语言学知识点串记余晓敏Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsLinguistics is the science of language, or the scientific study of language. It is a rich and exciting field. Its object is language.The design features of language1. Arbitrariness（任意性）：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance/relationship to theirmeaning. The link between them is a matter of convention, and convention differ radically across languages.2. Duality（二重性）：Human language operates on two levels of structure, both in spoken language and inwritten language. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning.3. Creativity（创造性）：Human languages are resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We canuse human languages to create new meanings. Human languages are creative in another sense, that is, its potential to create endless sentences. Creativity is an important factor which differentiates human languages from sounds animals produce.4. Displacement（移位性）：Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and conceptswhich are not present （in time and space）at the moment of communication. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.Functions of language1. Informative（信息功能）：Language is the instrument of thought. The use of language to record the facts isa prerequisite of social development. Some scholars may call it as ideational function.2. Interpersonal function（人际功能）：Through this function, people establish and maintain their status in asociety.3. Performative（行事功能）：It is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies,the sentencing of criminals, etc. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized4. Emotive function（感情功能）：It is sometimes called expressive function. It is a means of getting rid of ournervous energy when we are under stress, e.g. swear words and such.5. Phatic communion（寒喧交谈）：This function refers to expressions that help define and maintaininterpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, regional dialects. We have to learn a large repertoire of such usages if we are to interact comfortably with different people.6. Recreational function（娱乐功能）：This means language has the power of providing joy and pleasure for itsusers, for example, in the form of poems, lyrics of songs, etc.7. Metalingual function（超语言功能）：Our language can be used to talk about itself. We can change thelinear structure of the sentence to change our perspective about the concerns of the clause.Main branches of linguistics1. Phonetics It studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds areactually made, transmitted and received.2. phonology It studies the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds and theshape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. 或Phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute the language and meaning.(some sounds are meaningless)3. Morphology It is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units ofmeaning --- morphemes and word-formation processes.4. Syntax It is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences. The rules of syntaxspecify word order, sentence organization and the relationships between words, word clauses and other sentence elements.5. Semantics It examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings ofwords as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences.6. Pragmatics This is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particularsituations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. It is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured.7. Macrolinguistics This is sub-ranches of linguistics which are interdisciplinary. That is other fields whichhave relations with language.8. Sociolinguistics It is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of theirfunctions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.9. Anthropological linguistic It concerns the history and structure of formerly unwritten languages.10. Computational linguistics This is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers toprocess or produce human language.Several important concepts in linguistics1. Descriptive vs. prescriptive (描述与规定)By descriptive rule/study, we mean the rule/study tries to describe how things (here language itself) are. By prescriptive rule/study, we mean the rule/ study tries to prescribe how things ought to be.Linguistics is a descriptive science because linguists try to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms.2. Synchronic vs. diachronic (历时与共时)A synchronic description/study takes a fixed instant (usually, but unnecessarily, the present) as its point of observation/study.A diachronic study examines things through the course of their histories. There is a way of study in linguistics, historical linguistics.3. Langue vs. paroleLangue（语言）refers to the linguistic competence of the speaker.Parole（言语）refers to the actual phenomena or utterance/data of linguistics.4. Linguistic Competence and Linguistic performanceLinguistic competence（语言能力）refers to the language user‘s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.Performance (语言运用) refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. Segment（音段）: the sound unit in a word, for example, in the word ―above‖, there are four segments. Thesound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels.2. Divergence（分化）:the enormous different ways of denoting a segment, or between spelling andpronunciation. For example, the sound /f/, can be denoted by f, gh.3. Phonetic transcription（标音法）: in the course of developing a written system to record the sound system,people developed different ways of transcribing sounds into words/pronunciations. Now there is the notation system of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).4. Consonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract（声道）at some place to divert,impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity（口腔）.A. Manners of articulation（发音方法）: the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way inwhich the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract;stop (plosive)塞(爆破)；fricative (擦音)；(median) approximant (通音)；lateral approximantB. Places of articulation（发音部位）: the places in the vocal tract where there is approximation, narrowing orthe obstruction of air.bilabiallabiodentalDentalAlveolar (齿龈音)Postalveolar(后齿龈音)Retroflex (卷舌音)Palatal (腭音)V elar (软腭音)Uvular(小舌音)Pharyngeal咽Glottal(声门音)The consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative5. Vowels (元音)：A vowel is produced without any obstruction of the air in the vocal tract so no turbulence or atotal stopping of the air can be perceived.The criteria of vowel description (four basic requirements)①the part of the tongue that is raised the position of the highest part of the tongue – front, central or back.