :fleeing or running away from4. Charleston: a lively dance in 4/4 time, characterized by a twisting step and popular during the 1920's5. shed: cast off or lose hair6．in the swim：conforming to the current fashions。

关于逻辑与谬误的英语作文Logic and Fallacies: The Foundation of Reasoning.In the realm of intellectual exploration, logic stands as the sentinel of truth, guiding us through the maze of ideas and claims. It is the framework that supportsrational thinking, allowing us to evaluate statements, arguments, and deductions with clarity and precision. Conversely, fallacies are the traps of unreasoning, leading us astray with seeming plausibility but ultimate hollowness. Understanding the nature of logic and its opposing forcesis crucial for critical thinking and informed decision-making.The Foundations of Logic.Logic, in its simplest form, is the science of valid reasoning. It concerns the principles of correct inference, the study of which dates back to ancient Greece. Aristotle, the father of logic, identified various fallacies andestablished the basic laws of reasoning. Logic is the art of constructing arguments that are both valid and sound. A valid argument is one that, if its premises are true, necessarily leads to a true conclusion. Soundness, on the other hand, requires not only validity but also the truth of the premises.The fundamental principles of logic include the laws of identity, non-contradiction, and excluded middle. These laws ensure that statements are consistent, coherent, and well-defined. They form the backbone of logical systems, guiding us in the evaluation of arguments and the avoidance of fallacies.Types of Logical Fallacies.Fallacies, on the other hand, are logical errors that weaken or invalidate arguments. They are often the result of emotional appeals, incomplete information, or a lack of critical thinking. Some common types of fallacies include:1. Affirming the Consequent: Assuming that a particularevent must have occurred because its consequence is observed. For example, saying, "You're late, so you must have had a flat tire" without evidence that a flat tire was the only possible cause.2. Ad Hominem: Attacking the person making the argument instead of addressing the argument itself. This fallacy involves personal insults or attacks on the character of the opponent.3. Anecdotal Evidence: Relying on individual cases or unrepresentative examples to support a general claim. Anecdotes are often misleading because they fail to provide a representative sample.4. Bandwagon Fallacy: Assuming that an idea or action is correct because many people believe or do it. This fallacy discounts critical thinking and independent analysis.5. Begging the Question: Assuming the truth of what you are trying to prove in the argument itself. This fallacyoccurs when the conclusion is already assumed in the premises.These are just a few examples of the many fallaciesthat can creep into our reasoning. Understanding and recognizing these fallacies is crucial for developing strong arguments and avoiding logical pitfalls.The Importance of Logical Thinking.Logical thinking is essential in every aspect of life. It helps us make informed decisions, evaluate information critically, and communicate effectively. In the academic world, logical thinking is the foundation of scientific inquiry and academic research. It ensures that hypotheses are tested rigorously, data are interpreted accurately, and conclusions are drawn validly.In the professional sphere, logical thinking is vital for problem-solving, decision-making, and strategic planning. It helps us identify patterns, analyze trends, and formulate effective strategies. Logical thinking alsoenhances our ability to communicate clearly and persuade others.In everyday life, logical thinking helps us navigate complex social interactions, make sense of conflicting information, and formulate opinions based on reason and evidence. It empowers us to think critically and independently, rather than succumbing to emotional appeals or blind acceptance of authority.Conclusion.In conclusion, logic is the backbone of rational thinking and intellectual exploration. It is the tool that helps us sift through the noise and identify truth and falsehood. By understanding and applying the principles of logic, we can avoid the pitfalls of fallacious reasoning and develop strong, well-supported arguments. Logical thinking is not just a tool for academics or professionals; it is an essential skill for informed and responsible citizenship in the modern world.。

