现代语言学学习笔记

Linguistics: It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.General linguistics: The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.Applied linguistics:In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.Synchronic study: The study of a language at some point in time.e.g. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespear e’s time is a synchronic study.Diachronic study: The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a diachronic study.Language competence: T he ideal user’s knowl edge of the rules of his language. A transformational-generative grammar（转化生成语法）is a model of language competence.Language performance: performance is the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication.Langue: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently. Parole:Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Duality: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower or basic level, and the other of meanings at the higher level.Displacement: language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.Cultural transmission: While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.Design features: It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communicationphonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languagesauditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer’s point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another. international phonetic alphabet [IPA]: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.Broad transcription:the transcription with letter-symbols only, i.e. one letter-symbol for one sound. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks.Narrow transcription: is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is the transcription used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.diacritics: is a set of symbols which can be added to the letter-symbols to make finer distinctions than the letters alone make possible.Voiceless（清音）: when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.Voicing （浊音）: Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.Vowel: the sounds in production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.Consonants: the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.phone: Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.phoneme:a collection of abstract phonetic features, it is a basic unit in phonology. It is represented or realized as a certain phone by a certain phonetic context.allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example [l] and [l]phonemic contrast:Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.Complementary distribution:refers to the relation between two similar phones which are allophones of the same phoneme, and they occur in different environments.minimal pair:When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. For example: bin and pin.suprasegmental features: the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone and intonation.tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in tone languages, for example, in Chinese.intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. For example, English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone.Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.Inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflectionsDerivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language. For example: the word “boyish” consists of two morphemes: “boy” and “ish”.Free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. For example: “help”, “table”, “room” are all free morphemes.Bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word. For example: “-er”, “dis-“, “-less” are all bound morphemes.Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. For example: the root “geo-“combines with another root “-ology”, we get the word “geology”.Affix: morphemes manifesting various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, such as “-ing”, “-est”, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word, such as “-ly”, “dis-“, “un-“.Inflection（屈折）:the manifestation of various grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word. Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.Stem: A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form himself.Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.1). syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics which studies thesentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstractrules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.2). linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars ofall human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system ofinternalized linguistic knowledge of a language speakerknown as linguistic competence.3). sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit thatusually comprises a number of words to form a completestatement, question or command. Normally, a sentenceconsists of at least a subject and a predicate which containsa finite verb or a verb phrase.4). finite clause（定式子句）: a clause that takes a subject and afinite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone. (Asimple sentence satisfies the structural requirements of afinite clause.)5). simple sentence: a simple sentence consists of a singleclause which contains a subject and a predicate and standsalone as its own sentence.6). coordinate sentence（并列句）: A coordinate sentencecontains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”,“or”.7). complex sentence（复合句）: a complex sentence containstwo or more clauses, one of which is incorporated （合成一体的）into the other. That is, the two clauses hold unequalstatus, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause,and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrixclause.8). hierarchical structure（层次结构）: the sentence structure thatgroups words into structural constituents and shows thesyntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NPand VP.9). syntactic category: Apart from sentences and clauses, asyntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as thesubject or object in a sentence. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticalitybelong to the same syntactic category.10). grammatical relations: The structural and logical functionalrelations of constituents are called grammatical relations. Thegrammatical relations of a sentence concern the way eachnoun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In manycases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what towhom.11). phrase structure rules: a rewrite rule that allows for thepossible combinations of words to form phrases andsentences.12). X-bar theory is a general and highly abstract schema thatcollapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X″→ (Spec) X (Compl). (In this format, Spec stands for specifierwhile Compl stands for complement. This theory is capable ofreducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structurerules and may well capture certain basic properties shared byall phrasal categories, i.e. NP, VP, AP, PP, across thelanguages of the world. )13). transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rulesthat transform one sentence type into another type.14). D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntacticrepresentation that exists before movement takes place.Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon,generate sentences at the level of D-structure.(Phrase structure rules + the lexicon→D-structure →Movement rules →S-structure)15). S-structure: a level of syntactic representation after theoperation of necessary syntactic movement16). Move a: a general movement rule accounting for thesyntactic behavior of any constituent movement.17). Universal Grammar: a system of linguistic knowledge whichconsists of some general principles and parameters about natural languages.1). Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study ofmeaning in language.2). Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of thelinguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.3). Reference: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to inthe real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4). Synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or closesimilarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.5). Polysemy: Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one wordmay have more than one meaning.6). Homonymy（同音异义，同形异义）: Homonymy refers to thephenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.7). Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical insound, they are called homophones. e.g. rain/reign.8). Homographs同形异义: When two words are identical inspelling, they are homographs. e.g. tear v. / tear n.9). Complete homonyms: When two words are identical in bothsound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms. e.g.fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.10). Hyponymy（下义关系）: Hyponymy refers to the sense relationbetween a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general is called a superordinate（上坐标词）, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. (Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.) e.g. superordinate: animal, hyponyms: dog, cat, lion, tiger.11). Antonymy: Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness ofmeaning (on different dimensions).12). Componential analysis（成分分析法）: Componential analysisis a way proposed by structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. This approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features. For example: the word “man”is analyzed as comprising the features of +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE.13). Predication analysis（述谓结构分析）: It is an approachproposed by British linguist G. Leech for sentential meaning analysis. In semantic analysis of a sentence, predication is the basic unit which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. This applies to all forms of sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative forms. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a prediction, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.14). The grammatical meaning: The grammatical meaning of asentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e., its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.15). Two-place predication: A two-place predication is one whichcontains two arguments.1). Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication.2). Context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmaticstudy of language. It consists of (It is generally considered as constituted by) the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.3). Utterance meaning: the meaning of an utterance is concrete,and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 4). Sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is oftenconsidered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.5). Constative: Constatives were statements that either state ordescribe, and were verifiable;6). Performative: performatives, on the other hand, weresentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act.7). Locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words,phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.8). Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act of expressingthe speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.9). Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act performed byor resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.10). Cooperative Principle: It is a principle advanced by Paul Grice.His idea is that in making conversations, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. The content is: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.11). Conversational implicature: Most of the violations of thecooperative principles give rise to what Paul Grice calls “conversational implicatures.”When we violate any of these maxims, our language becomes indirect and implies an extra meaning.1) historical linguistics: a subfield of linguistics that studieslanguage change (or historical development of language).2) diachronic linguistics: a term used instead of historicallinguistics to refer to the study of language change at various points in time and at various historical stages.3) Old English: a major period in the history of Englishdevelopment that began in 449 and ended in 1100.4) Middle English: a major period in the history of Englishdevelopment that began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England in 1100 and ended in 1500.5) Modern English: a period in the history of English developmentthat began roughly from 1500 to the present.6) the Great Vowel Shift: a series of systematic sound change inthe history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies（差异）between English pronunciation and its spelling system.7) apocope: the deletion of a word-final vowel segment.8) epenthesis: the insertion of the consonant or vowel sound tothe middle of a word.9) Metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement isknown as metathesis. It involves a reversal in position of two neighbouring sound segments.10) Compounding: It is a process of combining two or more thantwo words into one lexical unit. For example: sailboat, big-mouth, three-year-old.11) Derivation: It is a process by which new words are formed bythe addition of affixes to the roots, stems or words. For example: uglification（丑化），finalize.12) Acronym: An acronym is a word created by combining theinitials of a number of words. For example: UNESCO(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization国际教科文组织)，CD-ROM （compact disk of read-only-memory）13) blending: a process of forming a new word by combining partsof two words. For example: smog (smoke + fog), brunch (breakfast + lunch)14) abbreviation: an abbreviation is a shortened form of a word orphrase which represents the complete form. For example: TV (television), Dr (doctor), hr (hour), Jan (January)15) clipping: clipping is a kind of abbreviation of otherwise longerwords or phrases. For example: gym (gymnasium), zoo (zoological garden), fridge (refrigerator), e-mail (electronic mail), hi-fi (high fidelity).16) Back-formation: It is a process by which new words are formedby taking away the supposed suffix of an existing word. For example: typewrite (typewriter), edit (editor)17) semantic broadening: the process in which the meaning of aword becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.18) Semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in whichthe meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.19) Semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic changein which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related, meaning.20) protolanguage: the original (or ancestral) form of a languagefamily which has ceased to exist.21) language family: a group of historically (or genetically) relatedlanguages that have developed from a common ancestral language.22) Great Vowel Shift: It is a series of systematic sound change atthe end of the Middle English period approximately between 1400 and 1600 in the history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies between English pronunciation and its spelling system.23) Sound assimilation: Sound assimilation refers to thephysiological effect of one sound on another. In an assimilative process, successive sounds are made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation, or of haplology.24) Haplology: It refers to the phenomenon of the loss of one oftwo phonetically similar syllables in sequence.25) cognate: a word in one language which is similar in form andmeaning to a word in another language because both languages have descended from a common source.26) internal borrowing: the application of a rule from one part of thegrammar to another part of the grammar by analogy（类推，类似）to its earlier operation.27) Grimm’s Law：Because these sound changes were sostrikingly regular and law-like, they became known as Grimm’s Law. According to this law, the Germanic languages were subject to a rule that changed all voiceless stops into fricatives after they split off from other Indo-European languages.1) sociolinguistics: the subdiscipline of linguistics that studieslanguage variation and language use in social context.2) speech community: a group of people who form acommunity and share at least one speech variety as well assimilar linguistic norms.3) speech variety: Speech variety, also known as languagevariety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used bya speaker or group of speakers. The distinctivecharacteristics of a speech variety may be lexical,phonological, morphological, syntactic, or a combinationof linguistic features.4) language planning: language standardization is known aslanguage planning. This means that certain authorities, suchas the government or government agency of a country,choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it,including its pronunciation and spelling systems, acrossregional boundaries.5) sociolect: a variety of language used by people belonging toa particular social class.6) idiolect: An idiolect is a personal dialect of an individualspeaker that combines aspects of all the elements regardingregional, social, and stylistic variation, in one form or another （以这样或那样的方式综合了有关地域、社会和文体变异的所有成份）. In a narrower sense, what makes up one’s idiolectincludes also such factors as voice quality音质, pitch音高and speech rhythm言语节奏, which all contribute to theidentifying features in an individual’ s speech.7) register: a functional speech or language variety thatinvolves degrees of formality depending on the speechsituation concerned.8) standard language: a superposed（迭生的，重合的）prestigious variety of language of a community or nation,usually based on the speech and writing of educated nativespeakers of the language. (P170)9) nonstandard language: Language varieties other than thestandard are called nonstandard languages10) lingua franca: a variety of language that serves as a commonspeech for social contact among groups of people whospeak different native languages or dialects.11) pidgin: a marginal contact language with a limited vocabularyand reduced grammatical structures, used by nativespeakers of other languages as a means of businesscommunication.12) creole: A creole language is originally a pidgin that hasbecome established as a native language in some speechcommunity. When a pidgin comes to be adopted by apopulation as its primary language, and children learn it as their first language, then the pidgin language is called a creole.13) diglossia: a sociolinguistic situation in which two verydifferent varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each serving a particular social function and used for a particular situation14) bilingualism: ilingualism refers to a linguistic situation inwhich two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.15) ethnic dialect: Within a society, speech variation may comeabout because of different ethnic backgrounds. An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language, often cutting across regional differences. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation.16) slang: Slang is a casual use of language that consists ofexpressive but non-standard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy浮华的and often ephemeral短暂的coinages创新词and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity自发性and sometimes by raciness活泼，充满活力.17) linguistic taboo: an obscene猥亵的, profane,亵渎的orswear word or expression that is prohibited from general use by the educated and “polite” society.18) euphemism: a word or expression that is thought to be mild,indirect, or less offensive and used as a polite substitute for the supposedly harsh and unpleasant word or expression. 19) Domain使用域: Domain refers to the phenomenon that mostbilingual communities have one thing in common, that is, fairly clear functional differentiation of the two languages in respect of speech situations. For example: the Home Domain, Employment Domain etc.1) psycholinguistics: the study of language in relation to themind, with focus on the processes of language production生成, comprehension理解and acquisition掌握.2) cerebral cortex: the outside surface of the brain, it is thedecision-making organ of the body, which receives messages from all the sensory organs and where human cognitive abilities reside.3) brain lateralization: the localization of cognitive andperceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.4) linguistic lateralization: hemispheric specialization ordominance for language.5) dichotic listening: a research technique which has been usedto study how the brain controls hearing and language. The subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are then asked to repeat what they hear.6) Broca’s area : It refers to the frontal lobe in the left cerebralhemisphere, which is vital to language. This area is discovered by Paul Broca, a French surgeon and anatomist.。