②The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate the height of tongue raising (high, mid,low);.③The kind of opening made at the lips lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).④the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short),Consequently, we describe the vowels in this way:[i:] high front tense unrounded vowel[u] high back lax rounded vowel[a] central lax unrounded vowel6. Co-articulation is the simultaneous or overlapping articulations of the sound segments.A. When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a BROAD TRANSCRIPTION.B. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a NARROWTRANSCRIPTION.Take [p] for example, it is ASPIRA TED in peak and UNASPIRA TED in speak.This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h, as [p h], whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as [p =] for contrast.7. Minimal pairs: In phonology, minimal pairs are pairs of words or phrases in a particular language, whichdiffer in only one phonological element, such as a phone, phoneme, toneme or chroneme and have a distinct meaning. They are used to demonstrate that two phones constitute two separate phonemes in the language.As an example for English vowels, the pair ―let‖ + ―lit‖ can be used to demonstrate that the phones [ɛ] (in let) and [ɪ] (in lit) do in fact represent distinct phonemes /ɛ/ and /ɪ/. An example for English consonants is the minimal pair of ―pat‖ + ―bat‖. In phonetics, this pair, like any other, differs in a number of ways. In this case, the contrast appears largely to be conveyed with a difference in the voice onset time of the initial consonant as the configuration of the mouth is the same for [p] and [b]; however, there is also a possible difference in duration, which visual analysis using high quality video supports.[citation needed]8. Allophone: In phonetics, an allophone is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds (or phones) used topronounce a single phoneme. For example, [ph] (as in pin) and [p] (as in spin) are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the English language. Although a phoneme's allophones are all alternative pronunciations for a phoneme, the specific allophones selected in a given situation are often predictable. Changing the allophone used by native speakers for a given phoneme in a specific context usually will not change the meaning of a word but the result may sound non-native or unintelligible. Speakers of a given language usually perceive one phoneme in their language as a single distinctive sound in that language and are "both unaware of and even shocked by" the allophone variations used to pronounce single phonemes.9. Phonological processes (音系过程)A. Assimilation（同化）is the process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of aneighboring sound.B. Phonological rules (音系规则)A phonological rule is a formal way of expressing a systematic phonological or morphophonologicalprocess or diachronic sound change in language. Phonological rules are commonly used in generative phonology as a notation to capture sound-related operations and computations the human brain performs when producing or comprehending spoken language. They may use phonetic notation or distinctive features or both.10. Sonority scale（响音阶）: A sonority hierarchy or sonority scale is a ranking of speech sounds (or phones) byamplitude. For example, if you say the vowel [a], you will produce much louder sound than if you say the plosive [t].Most sonorous 5 V owels4 Approximants3 Nasals2 FricativesLeast sonorous 1 Stops11. Syllabification and the maximal onset principle章节划分和最大节首规则12. STRESS refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.Chapter 3 Lexicon1. The formation of wordA. Morpheme(语素) is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering themeaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.B. Morphology(形态学) is the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words areformed.The relationship between morpheme and phonemeA phoneme is the smallest unit of sound and a morpheme is the smallest unit in grammar. A singlephoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical. Divergence: a phoneme may represent several morphemes.C. T ypes of morphemesFree morpheme and bound morphemeRoot, affix and stemInflectional affix and derivational affixD. Inflection（屈折变化）is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition ofinflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached to.E. Word formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships.①Compound合成词②Derivation派生词2. Morpheme and phoneme语素和音位3. Morphemic structure and phonological structure语素结构和音位结构4. Allomorph语素变体5. Lexical change词汇变化Lexeme: denotes an item of vocabulary with a single referent whether it consists of one word or more, e.g.kick the bucket = dieLexical changes take place in two ways. On the one hand, new words appear rapidly. On the other hand, there are always words that become obsolete or disappear from the language.Ways of creating new words①Invention（新创词汇）: New words have been invented in various economic activities or other fields. Sinceeconomic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names, such as Kodak, Coke, nylon, Xeros, and others to cope with the Invention of new entities.