Chapter 2 A General Survey of a Word

Wireless Communications＊byJoshua S。

Gans，Stephen P。

King and Julian Wright1. IntroductionIn 1895, Guglielmo Marconi opened the way for modern wireless communications by transmitting the three—dot Morse code for the letter ‘S’ over a distance of th ree kilometers using electromagnetic waves。

From this beginning，wireless communications has developed into a key element of modern society. From satellite transmission, radio and television broadcasting to the now ubiquitous mobile telephone，wireless communications has revolutionized the way societies function.This chapter surveys the economics literature on wireless communications。

Wireless communications and the economic goods and services that utilise it have some special characteristics that have motivated specialised studies。

First, wireless communications relies on a scarce resource –namely，radio spectrum –the property rights for which were traditionally vested with the state. In order to foster the development of wireless communications (including telephony and broadcasting）those assets were privatised。

现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料Chapter 1 A General Survey Of English VocabularyThe Definition of the term “word” 词的定义The Development of English Vocabulary英语词汇的发展史Classification of English Words词的分类The Definition of the term “word”Word: a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning), capable of performing a given syntactic function.a minimum free formsoundlexical and grammatical meaningsyntactic functionBound form粘着形式：Never used as sentences.Free form 自由形式：Consists entirely of two or more lesser free forms.It’s not a phrase，is a word.The Development of English VocabularyNative: Celtic1st period(449-1100): Old English or Anglo-Saxon Period (OE or AS)Celtic →Anglo-Saxon (the settlement from 450 AD.) / Old Norse / Latin2nd period (1100-1500): Middle English Period (ME)French (the Norman Conquest in 1066)Latin3rd period (1500-present): Modern English PeriodEarly stages of Modern English (1500-1700)Latin (Renaissance)Greek (Renaissance)Contemporary English (1700-present):Three Romance Languages : French, Spanish, ItalianOther European languages: Portuguese, German, Dutch …Non-European languages (exploration, colonization, trade)The rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary and its causes.Marked progress of science and technology.Socio-economic，political and cultural changes.The influence of other cultures and languages.Classification of English WordsThree main criteria:By origin: 1. native words 本族词2. loan words 外来词By level of usage: 1. common words 普通词2. literary words 书面词3. colloquial words 口头词4. slang words 俚语5. technical words 术语By notion: 1. function words 功能词2. content words 实义词By origin:1. native words 本族词2. loan words 外来词Native words: words of Anglo-Saxon origin or of old EnglishFeatures of native words:Most are monosyllabicforming the great majority of the basic word stockLoan / borrowed words: those borrowed from other languagesBasic word stock:auxiliary, modal verbs, numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, the most frequently used words (essential to life)National characterStabilityWord-forming abilityAbility to form collocationsBy level of usage:1. Common words 普通词2. Literary words 书面词3. Colloquial words 口头词4. Slang words 俚语5. Technical words 术语*There are no clear-cut boundaries between the various classes of words.Common words普通词:connected with the ordinary things or activities necessary to everyday lifeThe core of the common words is the basic word stock.Stylistically neutralLiterary words书面词:chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents, or in formal speeches.Most are of French, Latin or Greek origin.Among the literary word, two categories are noteworthy:archaic words . obsolete words)poetical wordsSlang俚语:Language, words or phrases of a vigorous, colorful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabularyNot generally used in informal conversation unless the speakers are on intimate termsEmbracing those daring and new expression that have not been accepted as standard EnglishThe chief reason for use of slang: secure freshness and noveltyTechnical words术语:used in various fields: science, profession or trade, art, sportincreasing precision in nomenclatureone specific meaningLatin or Greek in originBy notion:1. function words 功能词2. content words 实义词Function words:determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliariesnot having much lexical meaningserving grammatically:Behaving like grammatical signals or functional markers,Expressing the kinds of connection between content wordsConstructing acceptable English sentencessmall in number and stable:In relatively closed listsBelonging to a relatively small and permanent set of words)high frequency。

吉林农业大学学士学位论文题目名称：功能对等理论视角下的电影字幕汉译研究学生姓名：--专业年级：英语专业08级指导教师：--职称：讲师2012 年05 月25 日ContentsTitle (I)Abstract and Keywords (I)I Introduction (1)I Literature Review (1)2.1 Definitions of Functional Equivalence (1)2.2 Features of Functional Equivalence (2)2.3 Development of Functional Equivalence Theory (2)2.4 Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory (4)III Film Subtitling (5)3.1 Definitions of Film Subtitling (5)3.2 Classification of Film Subtitling (5)3.3 Features of Film Subtitling (6)IV E-C Film Subtitling Translation from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory .. 6 4.1 Functional Equivalence at the Morphological Level (7)4.1.1 Coversion (7)4.1.2 Amplification (8)4.1.3 Omission (8)4.1.4 Negation (8)4.2 Functional Equivalence at the Syntactical Level (9)4.2.1 Sentence Pattern (9)4.2.2 Sentence Order (9)4.3 Functional Equivalence at the Pragmatical Level (10)4.4 Functional Equivalence at the Cultural Level (10)4.5 Functional Equivalence at the Stylistic Level (11)V Conclusion (12)References (13)Acknowledgements (15)On E-C Film Subtitling Translation from the Perspective ofFunctional Equivalence TheoryName:Major: EnglishTutor:Abstract: With the process of globalization and the development of the internet, there are booming markets for the film and film translation. Recently, translation researchers and translators begin to focus on the subtitling translation. However, as a new branch of translation, film subtitling translation is still in its stage of exploration, and its practice has not obtained a systematic and theoretical guidance. There are a lot of wrong translations turning up in the internet. Eugene A. Nida’s Functional E quivalence Theory, one of the most important translation theories, has been widely adopted by many translators since it was born. It is aimed that the translator should produce the same effect on his target readers as the source language author produced on the original readers.The theory can improve subtitling translation scientifically. This thesis attempts to do some research on E-C film subtitling translation from the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory. With two films of Inception and Kung Fu Panda as examples,equivalence should be realized at the morphological, the syntactical, the pragmatical, the cultural and the stylistic level. Keywords: Functional Equivalence；subtitling；E-C translation功能对等理论视角下的电影字幕汉译研究学生姓名：--专业：英语指导教师：--摘要：随着全球化的进程和计算机网络的发展,国外影视作品越来越多地出现在人们的生活中，而影视翻译的需求也不断加大,字幕翻译近年来逐渐受到学者和译者的关注。