现代语言学流派概论读书笔记
语言不仅是交流信息的手段，也是和别人建立关系并维持关系的手段，而且语言在传递关于说话人的信息方面也有非常重要的作用。

有着不同社会背景和地理背景的人使用的语言各异，说话方式也不同，这就形成方言，方言有地里方言和地理方言两种。

社会影响语言，社会所处的自然环境、社会结构和社会价值观念影响语言。

从社会角度研究语言就形成了社会语言学。

英国的彼得。

特拉吉尔编著的社会语言学导论这本书从七个方面介绍并解释了社会中各种语言现象。

开头，作者解释了有关方言和语言的概念。

首先，他认为方言或语言没有明确的界线，使用两种语言或方言的国家或地区能互相听懂，之所以要将它分成两种语言或方言，是有地理、政治、文化因素形成的。

作者指出，“方言一词指的是一个语言的不同类词之间的差别、语法差别和发音差别，“方言”一词能适用于所有变体，并不仅仅只非标准变体。

由此我们可以推知，汉语在不同的地方，词类、语法、语音上有不同的变化，可见，普通话有很多地方方言。

普通话可以看做一种标准汉语，可以说是在书刊上使用、学校里讲授、外族人学习的一种汉语变体。

《现代汉语言》笔记整理现代汉语言笔记整理1. 词汇在现代汉语中，词汇是构成语言基础的重要部分。

以下是一些关于词汇的要点：- 词的分类：根据词的功能和形态，可以将词分为名词、动词、形容词、副词等不同类别。

- 词的构成：词可以由字和词素组成。

有的词可以是单字构成，也有的词是由多个词素组成的复合词。

词素可以是单音节或多音节。

- 词的用法：不同的词在句子中有不同的用法。

例如，名词可以做主语、宾语或定语等。

2. 语法语法是语言的结构和规则的总称。

以下是一些关于现代汉语语法的笔记：- 句子的成分：句子由主语、宾语、谓语等基本成分组成。

- 句子的结构：句子可以是简单句、并列句或复合句。

并列句和复合句可以通过连接词来连接不同的句子成分。

- 句子的语序：现代汉语的语序一般是主谓宾的顺序，但也有例外情况。

3. 语言变化语言是一种活动的、不断变化的系统。

以下是一些关于现代汉语语言变化的要点：- 词语的变化：词语可能会发生义项扩展、义项缩小、义项转移等变化。

- 语法的变化：语法规则可能会因为语言的使用惯而发生变化，例如词序的变化或者词语的用法变化。

- 语音的变化：语言的语音系统可能会因为地域、社会等因素而发生变化。

4. 语言研究研究现代汉语需要掌握以下技巧和方法：- 多读多听：通过大量的阅读和听力练，可以提高对现代汉语的理解和应用能力。

- 反复操练：反复练语言的基础知识和语法结构，以加深记忆和提高熟练度。

- 沉浸式研究：尽可能地融入到汉语环境中，与母语人士交流，提高语言应用能力。

以上是对现代汉语言的一些笔记整理，希望能对研究者有所帮助。

现代语言学复习要点现代语言学是研究语言的本质、结构、演化和使用的学科，涉及到语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等多个方面。