②Blending（混成法）is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended byjoining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.Eg. transfer + resister →transistorsmoke + fog →smogpositive + electron →positronboat + hotel →boatelbreakfast + lunch →brunchtelevision + broadcast →telecast③Abbreviation（缩写词）This is the shortening of words in different ways.. It is also called CLIPPING, that is,a new word is created by Cutting certain part of the word (or with a slight variation).advertisement adbicycle bikemathematics mathprofessor profaeroplane planetelephone phoneinfluenza flurefrigerator fridge④Acronym（首字母缩略语）is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword . (CIA, WTO, WHO, FBI....)This process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology and other special fields.Aids acquired immune deficiency syndromeEEG electroencephalogramRadar radio detecting and rangingV A T value added taxWTO world trade organization⑤Back-formation（逆构词法/反推法：先有派生词再找到词根）derived by deleting an imagined affix froma longer form already in the language. Take televise for example, the word television predated theoccurrence of the word televise. The first part of the word television was pulled out and analyzed as a root, even though no such root occurs elsewhere in the English language.gangling →gangleeditor →editpeddler →peddlehawker →hawkenthusiasm →enthuselaser →lase⑥Analogical creation (类推造字/ “将错就错”) This is the creation of new words according to grammaticalrules. The principle of ANALOGICAL CREA TION can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs. For instance, people know quite well that the past tense suffix for English verb should be -ed, and they tend to apply it to all verbs.(past tense) (old) (new)work wrought ----- workedslay ------ slew slayed⑦Borrowing（借词P101）This is a way of creating new words by taking words from other languages.Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process.Throughout its history, the English language has adopted a vast number of words from various sources.Chapter 4 SyntaxSyn- (together), tax (arrange)Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to from sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1. The traditional approach传统学派A. number, gender and caseNumber is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun. Languages differ in numbers.Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun. In English, the gender distinctions are on the whole natural, determined by the biological gender of the creature. In other languages, such asFrench and Russian, gender is grammatical. Chair may be male, while desk is female.Case is another category of the noun and pronouns.B. tense（时：过去/现在）and aspect（体：完成/未完成）C. Concord and government (一致与支配)Concord, also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories. There is a relationship of controlling and being controlled between words.For example, in English the determiner and the noun it precedes should concord in number as in this man, these men;a book, some books.And the form of a subject should agree with that of the verb in terms of number in the present tense as i s shown by He speaks English, They speak English. Some languages have more cases of concord. Some have the category of gender.Government is the relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form or others in terms of certain category. It is another type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions.It differs from concord in that this is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form as in She gave him a book. She gave a book to him. In other words, the verb, or the preposition, determines, or governs, the form of the pronoun after it. The former is the governed.Different languages have different ways of government.2. The structural approach结构主义学派(Saussure)A. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations(组合与聚合关系)In Saussure's view , Language is seen as a system of signs, each of which consists of two parts: signified (concept) and signifier (sound image). The relationship between the two parts is arbitrary. The linguist must try to find the value of a sign from its relations to others, or rather, its position in the system. There are two major types of relations: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations.Syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present. Eg.:If the weather is nice, we will go out.There are syntactic and semantic conditions the words in a syntagmatic relation must meet .a. The boy kicked the ball.b. *Boy the ball kicked the.c. *The ball kicked the boy.Paradigmatic relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.For example, in the contextThe _______ is smiling,there are constrains on the possible elements occurring here.B. Immediate constituent analysis直接成分分析法IC analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents --- word groups, which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and this process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached (till the morpheme level).There are two ways of doing IC analysis: bracketing and tree diagramming.AdvantagesThe internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly and ambiguities will be revealed.Disadvantages/Problems①Binary division or three-way division?②Constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams.③The ambiguity in some structures cannot be revealed. For example: the love of god (love from / forgod)3. The generative approach生成学派ChomskyThis approach was established by American linguist Noam Chomsky. It was established to solve the problems that IC analysis cannot solve, i.e., solving the ambiguities of some structures.The earliest theory (P132)In 1957, Chomsky established the earliest generative theory. The basic idea is that superficially different sentences actually generated from deep structures of the same structure. Chomsky proposed a linguistic model consisting of three components.Phrase Structure deep Transformational surface Morpho-phonemicComponen t ———→ Component ———→Componentstructure structureAdvantage: can reveal the ambiguity which can not be revealed by IC analysis. back to the question of the love of God .The love of God is only a surface structure. There are in fact two deep structures underneath: God loves somebodySomebody loves God.It is the transformations like nominalization, object-deletion, and subject-deletion, which are responsible for the convergence of the two deep structures when they surface.the love of god (surface structure)Deep structure:A. God loves somebody.Nominalization + object deletion: God‘s love of somebody --- the love of god (of somebody)B. Somebody loves god.subject deletion+ nominalization: (somebody) loves god--- the love of godTry to analyze the following in the same way.Flying planes can be dangerous.John