摘要本文是一篇关于关于将爱尔兰戏剧《翻译》汉译成适合广大中国读者阅读的中文译本的翻译实践报告。

在当前英国脱欧的历史背景下，爱尔兰和北爱尔兰的边境问题成为当下国际社会密切关注的一个时事热点。

而爱尔兰戏剧《翻译》讲述了19世纪80年代一批英国皇家工程兵受英国政府派遣，在多尼戈尔郡的一个爱尔兰语社区进行地貌测绘，并将爱尔兰语地名全部翻译为英语地名的殖民史实。

通过阅读《翻译》，读者可以了解到爱尔兰19世纪的这段被大英帝国殖民统治的历史，有助于理解当前英国脱欧背景下爱尔兰热点问题的历史缘由。

在翻译剧本《翻译》之前，译者做了译前准备工作，针对剧本中的理解难点进行了分析，通过查询有关文献，发现剧本中影响译者和读者理解的很多词汇都属于文化专有项的范畴。

译者根据艾克西拉和诺德关于文化专有项的定义以及纽马克关于文化专有项的分类方法对戏剧《翻译》里出现的文化专有项进行了归类,将戏剧中出现的文化专有项分为三大类别，即地理生态，物质文化和组织机构。

然后根据戴维斯提出的七种翻译策略，以举例分析的方式阐述了译者如何利用这七种策略进行翻译实践。

接着通过举例分析了戏剧《翻译》中三大类别的文化专有项的翻译思路及其对应翻译策略。

综上所述，本文从文化专有项的翻译策略和思路来分析了爱尔兰戏剧《翻译》的翻译过程，为后面的译者在戏剧翻译方面提供了一种参考方法。

关键词：《翻译》；爱尔兰戏剧；布莱恩·弗里尔；文化专有项；AbstractThis is a translation report on the English-Chinese translation of the Irish drama Translations, which analyzes how the translator translated this drama into a target text in simplified Chinese that is readable for ordinary Chinese readers. In the context of Brexit, the Ireland border issue is currently an international hot topic that has attracted attention across the globe. The Irish drama Translations tells about h er Majestey‘s Government sending a group of royal engineers to County Donegal in Ireland to carry out the ordnance survey of this area and change all the geographic names of this county into anglicized and standardized versions in the 1880s. (Qi Yaping 2010:119) By reading Translations, readers can gain an overview on Britain‘s colonization of Ireland i n this period, which helps them understand the historical causes of the Ireland border issues.Before starting the translation task, the author made many pre-translation preparations. By studying the source text, the author found most of the unreadable terms belong to Culture-specific Items. Based on the definition of Culture-specific Items by Aixelá and Nord, as well as the classification method by Newmark, the author classified the Culture-specific Items in Translations into three main categories, ecology, material culture and organizations. By studying the seven translation methods proposed by Davies, the author analyzed each translation strategy through case studies. Then the author analyzed the translation of the three categories of Culture-specific Items in drama Translations and relevant translation strategies employed. Above all, the author of this report explored the translation of Irish drama Translations from the perspective of Culture-specific Items, which could provide later translators a reference on drama translation.Keywords：Translations; Ireland Drama; Brian Friel; Culture-specific Items;CONTENTSCHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION (1)1.1 Brief Introduction to the Translation Task (1)1.2 Target Readers and Requirements of the Client (2)1.2.1 The Target Readers (2)1.2.2 Requirements Proposed by the Client (2)1.3 Purpose and Significance of the Translation Task (3)CHAPTER TWO PRE-TRANSLATION (4)2.1 Convert Format of the Source Text (4)2.2 Analysis of the Source Text (7)2.2.1 Historical Background of the Drama Translations (7)2.2.2 Plot and Characters of the Drama Translations (7)2.2.3 Lexical Features of the Source Text (9)2.2.4 Syntactical Features of the Source Text (10)2.3 Culture-specific Items and Their Translation Strategies (11)2.3.1 Definition of the Culture-specific Items (12)2.3.2 Division of Culture-specific Items (13)2.3.3 Translation Strategies and Methods (14)CHAPTER THREE THE TRANSLATION PROCESS (22)3.1 Translation of the Culture-specific Items on Ecology (22)3.2 Translation of the Culture-specific Items on Material Culture (23)3.3 Translation of the Culture-specific Items on Organizations Terms (25)3.3.1 Translation of Religious terms (25)3.3.2 Translation of Administrative Terms (26)3.4 Summary (27)CAPTER FOUR POST-TRANSLATION (28)CONCLUSION (29)BIBLIOGRAPHY (30)ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (33)Appendix (34)CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION1.1 Brief Introduction to the Translation TaskSince the late 19th century, Irish drama has played an important role in modern theatre literature in the transmission of ideas and ideology. In the 1960s, the famous Irish playwright Brian Friel emerged with his well-known Field Day Theatre Company. Both audience and critics rapidly acknowledged his dramas. Among his acclaimed dramas, Translations is a typical drama that focuses on language and communication, with its theme concerning the relationship between language, identity, politics, history and religion. (Castro, 2013) In order to introduce this drama to Chinese readers, Professor Li Chenjian entrusted the translation task of Translations to author of the report in 2016. Translating this drama from English to Chinese is an attempt to bring Chinese readers a new vision of Irish society in the 19th century. It is also the first time this drama has been translated into Chinese.To complete this translation project, the author of this report needs to complete the following tasks:1) convert the source text from pictures of JPG format into a whole WORD document;2) edit the converted source text to prepare it for translating;3) explore the historical background and playwright‘s creat ion ideas of this drama;4) pre-read the whole text to get an overview of the language features as well as difficult sentences;5) upload the prepared source text to the online translation software Jeemaa and completing the translation process;6) review and revise the translated target text in the online database;7) export the first draft of the translation;8) add footnotes to some difficult words and sentences;9) discuss with Professor Li about the words and sentences that need to be revised;10) revise the target text according to the discussion and read through the revised text to finalize the translation.1.2 Target Readers and Requirements of the ClientBefore starting this translation task, the report author carefully studied the requirements of Professor Li as well as the target readers and previewed the source text of the translation task in order to select proper translation strategies and translation methods accordingly.1.2.1 The Target ReadersAccording to Professor Li, the target readers are general Chinese readers who are interested in theatre literature but tend to, or can only, read Chinese books. As there is no plan to stage this drama in China so far, the performability of the target text is not considered here. That is, the actors or performers of this drama are not included in the target readers. This decides the purpose of the translation task, which is to provide the ordinary Chinese readers an Ireland drama in Chinese for reading. Therefore, this translation purpose helps to select proper translation methods accordingly.Based on our current education syllabus, ordinary readers who have completed their high school education could have the ability to appreciate a drama, either on stage or on the page. However, not everyone who completed high school education is familiar with Irish History or Culture. To provide readers an accessible translation, footnotes should be added to some Culture-specific Items in the target text.1.2.2 Requirements Proposed by the ClientTo achieve a better translation of this drama, Professor Li has proposed some requirements for the target text. The requirements are as follows:1）The source text should be the authoritative version of Translations as given in theformat of JPG.2）The layout of the target text should be consistent with that of the source text.3）The language of the target texts shall be plain and simple Chinese.4）The target text should be suitable for reading rather than staging.5）Footnotes should be added to some Culture-loaded words or sentences.6）The finalized version of this translation task should be ready for printing.1.3 Purpose and Significance of the Translation TaskAccording to the demands of the target readers and the translation requirements by Professor Li, the purpose of this task is to provide the Chinese readers a Chinese version of the Ireland drama Translations.By reading Translations, the Chinese readers can gain an overview of Irish society in the 19th century. As the target text language is plain and smooth simple Chinese, general readers can read it as either a literary story or a historical legend. In the context of Brexit, reading this drama can also provide readers a historical view for the current Ireland border issues.On the other hand, the target text of this drama can also provide other translators with a reference for drama translation. During the translation process, the translator has made great efforts to translate the Culture-specific items in the source text. Davies‘ translation strategies are employed to make the translation more accurate and readable. This kind of target reader-oriented translation is also a good example for similar drama translation in the future.Besides, the author also learnt a lot on the