下面是现代语言学中的重要知识点，帮助您进行复习。

语音学音位与音素音位是语音学中的基本单位，是被感知为一种有区别的声音的语音单位。

音素是语音学中的一个概念，是语音中能够起差别作用的最小单位。

一种语音中可能存在多个音位，但其对应的音素数量通常比较少。

### 调值语音学中通常使用调值来表示声音的高低的。

不同的语言中可能有不同数量的调，比如汉语中有四个音调，英语中没有固定的调值。

### 音系音系是指一种语言中所有音位（包括所有音素）的总体，包括其音位的数量、种类和分布等方面。

语法学句子成分句子成分是指构成句子的基本单词、短语或从句。

一般来说，句子成分包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语等。

### 句子结构句子结构是指句子内不同成分的组成方式。

对于不同语言，其句子结构可能存在明显差异，如英语中主语一般出现在谓语前，而在汉语中通常是在谓语后。

### 语法关系语法关系是指句子中不同成分之间的关系，如主语与谓语之间的关系、宾语与谓语之间的关系等。

语义学词义词义是单词所表达的概念或意义。

不同的单词可能存在相同或相似的词义，因此在语义学中通常需要进行词义分类和比较。

### 语义关系语义关系是指单词、短语、句子等之间的意义相互联系。

常见的语义关系包括同义关系、反义关系、上下位关系等。

### 语篇意义语篇意义是指句子及其上下文所构成的整体意义。

在语篇分析中，不仅要关注句子内部的语义关系，还需考虑句子与上下文之间的语义关系。

语用学言语行为言语行为是指言语交流过程中所体现的具体行为，如陈述、命令、请求、批评等。

不同类型的言语行为具有不同的功能和表达方式。

### 语用礼貌语用礼貌是指在言语交际过程中对他人尊重、友好的表达方式。

常见的语用礼貌策略包括委婉语、礼貌用语、双重否定等。

### 上下文依存言语交际过程中，具体表达的含义通常需要依赖于上下文信息。

现代语言学教程霍凯特读书笔记摘要：现代语言学教程霍凯特读书笔记一、引言1.霍凯特及其学术贡献2.《现代语言学教程》的重要性二、语言学的基本概念1.语言的定义与功能2.语言学的研究范围与方法三、语言的构成要素1.语音2.词汇3.语法四、语言的演变与发展1.语言的起源2.语言的变迁与演化3.社会与文化对语言的影响五、语言的类型学1.语言的分类2.语言的共性与个性六、语言的认知研究1.语言与思维的关系2.语言习得与认知发展七、语言的应用领域1.语言教学与学习2.语言技术应用3.语言与跨文化交流八、结语1.《现代语言学教程》的价值与启示2.对未来语言学研究的展望正文：现代语言学教程霍凯特读书笔记霍凯特（H.Jackson）的《现代语言学教程》是一部系统阐述现代语言学基本理论、方法与应用的著作。