The Fallacies of Logical Reasoning in EnglishEssaysLogical fallacies are common errors in reasoning that can lead to misinformed conclusions or flawed arguments. In English essays, it is crucial to identify and avoid these fallacies to ensure the clarity, coherence, and persuasiveness of the argument. In this article, we will explore some of the most common logical fallacies and howto avoid them in English essay writing.One common logical fallacy is the fallacy of false cause, which occurs when an author attributes an effect to the wrong cause. For example, in an essay arguing that homework improves academic performance, the author might incorrectly assume that the amount of homework assigned is the sole cause of improved grades, ignoring other potential factors such as student engagement, teacher quality, orclass size. To avoid this fallacy, authors should carefully consider all possible causes and ensure that their arguments are based on sound evidence and logical reasoning. Another fallacy to beware of is the fallacy of overgeneralization, which occurs when an author makessweeping generalizations based on limited evidence. For instance, in an essay discussing the impact of social media on mental health, an author might overgeneralize by claiming that all social media use is harmful, despite the fact that the research may only support a correlation between excessive use and certain negative outcomes. To prevent this fallacy, authors should carefully consider the scope and limitations of their evidence and avoid making blanket statements that lack nuance and consideration.Additionally, the fallacy of ad hominem is a common logical fallacy in which an author attacks the character or motives of their opponent instead of addressing their arguments. For instance, in an essay debating the merits of a particular policy, an author might resort to personal insults or accusations to discredit their opponent's position instead of providing logical reasons to support their own view. To avoid this fallacy, authors should focus on the substance of the argument and present logical reasons to support their claims, rather than resorting to personal attacks.Lastly, the fallacy of the red herring occurs when an author introduces irrelevant information to distract from the main issue at hand. For example, in an essay discussing the impact of climate change on global warming, an author might introduce a tangent about the economic costs of implementing sustainable practices to deflect attention from the main argument. To prevent this fallacy, authors should stay focused on the central issue and avoid introducing irrelevant or distracting information that does not contribute to the overall argument.In conclusion, logical fallacies can significantly undermine the effectiveness of an English essay. By being aware of common fallacies such as the fallacy of false cause, overgeneralization, ad hominem attacks, and the red herring, authors can ensure that their arguments are based on sound evidence and logical reasoning. By avoiding these fallacies, authors can craft more coherent, persuasive, and impactful essays that effectively communicate their ideas and positions.**逻辑谬误在英语作文中的体现**逻辑谬误是推理中常见的错误，可能导致误导性的结论或错误的观点。

Fallacies in Reasoning: A Critical AnalysisIn the realm of argumentation and debate, fallacies often creep into our thinking, leading us to make incorrect conclusions or adopt faulty positions. These logical fallacies can be subtle and difficult to detect, but it is crucial to identify them to ensure the integrity of our reasoning. In this essay, we will explore several common fallacies and analyze their impact on logical reasoning.One common fallacy is the appeal to authority, which occurs when someone cites an authority figure or expert opinion to support their argument without providing evidence or reasoning of their own. This fallacy assumes that the authority figure is infallible and that their opinion carries more weight than any other evidence. However, even authorities can be wrong, and appealing to them without critical analysis can lead to flawed conclusions.Another fallacy is the appeal to emotion, which involves using emotional language or stories to persuade an audience instead of providing logical arguments. This fallacy exploits emotional responses to bypass rationalthinking and manipulate opinions. While emotions play a crucial role in human decision-making, relying solely on them can lead to irrational and uninformed decisions.A third fallacy is the red herring, which occurs when an argument introduces an irrelevant or tangential issue to divert attention from the main point. This fallacy is designed to confuse the issue and deflect criticism by focusing on something unrelated to the original argument. By focusing on the red herring, people can be led to overlook important facts or evidence that might refute the original claim.Finally, we consider the fallacy of equivocation, which occurs when a term or phrase is used with multiple meanings in an argument, leading to confusion and ambiguity. This fallacy allows for a single argument to be interpreted in different ways, depending on the meaning ascribed to the ambiguous term. Such ambiguity can undermine the clarity and coherence of an argument, making it difficult to assess its validity.Identifying and avoiding these fallacies is crucial for ensuring the integrity of our reasoning. By criticallyanalyzing arguments and questioning their logical validity, we can make more informed and rational decisions. By recognizing the signs of fallacious reasoning, we can also improve our own arguments and communications, making them more persuasive and effective.**谬误在推理中的影响：批判性分析**在论证和辩论的领域中，谬误常常潜入我们的思维，导致我们得出错误的结论或采取错误的立场。