translation strategies of drama translation during the translation process of this drama, as well as the connection between translation and culture studies, which is worth a further study.CHAPTER TWO PRE-TRANSLATIONAs mentioned before, this is the first time this drama has been translated into Chinese. Neither print nor electronic versions of this drama can be obtained in China. The source text provided by the client are pictures of the original drama in JPEG format. To start this translation task, several steps are required, including transforming the source text of Translations into an editable WORD document from these JPG format pictures, analyze the source text and select proper translation strategies and methods.2.1 Convert Format of the Source TextThe original source text is a file of pictures of the Translations in the JPG format. Just as shown in Fig. 2.1 a), it is non-editable. Therefore, the pictures should be converted into an editable WORD document first. A software named ABBYY was applied here.Fig. 2.1 a) one picture of the Translations in the JPG format After converting, the words in the pictures were kept in a WORD document. Then the WORD document was exported from the ABBYY. But the layout of the exported text was not the same as the original copy. There were mistakes in spelling, extra punctuation marks andsentences with missing words, as is shown in Fig. 2.1 b).Fig. 2.1 b) exported text in the WORD documentThe next step is to edit the exported text, correct spelling mistakes and add missing words according to the original pictures of the drama text. After that, the format of the revised text should also be reset to make it consistent with that of the source text. Then the text is ready for translation. As is shown in Fig.2.1 c), the layout of source text is now the same as it is in the original book.Fig. 2.1 c) reset source text that is ready for translation During the pre-processing of the source text, all the editing and typing should be carefully carried out according to the JPG format pictures. When it is completed, the first copy of this processed source text should also be checked sentence by sentence according to the original copy for several times to ensure it is accurate. After several proof readings untilalmost no mistake can be tracked, the source text is ready for translation. The next step is analyzing the source text.2.2 Analysis of the Source TextAs one of Brian Friel‘s representative dramatic works, Translations tells a story that happened in Baile Beag in County Donegal in Ireland in August 1833, which is based on actual historical events. To prepare for the translation task, an analysis of this drama is conducted on its historical background, plot and characters as well as its language features.2.2.1 Historical Background of the Drama TranslationsIn 1824, the British Parliament produced the first Ordnance Survey map of Ireland, which was intended to map and replace every Gaelic name by a translated English equivalent, or a comparable-sounding one in English. At the same time, the educational system in Ireland began a significant transformation. Gradually, all local Irish-speaking schools (the hedge schools) were replaced with national schools where English became the only language of instruction. Through this reform, the British clearly aimed to anglicize, or possibly even ―civilize‖ the Irish population. They also had more practical purposes, of course: taxation, penetration, and ultimately, domination (Reinares & Barberan, 2007:9)2.2.2 Plot and Characters of the Drama TranslationsBefore introducing the plot, profiles of the main characters are listed as follows according to their introduction in the drama. The introduction of the characters helps the reader to gain a quicker and better understanding of the drama plot. Therefore, this part should also be added to the target text as a reference.2.2.2.1 Introductions of the Main CharactersName IntroductionHugh The headmaster of a small hedge school housed in an old barn. He frequently drinks a large amount, but he is by no means drunk. (Brian Friel, 1996: 397) He isa consummate Irish storyteller and educator. He appears egocentric, but isabsolutely charming and astute.Manus Hugh‘s older son, Manus serves as his father‘s unpaid assistant at the hedge school, though he frequently takes the class because of his father‘s drinkinghabits. He is searching for a headmaster position of his own.Owen Hugh‘s younger son. He is now working in the English Army, as a part-time, underpaid, civilian interpreter. His job is to ―translate the quaint, archaic tongueyou people persist in speaking into the King‘s good English‖. (Brian Friel, 1996:404)Maire Manus‘s fiancée, a strong-minded and adventurous woman. (Brian Friel, 1996: 387) She wants to learn English. She is also heroine of the love triangle Manusand is involved in a romantic relationship with Manus and the Lieutenant.Lieutenant Yolland A British soldier working with Owen on the renaming of the Donegal countryside for the Ordnance Survey. Though he does not speak Gaelic, he is fascinated with the Irish countryside and fantasizes about settling down in Baile Beag. His disappearance at the end of this drama brings the drama to a climax.Captain Lancey Lieutenant Yolland‘s commanding officer. Lancey is the British captain leading the local Ordnance Survey efforts.Sarah A student in the hedge school, she has such a serious speech defect that she is considered dumb. (Brian Friel, 1996: 383) Only Manus sees her potential andteaches her slowly, painstakingly, to speak. She lives with an intensity borne ofthe need and inability to communicate.Jimmy Jack Known as the ―Infant Prodigy,‖ Jimmy Jack is a perpetual bachelor in his sixties.He lives in one set of clothes and rarely washes. Eccentric and benignly mad, heis fluent in Greek and Latin. He lives alone and comes to evening classes at thehedge school partly for the company, and partly for the intellectual stimulation.(Brian Friel, 1996: 383)Doalty An open-minded, open-hearted, generous and slightly thick young man. (Brian Friel, 1996: 389-390)Bridget A fresh young girl, ready to laugh, vain, and with a country woman‘s instinctive cunning. (Brian Friel, 1996: 390)Table 2.2.1 Main characters2.2.2.2 Plot of the TranslationsThe drama Translations was set in a hedge-school in the small town of Baile Beag, an Irish speaking community in County Donegal in the summer of 1833. Hugh O'Donnell was the headmaster of a hedge school, a kind of rural school in Ireland that provides basiceducation to farm families. Manus, Hugh's older son, helped his father to teach in the hedge-school. Hugh insisted on teaching in Irish, even though he knew that their language Gaelic would inevitably be replaced by English. Owen was Hugh‘s younger son, who came back to the town with the Royal Engineers, Captain Lancey and Lieutenant Yolland, who were sent to Baile Beag by the government to remap the Irish countryside and change place names into anglicized and standardized versions. One of the engineers, Lieutenant Yolland was then captivated by Irish culture and believes the work they were doing was an act of destruction. Besides this, a love triangle developed among Manus, Yolland and Maire, a strong-minded and adventurous woman in the village. Yolland disappeared mysteriously, and Manus left town, broken-hearted. Owen realized he must remain true to his roots and decided to join the Irish resistance. The drama ended ambiguously, with no solution to the stories, which keeps readers and audience in suspense.The plot of Translations revolves around two main events. First, the arrival of a platoon of Royal Engineers, Lancey and Yolland in Baile Beag. Second, the imminent abolition of the local hedge school, which was run by the schoolmaster Hugh; and its substitution with the new state-run national school and, consequently, the substitution of Irish for English as the teaching language of the Irish speaking community. (Randaccio 2013:115)2.2.3 Lexical Features of the Source TextAs analyzed by the translator before starting the translation task, the most unique lexical feature of the drama Translations is it contains many Gaelic words which are not easy to understand even for English-speakers, such as, poteen (爱尔兰玻丁酒), aqua vitae (―生命之水‖蒸馏酒) and aul fella (老朋友). Besides, there are also many Greek and Latin words and sentences in the drama. As their relevant English translation has been given in the Appendix of the source text, these languages are not going to be discussed here.Besides, there are also many slangs that use some simple words but difficult to understand, such as the preposit ion ‗off‘ from the following sentences.MAIRE：Honest to God, I must be going off my head. I‘m half-way here and I think to myself, ‗Isn‘t this can very light?‘ and I look into it and isn‘t it empty.（梅尔：天哪，我一定是疯了。