is eager to please.Problem:It does not include meaning in the model. Therefore it is possible to generate meaningless sentences.For example: The boy hit the dog.The dog hit the boy. (faulty)The standard theory (P135)In 1965 Chomsky introduced some modifications to his first model.The most important of them is that at the suggestion of John Katz and others he added a semantic component to it.This is a natural development in that transformational-generative grammar purports to be a description of the ideal speaker-hearer's knowledge of this language, which inevitably includes his knowledge about meaningA. Deep structure is the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e., theunderlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, or to put it in simple language, the meaning we want to convey.B. Surface structure is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closelycorresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive, or to put it in simple language, utterance that people actually produce.C. Government管辖D. Binding约束所谓管辖，就是成分之间的支配关系，它要说明短语中的各个成分是否在同一个管辖区域内，以及什么是主管成分，什么是受管成分。
语言学教程第四版重点笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language fromany animal system of communication.1.3.1 Arbitrariness 任意性Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning2.arbitrariness at the syntactic level3.arbitrariness and convention 任意性与规约性1.3.2 Duality 二元性Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composedof elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rulewhich can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis forthe possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present(in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and writtendiscourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 Informative 信息功能The informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicatenew information.1.5.2 Interpersonal function 人际功能The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 Performative 施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage1 / 14ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony,and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive function 感情功能（被打fuck 吃惊god）The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing theemotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communion 寒暄交谈（无实质，“早上好”）The phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Goodmorning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factualcontent.1.5.6 Recreational function 娱乐功能The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby's babbling or achanter's chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual function 元语言功能The metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book”to talkabout a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book”to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k”1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the languageof all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 Phonetics 发音学Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditoryphonetics.1.7.2 Phonology 音系学Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 Morphology 形态学Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes. 1.7.4 Syntax 句法学Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of theformation of sentences.1.7.5 Semantics 语义学Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.8 Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学Macrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formalaspect of language system.1.8.1 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and inlanguage acquisition for example.1.8.2 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学Sociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including thelanguage and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community. 1.8.4 Computational linguistics 计算机语言学Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process orproduce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics 重要区别1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描写式vs 规定式To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules towhich the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, ornorms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usageonce and for all.For example, “Don't say X.”is a prescriptive command; “People don't say X.”is a descriptive statement. Theth century, all the main distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature oflinguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时（历史上一点）vs 历时（历史长河）A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure's diachronicdescription is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used inShakespeare's time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be adiachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason isthat unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that havetaken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & parole 语言（抽象）vs 言语（日常）Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics aslangue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints;langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, accordingto Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances ofparole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performance 语言能力VS 语言运用According to Chomsky, a language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguisticcompetence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speakerto produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. Aspeaker's competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So aspeaker's performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to studycompetence, rather than performance. Chomsky's competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as,though similar to, Saussure's langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of acommunity, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language morefrom a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologicallyor psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics语音学studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. . It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学–the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics声学语言学–the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics 听觉语言学–the study of perception of speech soundsPhonology音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to “discover the principlesthat govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.”