高级英语第二册答案Lesson OneFace to Face with Hurricane CamilleI.Las Vegas. Las Vegas city is the seat of Clark County in South Nevada. In 1970 it had a population of 125,787 people. Revenue from hotels, gambling, entertainment and other tourist-oriented industries forms the backbone of Las Vegas's economy, Its nightclubs and casinos are world famous. The city is also the commercial hub of a ranching and mining area. In the 19th century Las Vegas was a watering place for travelers to South California. In 1.855-1857 the Mormons maintained a fort there, and in 1864 Fort Baker was built by the U. S. army. In 1867, Las Vegas was detached from the Arizona territory and joined to Nevada. (from The New Columbia Encyclopedia )Ⅱ.1. He didn' t think his family was in any real danger, His former house had been demolished by Hurricane Betsy for it only stood a few feet above sea level. His present house was 23 feet above sea level and 250 yards away from the sea. He thought they would be safe here as in any place else. Besides, he had talked the matter over with his father and mother and consulted his longtime friend, Charles Hill, before making his decision to stay and face the hurricane.2. Magna Products is the name of the firm owned by John Koshak. It designed and developed educational toys and supplies.3. Charlie thought they were in real trouble because salty water was sea water. It showed the sea had reached the house and they were in real trouble for they might be washed into the sea by the tidal wave.4. At this Critical moment when grandmother Koshak thought they might die at any moment, she told her husband the dearest and the most precious thing she could think of. This would help to encourage each other and enable them to face death with greater serenity.5.John Koshak felt a crushing guilt because it was he who made the final decision to stay and face the hurricane. Now it seemed they might all die in the hurricane.6.Grandmother Koshak asked the children to sing because she thought this would lessen tension and boost the morale of everyone.7.Janis knew that John was trying his best to comfort and encourage her for he too felt there was a possibility of their dying in the storm.Ⅲ.1.This piece of narration is organized as follows. .introduction, development, climax, and conclusion. The first 6 paragraphs are introductory paragraphs, giving the time, place, and background of the conflict-man versus hurricanes. These paragraphs also introduce the characters in the story.2. The writer focuses chiefly on action but he also clearly and sympathetically delineates the characters in the story.3. John Koshak, Jr. , is the protagonist in the story.4. Man and hurricanes make up the conflict.5. The writer builds up and sustains the suspense in the story by describing in detail andvividly the incidents showing how the Koshaks and their friends struggled against each onslaught of the hurricane.6. The writer gives order and logical movement to the sequence of happenings by describinga series of actions in the order of their occurrence.7. The story reaches its climax in paragraph 27.8. I would have ended the story at the end of Paragraph 27,because the hurricane passed, the main characters survived, and the story could come to a natural end.9. Yes, it is. Because the writer states his theme or the purpose behind his story in the reflection of Grandmother Koshak: "We lost practically all our possessions, but the family came through it. When I think of that, I realize we lost nothing important.Ⅳ.1. We' re 23 feet above sea level.2. The house has been here since 1915, and no hurricane has ever caused any damage to it.3. We can make the necessary preparations and survive the hurricane without much damage.4. Water got into the generator and put it out. It stopped producing electricity, so the lights also went out.5. Everybody go out through the back door and run to the cars.6. The electrical systems in the car had been put out by water.7. As John watched the water inch its way up the steps, he felt a strong sense of guilt because he blamed himself for endangering the whole family by deciding not to flee inland.8. ()h God, please help us to get through this storm safely.9. Grandmother Koshak sang a few words alone and then her voice gradually grew dimmer and stopped.10. Janis displayed rather late the exhaustion brought about by the nervous tension caused by the hurricane.Ⅴ.See the translation of the text.Ⅵ.1. main: a principal pipe or line in a distributing system for water, gas, electricity, etc.2.sit out: stay until the end ofe by;(American English) pay a visit4.blow in：burst open by the storm.5.douse:put out(a light，fire，generator。