Chapter 1 A General survey of English vocabulary一． Basic concepts of words and vocabulary1 - The definition of a word comprises the following points:(1) a minimal free form of a language;(2) a sound unity;(3) a unit of meaning;(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2- Sound and Meaning: symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional.A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question.3- Old English, the speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.5 - Vocabulary: All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over million words.6 - Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin.7 - The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important part of it. These words have obvious characteristics.8 - All national character. Words of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the languageNatural phenomena/Human body and relations/Names of plants and animals/Action, size, domain, state/Numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions9 - Stability. Words of the basic word stock have been in use for centuries.10 - Productivity . Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words. They can each be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes.11 - Polysemy. Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undertone semantic changes in the course of use and become polysemous.12 - Collocability . Many words of the basic word stock quite a number of set expressions, idiomatic usages, proverbial sayings and the like.13 - Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas .14 - Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business. 15 - Slang belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant, jargon, and argot, all of which are associated with, or most available to, specific groups of the population.Slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words though some slang words are new coinages altogether. Slang is colourful, blunt, expressive and impressive.16 - Argot generally refers to the jargon of criminals.17 - Dialectal words are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question.18 - Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.19 - Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.20 - By notion, words can be grouped into content words and functional words. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which denote objects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity.21 - Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category.22 - However, functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words.23 - Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes; the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words.24 - Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features:Neutral in style. they are not stylistically specific.Stylistically, natives words are neither formal nor informal whereas the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary and learned, thus appropiate in formal style.Frequent in use. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing.25 - Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms. It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modem English vocabulary. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings26 - Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign in origin.27 - Semantic-loans. Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language.二．The development of the English vocabulary1 - It is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.2 - The Indo-European is one of them. It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.3 - They accordingly fall into eight principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern set: Balto-Slavic , Indo-Iranian , Armenian and Albanian ; a Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Germanic.4 - In the Eastern set, Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively. The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian and Russian.5 - In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian. Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit.6 - In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.7 - The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.8 - Old English (450-1150)Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to 60, 000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like moderm German.Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to 60, 000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like moderm German.9 - Middle English (1150-1500)Although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic.Between 1250 and 1500 about 9000 words of French origin poured into English. Seventy-five percent of them are still in use today.If we say that Old English was a language of full endings. Middle English was one of leveled endings.10 - Modern English (1500-up to now)Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England.Early (1500-1700) and Late (1700-up to the present) Modern EnglishIn the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics. This is known in history as the Renaissance.Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the We stern world’s great literary heritage and of great scholarshipIn fact, more than twenty-five per cent of modern English words come almost directly from classical languages.It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language.11 - Three main sources of new words: the rapid development of modern science and technology(45%); social, economic and politicalchanges(24%); the influence of other cultures and languages(11%).12 - Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In modern times, this is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. This does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new usages of the words, thus enriching the vocabulary.Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times. Borrowed words constitute merely six to seven percent of all new worlds. In earlier stages of English, french, Greek and Scandinavian were the major contributiors.Reviving archaic or obsolete words(复活古词和废弃词) also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.。