发音变化规律2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can beconsidered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.3 / 142.3 The IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in anylanguage according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics.Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowels 辅音、元音定义Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannotescape without producing audible friction.V owels are produced without obstruction so the air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth ornose.2.4.2 ConsonantsManners of articulation发音方式the place of articulation发音部位发音方式refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes throughcertain parts of the vocal tract (the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; theymay narrow the space considerably; they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.);发音部位refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced atany place between the lips and the vocal folds.2.4.5 The consonants of English1. Received Pronunciation (RP):The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and whichshows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English”or “Oxford English”because it iswidely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.2. the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 V owelsThe criteria of vowel description 描述元音1.the height of tongue raising(high, mid, low)2.the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back)3.the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short)4.lip-rounding(rounded vs. unrounded)We can now describe the English vowels in this way:【i:】high front tense unrounded vowel【u】high back lax rounded vowel【?】mid central lax unrounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription 协同发音2.6.1 Coarticulation协同发音Coarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.发音变化倾向于后面（following sound）叫anticipatory Coarticulation; 倾向前面perseverative ~ 4 / 142.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptions 宽式、严式转写The use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbolsto show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these soundscapable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possiblespeech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.8 Phonemes and allophones 音位和音位变体2.8.1 Minimal pairs 最小对比对Minimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and whichalso differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initialphonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which soundsubstitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theoryPhoneme （音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from anotherin a given language is a phoneme. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference inmeaning. (refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast)Phonemic transcription 音位转写放在abstract, not physical ，放在/ /.Allophones (音位变体)Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. Phonic variants of a phoneme are calledallophone of the same phoneme.e.g.: pot, spot, cup: [ph] vs. [p] vs. [ p? ] (unreleased)i) complementary distribution互补分布ii) free variationiii)phonemic contrast.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occursin English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes inwhich a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts.2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from anotheror one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary featureis either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features超音段特征: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than singlesound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation. Syllable音节: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word. Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.2.12 Stress 重音Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [] is used justbefore the syllable it relates to.5 / 14Intonation and Tone 声调语调Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistentmeanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase3.1 What is morpheme?3.1.1 Morpheme 语素A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, aunit thatcannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical orgrammatical.E.g. the word “boxes”has two morphemes: “box”and “es,”neither of which permits further division or analysisshapes if we don't want to sacrifice its meaning.Morphology（形态学）：The study of internal structures and rules of morphemes by which words are formed.3.1.2 Types of MorphemesFree morpheme and bound morpheme 自由语素（能独立出现）黏着语素（disclose中dis-）Free morpheme refers to those which may occur alone or which may constitute words by themselves.Bound morpheme refers to those which cannot occur alone and must appear with at least one other morphemeRoot, affix and stem 词根词缀词干Root is the base form of a word that can't be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. For example,internationalism, after removing the “inter-“”-al””-ism”, the part retained is the root nation.affix词缀----is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme.it canclassified into three subtypes, prefix, suffix and infix.stem词干----is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.(friends中friend-,friendships中friendship-)词干可以包括词根和一个及以上词缀Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派生词缀Inflectional affix----A morpheme that serves to adjust words by grammatical modification to indicate such grammaticalrelations as number, tense, degree and case. e.g. tables, talks, opened, strongest, John's Derivational affix---A morpheme that serves to derive a word of one class or meaning from a word of another class ormeaning. e.g. cite-citation-cital#3.2 What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.Three senses of word:1.a physical unit2. a lexical item3. a grammatical unit3.2.1 Identification of words 词的特点1. Stability 稳定性（词内部结构不能重新排序chaieman≠manchair）Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent partsof a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positionalmobility of theconstituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearrangedas * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性（此中不可插入其他成分）By uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis +appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3.A minimum free form 最小的自由形式（任意一个词都能成为句子）This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum freeform”and word “the minimum free form,”the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a6 / 14complete utterance.3.2.2 Classification of words 词的分类1. Variable and invariable words 可变化词（follow）和非变化词（since, but）In variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow –follows –following –followed.Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflectiveendings.2. Grammatical words and lexical words 语法词和词汇词Grammatical words, also called function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action andquality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class words 封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited.New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are allclosed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infiniteor unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguisticanalysis.(1)Particles助词: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,”the negative marker “not,”and thesubordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,”“do up,”“look back,”etc.(2)Auxiliaries助动词: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, whichone could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3)Pro-forms代词: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in a sentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4)Determiners限定词: Determiners refer to words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into threesubclasses: predetermines, central determiners and post determiners.3.3 Word formation: Inflection and word formation 词的构成：从语素到词1.Inflection 屈折变化（不改变词性）Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number,person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formation 词的形成Word formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into thecompositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).(1)Compound 复合Compound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate wordsto produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc.Compounds can be further divided into two kinds: the endocentric compound and exocentric compound.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is de-verbal, that is, it is derived from a verb.Consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participant of theprocess verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives: virus-sensitive, machine washable, etc. The exocentriccompounds are formed by V + N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N and V + A. E.g. Nouns: playboy,cutthroat, etc. Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc. 复合这个术语指那些由两个或两个以上的词素构成的词，或是指由7 / 14两个单独的词连接起来构成一个新的形式的构词方法(2)Derivation 派生Derivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the wordclass of the original word either changed or unchanged.3.3 Lexical change 词汇变化1. Invention 发明法（coke）Since economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly fromthe consumer items, their producers or their brand names.2. Blending混成法(smok+fog=smog)Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of thefirst word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.3. Abbreviation / clipping缩写词（bicyle-bick）A new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cutting both the initial parts of the originalwords.4. Acronym 缩略词（WB-world bank ，WTO）Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5.Back-formation 逆构词法（editor-edit）Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagedaffix from a longer form already in the language.已存在较长单词删去词缀，变成较短另外含义单词6.Analogical creation 类推构词（过去式之类）The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in theconjugation of some English verbs.7. class shift 词性变换（已有单词开发另一词性意义）By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process orattribution. This process of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion.8. Borrowing 借用English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin,French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process.Chapter 4 From Word to Text1. Syntactic relations（句法关系）Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language,or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.1.1Relations of Position 位置关系（主谓宾）Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce anutterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all.Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations（横组合关系）observed by F. de Saussure.They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.1.2. Relation of Substitutability 替换关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences withthe same structure.It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of aparticular set.This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations（纵聚合关系）by Hjemslev（叶尔姆斯列夫）To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence （同现关系/纵横关系）It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form8 / 14a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.2. Grammatical construction and its constituents 语法结构和成分2.1 Grammatical Construction 语法结构定义：GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION（语法结构体）or CONSTRUCT can be used to refer to any syntactic constructwhich is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalizedabout its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and its internal properties.The external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, that is to say, anythingspeakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome.结构外部句法特征The internal syntax of a construction is really a description of the construction's “make-up”, with the terms such as“subject, predicate, object, determiner, noun”.结构内部句法特征2.2 Immediate Constituents(直接成分) IC analysis？Constituent（成分）is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IMMEDIA TE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS or IC analysis (直接成分分析法)，the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (phrases), which are in turnanalyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate。