Understanding UK & IrelandKey to Chapter 9 A General Survey of UKI. 1.T 2. F 3. F 4. TII. 5. C 6. D 7. BIII. 8.C 9. B 10. AIV.a11. What are the four regions of Britain?The four regions of Britain are England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. England is the largest of the four with an area of 130,000 square kilometers，making up the south and east, which takes up nearly 60% of the British Isles. It is the most populous and richest section of the country.12. What kind of geographical position doesBritain have?Britain is an island country. It lies in the NorthAtlantic Ocean off the north coast of Europe.It is separated from the rest of Europe by theEnglish Channel in the south and the NorthSea in the east.13. Which places in Great Britain are mostlyhighland and lowland？The north and west of Britain are mainlyhighland，while the south and south-east aremostly lowlands.14. Does Britain have a favorable climate?Yes，it has a favorable climate，because ithas a maritime type of climate ——winters aremild，not too cold and summers are cool，nottoo hot. It has a steady reliable rainfallthroughout the whole year. It has a smallrange of temperature，too.15. What are the factors which influence theclimate in Britain? Which part of Britain hasthe most rainfall and which part is the driest?The factors which influence the climate inBritain are the following three：1) The surrounding waters balance theseasonal differences；2) The prevailing south-west winds bringwarm and wet air in winter and keep the temperatures moderate；3) The North Atlantic Drift ，a warm current，passes the western coast of the British Isles and warms them.The northwestern part has the most rainfall，while the south-eastern corner is the driest. Key to Chapter 10Geography & History of UK◆Key to Section ExercisesSection A. GeographyI. 1.F 2.F 3.TII. 4.A 5.B 6.A 7.D 8.A 9.C 10.ASection B．HistoryI. 1.T 2.T 3.T 4.F 5.TII. 6.D 7.B 8.B 9.B 10.C◆Key to Chapter ExercisesI. 1. T 2. F 3.F 4.T 5.FII. 6. A 7. D 8.D 9.D 10.BIII.11. The total area of Britain is about244,110 square kilometers.12. Britain is separated from the European continent by North Sea, Strait of Doverand English Channel.13. The capital of the Scotland is 1) Edinburgh, the capital of Wales is2) Cardiff and the capital of Northern Ireland is 3) Belfast.14.England is the largest and most populous of the three political divisions on the island of Great Britain.15. The first steam engine was devised by Thomas Newcomer at the end of the 17th century, and the Scottish inventor James Watt modified and improved the design in 1765.IV.16. The Hundred Years' War: it refers to thewar between England and France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453. The causes of the war were partly territorial and partly economic. The territorial causes were related with the possession by the English kings of the large duchy in France. The economic causes were connected with cloth manufacturing towns in Flanders. Besides, England's desire to stop France from giving aid to Scots and a growing sense of nationalism were the other causes.17. The Lowland Zone: the island of Great Britain can be divided into two major natural regions—the lowland area and the highland area. The north and west of Britain are mainly highlands; and the east and southeast are mostly lowlands. The lowland zone has a milder climate and better soils for farming. Historically, most people in Britain have lived in the lowland zone rather than in the harsher highland zone. The lowland area comprises Midland, southern and eastern England.18. Norman Conquest of 1066: In January 1066, King Edward, the last Saxon king, died childless. He had promised to leave the English throne to his cousin William, but he chose Harold, his wife’s brother as king. So William led his army to invade England. In October 1066, during the important battle of Hastings, William defeated Harold and killed him. One Christmas Day, William was crowned king of England, thus beginning the Norman Conquest of England. The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history.19. Industrial Revolution: The industrial Revolution refers to the mechanization of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.The Industrial Revolution forever transformedthe way people live and work in most parts ofthe world. It changed the world so much thatpeople called it a revolution.Typical inventions during the IndustrialRevolution:John Kay’s flying shuttle in 1733;James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny in 1766;Richard Arkwright’s water frame in 1769;Edmund Cartwright’s power looms in 1784;James Watt’s steam engine in 1765.20. The Chartist Movement: Chartism was oneof the major popular reform movements of the Victorian era. The Chartists sponsored aPeople’s Charter demanding suffrage for allmale citizens over age 21, a secret ballot, andother rights. Chartist leaders are shown here addressing a large crowd in 1848. Most oftheir demands eventually became law.The Reform Bill of 1832 was the firstsuccessful attempt to correct these inequities.In 1836, a group of skilled workers and small shopkeepers formed the London WorkingMen’s Association. They drew up a charter ofpolitical demands (a People’s Charter) in 1838,with the intention of presenting it toParliament. It had six points: 1)the vote for alladult males; 2)voting by secret ballot;3)equal electoral districts; 4)abolition ofproperty qualifications for members ofParliament; 5)payment of members ofParliament; 6)annual Parliaments, with aGeneral Election every June.Key to Chapter 11Political System & National Economy of UK ◆Key to Section ExercisesA．Political SystemI. 1.F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.TII. 6.A 7.B 8.D 9.BIII. 1０．1)-e 2)-a 3)-dB．National EconomyI. 1.T 2.F 3.TII. 4.A 5.D 6.B 7.B 8.B 9.AIII. 1０．1)-ｂ2)- d 3)- e◆Key to Chapter ExercisesI．1. The British were the first in the world to enter the Industrial Revolution.2. The main textile producing regions of Britain are the East Midlands, Yorkshire, Humberside, and Northern Ireland.3. An industrial complex in suburban Glasgow dubbed "Silicon Glen" is the center of Scotland’s thriving technology industry.4. Historically, the financial services industry has been based in the city of London in an area called the Square Mile.5. The Bank of England, chartered in 1694, was nationalized in 1946 and is the only bank that issues banknotes in England and Wales.6. The predecessor of the English parliament is the Great council.7. There are three political divisions on the island of Great Britain.8. In the UK, the party which wins the second largest number of seats in the House becomes the Opposition, with is one leader, and forms a Shadow cabinet.9. The Tories were the forerunners of the Conservative Party.10. In the United Kingdom, the party which wins the second number of seats in the House of Commons becomes the official Opposition. II．11. Constitutional monarchy：Constitutional monarchy means that the power of the monarch is limited by the country’s constitution, the legal authority is given to Parliament, and the executive authority to thegovernment. Theoretically, the Queen has the power，but in reality , she has no power at all. The Sovereign reigns, but does not rule; the country is governed, in the name of the Sovereign, by His or Her Majesty’s Government, who is responsible to the Parliament.12. Primogeniture: Primogeniture refers tothe passing of the throne to the eldest son when a monarch dies, has been the rule of succession, and when there are no sons, the eldest daughter ascends the throne.13. First past the post:The current voting system in UK is called “first past the pos t.” This means that the party and candidates receiving the most votes win the election and become the party in power even if they do not receive more than 50 percent ofthe vote.14. The Conservative Party and the Labor Party: The Conservative Party developed outof the Tory Party(托利党). It supports private enterprise and is opposed to nationalization （国有化）and extending social services. It openly helps the monopolists to getsuper-profits.The Labor Party was founded in 1900 by a union between the Trade Union, the Independent party and the Fabian Society. It practices social democracy or bourgeois reformism.15. High Street Banks: High Street Banks are the main banks, such as Royal Bank of Scotland, HSBC, NatWest, Citibank, and Barclays.III.16. What is a general election?The election of all Members of Parliament (MPs) for each constituency (local area) is called aGeneral Election. In the US it is like voting fora Congressman or Senator. However, unlike the US, the voters do not choose the Prime Minister (PM). He/she is voted for within their party.17. What is the supreme legislative authorityin Britain? What does it consists of?British Parliament is the supreme legislative authority in the realm. It consists of the Sovereign, the House of Lords（上院）and the House of Commons（下院）. Most of the power of Parliament is in the House of Commons. The Parliament was called in 1264 and is generally considered the beginning of “parliament”.18. What are the three areas in Britain which have seen some high-tech industrial growth? The three areas in Britain which have seen some high-tech industrial growth are:1)the area between London and South Wales,2)the Cambridge area of East Anglia and 3)the area between Glasgow and Edinburgh in Scotland. The third area is the most spectacular of the three and is now often referred to as the “Silicon Glen”.19. What is the British government’s role inthe economy?Like many modern developed countries, the United Kingdom has a mixed economy. This means that some sectors of the economy are operated by the government and some are operated by private businesses.After World War II, the government nationalized a number of large and troubled industries including coal, electricity, transport, gas, oil, steel, certain car and truck manufacturing, shipbuilding, and aircraft building. Since the 1950s, the governmenthas privatized a number of these industries. The Conservative governments between 1979and 1996 denationalized oil companies, telecommunications, car and truck production, gas, airlines and aircraft building, electricity, water, railways, and nuclear power. The government also seeks to encourage competition in the economy and increase productivity by sponsoring and subsidizing training and educational programs.20. How did the structure of British industry change in the last half of the 20th century? The coal mining and cotton textile industries declined sharply. As coal production declined, oil production replaced it as a major industry. Motor vehicle production became a significant part of the industrial base but was subject to severe foreign competition. As incomes increased, consumer demand rose for durable goods such as cars and kitchen appliances. British industrial production also expanded into communications equipment, including fiber optics, computers, computer-controlled machine tools, and robots.Key to Chapter 12Society & Culture of UK◆Key to Section ExercisesSection 1 British People & Their Ways of Life I. 1.T 2.T 3.F 4.FII. 5.A 6.D 7.B 8.-c 9.-a) 10.-dSection 2 Holidays and Special DaysI. 1.T 2.F 3.TII. 4. C 5. B 6.C 7.-c 8.-d 9.-a 10.-bSection 3 EducationI. 1.T 2.F 3.T 4.FII. 5.C 6.A 7.AII. 8.-f 9.-e 10.-aSection 4 English LiteratureI. 1.F 2.T 3.T 4.FII. 5.C 6.D 7.AIII. 8. 1)-b 2)-a 3)-dIV. Gap-filling9. Romance is the most popular literary form in the medieval period.10. The Romantic Movement appeared on the literary arena of England from the publication of Lyrical Ballads by Wordsworth and Samuel Coleridge in 1798 to the deathof Sir Walter Scott in 1832. The literary form which is the most flourishing during the Romantic Period is poetry.11. Samuel Richardson was the master of writing epistolary novels and the first novelist of sentimentalism tradition. His novels have a moral purpose, trying to inculcate virtue and good deportment. Pamela was his best novel.12. W. M. Thackeray was another representative of critical realism in 19th England. In 1847 he published his masterpiece Vanity Fair with a subtitle “a Novel without a Hero”.13.Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth are considered as Shakespeare's four greatest tragedies.V.1. Spenserian stanzaA nine-line verse stanza originated by Edmund Spenser is known as the Spenserian stanza. In the nine-line Spenserian stanza the first eight lines are iambic pentameter and the ninth, iambic hexameter, with the rhyme scheme being ababbcbcc. This form of stanza creates a special musical effect and contributes greatly to the technique of poetry composition.2. Stream of ConsciousnessIt is a literary technique in which a character’s thoughts are presented in the confusing, jumbled, and inconsequential manner of real life without any clarificationby the author. The aim of the technique is toprovide a textual equivalent to the stream ofa fictional character’s consciousness. Itcreates the impression that the reader is eavesdropping on the flow of conscious experience in the character’s mind, gainingintimate access to their private “thoughts”.James Joyce and Virginia Woolf are mastersof this literary technique.Key to Chapter 13 Understanding Ireland ◆Key to Section ExercisesSection 1 A General SurveyI. 1.F 2.T 3.TII. 4.B 5.A 6.A 7.DII. 8.-d 9.-a 10.-bSection 2 Geography and HistoryI. 1.F 2.T 3.FII. 4.C 5.B 6.A 7.DII. 8.-b 9.-a 10.-cSection 3Political System and National EconomyI. 1.F 2.T 3.TII. 4.B 5.D 6.C 7.AII. 8.-d 9.-a 10.-cSection 4 Society and Culture of IrelandI. 1.T 2.F 3.TII. 4.B 5.A 6.D 7.CII. 8.-c 9.-e 10.-b◆Key to Chapter Exercises1. Ireland means "Eire land". Eire is the Irishname for the country and is believed tomean "western land".2. Originally founded as a centre for theViking slave trade, Dublin has been Ireland's capital city since medieval times.3. In 432, St. Patrick arrives in Ireland and confronts King Laoghaire who allows him tospread the word of Christianity in Ireland.4. In 1914, the implementation of home rulebill is postponed because of the outbreak ofWorld War I.5. The state operates under the Constitution of Ireland, adopted in 1937. The constitution may only be amended by referendum.6. The population within the administrative area controlled by Dublin City Council was 505,739 at cork the census of 2006. A person from Dublin is known as a Dubliner or a Dub. is the country’s secondlargest city and major port. English is the main language used in Ireland (spoken with an Irish accent). The traditional Gaelic language is spoken mainly in areas along the west coast of Ireland. The major religions of Ireland are Roman Catholic and Protestant. The Republic of Ireland's flag is made of three equal-sized rectangles of orange, white, and green. The green color on the flag represents the native people of Ireland, most are the native people of Ireland.7. Two popular national sports in Ireland probably are: Gaelic football and hurling, both strictly amateur sports. Soccer has become a particularly popular spectator sport in the 1990s. Besides, rugby, sailing, cycling, golf, and horse and greyhound racing are also favorite activities.8. Major public holidays observed in the Republic of Ireland include: New Year's Day, St Patrick's Day, Easter Monday, Labor Day（May Day）and Christmas Day, among which St Patrick’s Day honors the patron saint of Ireland and Labor Day was newly introduced in 1994.9. The Republic of Ireland's education system is quite similar to that of most other western countries. There are three distinct levels of education in Ireland: primary, secondary and higher.10. Ireland's most widely-known literary works are undoubtedly in English. Particularly famous examples of such works are those of James Joyce, Oscar Wilde, and Ireland's four winners of the Nobel Prize for Literature: William Butler Yeats, George Bernard Shaw, Samuel Beckett and Seamus Heaney.II. Terms Explanation1. The River ShannonThe River Shannon is the longest river in Ireland, rising in northwestern County Cavan and flowing for about 259 km in a southerly direction to enter the Atlantic Ocean via a 113-kilometre estuary below. It drains an area of 15,695 square km. Dividing Ireland almost in two and dominating the midlands landscape, the River Shannon has acted as a formidable barrier to movement from East to West while providing a marine highway from North to South. It is the longest river in both Ireland and Britain, and has influenced the military, social and economic history of Ireland since the beginning of time. Traveling over 300 km. from its source to the sea, it is home to over a dozen lakes and more than a hundred islands. It is joined on its journey by dozens of smaller rivers and streams some of which are also navigable. The River Shannon is now the backbone of a vast network of inland waterways, joined to the Erne via the newly restored Shannon-Erne link.2. The Irish Free StateIn 1921 a treaty between southern Ireland and Britain established the Irish Free State, a self-governing dominion within the British Commonwealth of Nations. This allowed the Northern Ireland Parliament to take the six northern counties out of the dominion. Inthe Free State it led quickly to a vicious civil war between both sides; those who agreed with the Treaty, and those who disagreed, but ultimately the treaty stood.3. ShamrockAccording to the legend, the shamrock was used by St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland, in the fifth century to demonstrate the meaning of the Trinity when converting the Celts to Christianity. To this day it remains one of Ireland's most famous national emblems.4. George Bernard ShawIrish-born British playwright. A founder of the Fabian Society, he wrote plays of iconoclastic social criticism, including Arms and the Man (1894), Pygmalion (1913), and Saint Joan (1923). He won the 1925 Nobel Prize for literature.5. The Supreme CourtThe final court of appeal is the Supreme Court, which consists of the Chief Justice and seven other justices. The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review and may declare to be invalid both laws and acts of the state which are repugnant to the constitution.III. Answer the Following Questions1. What kind of holiday is St Patrick's Day? Saint Patrick’s Day (March 17), which honors the patron saint of Ireland, is the most important national holiday and is marked by parades, shamrock decorations, Irish songs and jigs and sometimes the wearing of green (the national color) to represent the lushness of Ireland - The Emerald Isle. Today St. Patrick's Day is celebrated by the Irish as well as many Americans, Canadians and English people.2. What is the origin of the Irish nationalanthem “The Soldier's Song”?The Soldier's Song was written in 1907 by Peadar Kearney, but was not widely known until it was sung both at the General Post Office during the Easter Rising in 1916 and later at various camps where republicans were interned. Soon after, it was adopted as the national anthem, replacing God Save Ireland.3. What is “the Potato Famine”?The potato crops of the 1840s failed and a devastating famine resulted. The English government were so slow to react to the crisis that by the time the famine was over, an estimated one million people had died, and a further one million had left Ireland, arriving in the US and Britain, penniless and desperate. The Irish potato famine created a legacy of emigration from Ireland that did not stop until the late 20th Century. By 1960, the population of Ireland had dwindled to 4.3 million from an 1841 population of over eight million.4. What do Protestant groups in Ireland include?Protestant groups include the Church of Ireland (Anglican) and the Presbyterian and Methodist denominations.5. How much do you know about James Joyce?The novels and short stories of James Joyce are distinguished by their keen psychological insight and use of literary innovations, most notably the stream of consciousness technique. The stories in Dubliners, his only collection of short fiction, are generally regarded as models of the genre. His works include Ulysses (1922) and Finnegans Wake (1939).。

现代词汇学答案及英文课本第一章词的概述Exercises answer Chapter 1Ⅵ.All the words belong to the native stock. Ⅴ1. from Danish2. from French3. from German4. from Latin5. from Italian6. from Spanish7. from Arabic8. from Chinese9. from Russian10. from Greek 英语参考资料 Chapter 1A General Survey of a Word Ⅰ. Definition of a wordAristotle defined a word as the smallest significant unit of speech - a definition which held sway until recently. Modern methods of analysis have discovered semantic units below the word level. A new term is therefore needed to denote the smallest significant element of speech; in contemporary linguistic theory it is known as a morpheme. Bloomfield distinguishes between two types of linguistic forms: free forms and bound forms. Free forms can stand by themselves and sometimes act as a complete utterance whereas bound forms cannot. For example, the word nicely contains the free form nice, and the bound form -ly. The former can occur as an independent unit and even as a sentence (What about the other film? - Nice). But the suffix -ly cannot stand by itself, to say nothing of acting as a complete utterance. According to Bloomfield, a word is a minimal free form. Lexicology deals by definition with words and wordforming morphemes, that is to say, with significant units. It follows that these elements must be investigated in their form and in their meaning. Therefore, from the lexicological point of view, a word is a combination of form(phonological) and meaning (lexical and grammatical). In addition, a word acts as a structural unit of a sentence. Ⅱ. Sound and meaningThe Naturalists have argued that the origin of language lies in onomatopoeia, that people began talking by creating iconic signs to imitate the sounds heard around them in nature. They maintain that there is a natural connection between sound and meaning. The Conventionalists, on the other hand, hold that the relations between sound and meaning are conventional and arbitrary. Facts have proved this argument to be valid. Words that convey the same meaning have different phonological forms in different languages - for example, English meat / mi:t /,Chinese ròu. Alternatively, the same phonological forms may convey different meanings - for example, sight, site, cite. Ⅲ. Meaning and conceptMeaning is closely related to a concept. A concept is the base of the meaning of a word. A word is used to label a concept. It acts as the symbol for that concept. The concept is abstracted from the person, thing, relationship, idea, event, and so on, that we are thinking about. We call this the referent. The word labels the concept, which is abstracted from the referent; the word denotes the referent, but does not label it. This approach to meaning can be diagrammed as follows: word - concept - referent The formula shows that the word refers to the referent through a concept.A concept is an abstraction from things of the same kind.When someone says \to you, how do you know it is a chair? It is simply because it shows certain characteristics shared by all the objects you call chairs. You have abstracted these characteristics from your experience of chairs, and from what you have learned about chairs. From this it can be deduced that a concept refers to something in general, but not something in particular. A word, however, can refer to both, as is shown in the following two sentences:...some have begun to realize that the automobile is a mixed blessing. The automobile was stalled in a snowstorm.The word \general whereas the word in the second sentence refers to a specific one. There are two aspects to the meaning of a word: denotation and connotation. The process by which the word refers to the referent is called \For example, the denotation of \is \quadruped\The denotative meaning of a word usually refers to the dictionarydefinition of a word. As opposed to denotation, connotation refers to the emotional aspect of a word. For example, the connotation of \include \ Ⅳ. Lexical item and vocabularyA unit of vocabulary is generally referred to as a lexical item. A complete inventory of the lexical items of a language constitutes that language's dictionary. In New Horizons in Linguistics, John Lyons points out that \ The term vocabulary usually refers to a complete inventory of the words in a language. But it may also refer to the words and phrases used in the variants of a language, such as dialect, register, terminology, etc. The vocabulary can be divided into active vocabulary and passive vocabulary: the former refers to lexical items which a person uses; the latter to words which he understands.The English vocabulary is characterized by a mixture of native words and borrowed words. Most of the native words are of Anglo-Saxon origin. They form the basic word stock of the English language. In the native stock we find words denoting the commonest things necessary for life, natural phenomena, divisions of the year, parts of the body, animals, foodstuffs, trees, fruits, human activity and other words denoting the mostindispensable things. The native stock also includes auxiliary and modal verbs, pronouns, most numerals, prepositions and conjunctions. Though small in number, these words play no small part in linguistic performance and communication.Borrowed words, usually known as loan-words, refer to linguistic forms taken over by one language or dialect from another.The English vocabulary has replenished itself by continually taking over words from other languages over the centuries. The adoption of foreign words into the English language began even before the English came to England. The Germanic people, of which the Angles and Saxons formed a part, had long before this event been in contact with the civilization of Rome. Words of Latin origin denoting objects belonging to that civilization (wine, butter, cheese, inch, mile, mint, etc.) gradually found their way into the English language.When the English were settled in England, they continued to borrow words from Latin, especially after Roman Christianity was introduced into the island in the sixth and seventh centuries. A considerable number of Latin words, chiefly signifying things connected with religion or the services of the church, were adopted into the English language. Among those which are still part of the language are bishop, candle, creed, font, mass, monk, priest and a great many others.To the Danes and Northmen the English vocabulary also owes a great deal. From these settlers, English adopted a surprising number of words of Scandinavian origin that belong to the core-vocabulary today: they (them, their), both, ill, die, egg, knife, low, skill, take, till, though, want, etc.The Norman Conquest in 1066 introduced a large number of French words into the English vocabulary. French adoptions were found in almost every section of the vocabulary: law (justice, evidence, pardon...), warfare (conquer, victory, archer...), religion (grace, repent, sacrifice...), architecture (castle, pillar, tower...), finance (pay, rent, ransom...), rank (baron, master, prince...), clothing (collar, mantle, vestment...), food (dinner, feast, sauce...) and many others. As an indication of the tremendous influx of French words, we may note that, discounting propernames, there are 39 words of French origin in the first 43 lines of the Prologue to Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.The revival of art and literature based on ancient Greek learning, known as the Renaissance in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, opened up a new source from which the English vocabulary could be enriched. English has borrowed many words from Greek through the medium of Latin and a smaller number direct, such as rhapsody, crisis, topic, pathos, stigma, coma, tonic, cosmos, dogma. From Greek also comes a wide range of learned affixes, such as bio-, chrono-, geo-, hydro-, logo-, auto-, hemi-, hetero-, homo-, mono-, neo-, epi-, meta-, para-, -ism, -ise, -logy, -graph, -phile, -meter, -gram and many others.From the sixteenth century onward, there was a great increase in the number of languages from which English adopted words. French continued to provide a considerable number of new words, for example, trophy, vase, moustache, unique, attic, soup. The Italian element was particularly strong in the fields of art, music and literature, for example, model, sonnet, opera, vista, soprano, quartet. There was also a Spanish element in English, for example, sherry, potato, cargo, parade, cigar. German, Portuguese and Dutch were also fertile sources of loan words, for example, dock, carouse, plunder, zinc, quarts (German); flamingo, cobra, caste, buffallo, pagoda (Portuguses); booze, wainscot, tackle, buoy, skipper, dock (Dutch).At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, with a growth ofinternational trade and the urge to colonize and dominate the unknown world, English made a number of direct adoptions from languages spoken outside Europe. Some examples are: sultan, sheikh, ghoul, roc (Arabic); boomerang, billabong, wombat, dingo (Australian); lichi, sampan, typhoon, ketchup (Chinese); shibboleth, kibbutz (Hebrew); schmozze, schmaltz (Yiddish); shah, divan, shawl, caravan (Persian); caften, yoghourt, kiosk,bosh (Turkish); bwana, safari (Swahili); hara-kiri. tycoon, kamikaze, judo (Japanese); guru, pundit, swami, pukka (Hindustani); proa, amok, raffia, sarong (Indonesian); rouble, czar, troika, commissar (Russian). Since the end of the Second World War, still more loanwords have been incorporated into the English vocabulary, for example, haute cuisine, discotheque, engagé (French), sushi (Japanese); gulag, apparatchik (Russian); mao tai (Chinese); favela (Portuguese); autostrada (Italian); autopista (Spanish); hamam (Arabic) and many others.In the present century it should be observed that English has created many words out of Latin and Greek elements, especially in the fields of science and technology, such as aerodyne, ambivert, androgen, antibiotic, astronaut, auto-visual, autolysis, barysphere, cacogenics, callipyous, chromosome, cartology, cryotron, cyclorama, dendrochronology,dromophobia, hypnotherapy, hypothermia, isotope... Because the lexical sources of Latin and Greek are treated as if they belonged to English, many neologisms combine elements from different sources: aqualung, television, microgroove, sonobuoy, etc. Although all these Latin-and Greek-derived words are distinctly learned or technical, they do not seem foreign, and are very different in this respect from the recent loanwords from living languages, such as montage, angst, cappuccino, sputnik, etc. Thus, for the Modern English period a distinction must be made between the adoptions from living languages and the formations derived from the two classical languages.第二章词的结构和词的构成方式练习答案Chapter 2Ⅲ:astir = in motion; in excited activity awhir = whirringanti-Marketeer = an opponent of Great Britain's entry into the European Common Marketanti-theatre = the theatre that lacks most of the traditional features of the theatredeplane = get out of an airplane after it landsdenationalize = deprive...of national rights or status disambiguate = rid...of ambiguity disadapt = make...unable to adaptecocide = the destruction of the earth's ecology through the uncontrolled use of pollutantsecocatastrophe = a catastrophe (a large-scale disaster) resulting from the uncontrolled use of pollutants。