该书以严谨的学术态度、全面的视角和丰富的实例，为读者呈现了语言学的全貌。

以下是对该书内容的概括与解读。

一、引言霍凯特是20世纪下半叶英国著名的语言学家，他的学术贡献主要集中在历史语言学、语音学、语义学等领域。

他的《现代语言学教程》是一部经典的语言学教材，对我国现代语言学的发展产生了深远影响。

二、语言学的基本概念语言是人类的交际工具，是人类社会特有的现象。

语言学是研究语言的科学，其研究范围包括语音、词汇、语法等方面。

语言学的研究方法主要有历史比较法、实验法、观察法等。

三、语言的构成要素语音是语言的基本构成要素，包括音素、音位、音节等。

词汇是语言的基本单位，包括词汇意义、语法意义和联想意义。

语法是语言的结构规则，包括句法结构和语义结构。

四、语言的演变与发展语言起源于人类的交际需要，经历了从原始语言到现代语言的发展过程。

语言的变迁与演化受到社会、文化、历史等多种因素的影响。

五、语言的类型学语言可以根据不同的标准进行分类，如按语系、语族、语支等。

各种语言在语音、词汇、语法等方面既有共性，又有个性。

六、语言的认知研究语言与思维密切相关，语言的发展与认知发展相互作用。

语言学知识点总结语言学是一门研究语言的科学，它涵盖了众多的分支和领域，对于我们理解语言的本质、结构、功能和发展具有重要意义。

以下是对一些重要语言学知识点的总结。

一、语言的定义和本质语言是人类用于交流和思维的符号系统。

它具有任意性、二层性、创造性和移位性等特征。

任意性指语言符号的形式与其所代表的意义之间没有必然的、内在的联系，是约定俗成的。

比如“书”这个词为什么代表书籍这一概念，并没有天然的逻辑联系，只是大家都这样认同和使用。

二层性是指语言具有语音和语法两个层面。

语音层是语言的外在表现形式，而语法层则是组织和规则，使得语音能够组合成有意义的语言单位。

创造性使得我们能够用有限的语言单位创造出无限的表达方式，来传达各种新的思想和概念。

移位性则让我们可以谈论过去、未来和不在眼前的事物。

二、语言的结构语言结构包括语音、词汇、语法和语义等方面。

语音学研究语言的声音系统，包括元音、辅音的发音特点，以及语音的组合和变化规律。

词汇是语言的建筑材料，包括词的构成、词义的演变和词汇的分类等。

语法规则决定了词如何组合成句子，包括词法和句法。

词法涉及词的形态变化，如名词的复数、动词的时态等；句法则关注句子的结构和成分。

语义学探讨语言符号与它们所指称的对象之间的关系，研究词义和句义的理解和表达。

三、语言的功能语言具有多种功能，如交际功能、思维功能、记录功能、文化传承功能等。

交际功能是语言最基本的功能，使人们能够相互交流信息、表达情感和想法。

思维功能帮助我们组织和表达思维，语言和思维相互影响，相互促进。

记录功能让我们能够将知识、经验和历史等信息保存下来。

文化传承功能则通过语言传递文化传统、价值观念和社会规范。

四、语言的发展语言是不断发展变化的。

语言的发展受到社会、历史、文化等多种因素的影响。

新词汇不断产生，旧词汇可能逐渐消亡或改变意义。

例如，随着科技的发展，出现了“互联网”“智能手机”等新词汇。

语音和语法也会发生变化，语音的演变可能导致读音的改变，语法规则可能会简化或变得更加复杂。

语言学教程课堂笔记第一章导论一、性质、对象、任务语言学的性质：既古老又年轻的学科,介于自然科学与社会科学之间的学科。

语言学的研究对象：人类自然语言语言学的任务：⑴“描写—解释”层次。

从宏观、微观两个方面描写和解释语言现象、语言的结构规律和应用方式。

使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识。

宏观上：把语言作为一个整体对象来研究,研究它的起源、发展、本质、功能,它和思维、意识的关系等等。

微观上：对语言内部结构进行研究,研究语言内部的结构规律,各要素的关系及发展、演变等。

⑵“认知—思维”层次。

探索人类语言符号行为的奥秘,语言是怎样组织意义的,语言是怎样划分世界从而把现实符号化的,人是怎样在思维和交际中运用语言符号的,语言和心灵的关系是怎样的,语言和文化的关系是怎样的。

⑶“技术—实用层次。

积极地为计算机对语言文字进行信息处理等工程技术服务,为言语矫治等语言病理的治疗工作服务,或者为语言教学、外语教学等服务。

二、语言学的分类⑴根据研究性质、范畴和对象,可分为理论语言学和应用语言学A、理论语言学：是语言学的主体,是研究语言的功能和结构的一般理论。

B、应用语言学：研究语言应用的一切学科,包括语言教学、机器翻译、失语症治疗、语言规划。

⑵从研究对象的范围上分,语言学可分为具体语言学和普通语言学。

三、语言学发展简史⑴传统语言学【语文学（语言文字学）】时期1、时间与特征：一般讲19世纪历史比较语言学产生以前的时期称为“传统语言学时期”、“古典语文学时期”。

这一时期,语言研究处于附庸地位。

还没有发展为独立的学科。

主要是为经典作注解。

2、传统语言学的三大发源地：古希腊—罗马、古印度和古代中国3、传统语言学的作用⑵索绪尔语言学理论1、区分语言（language）和言语（parole）语言：从言语中概括出来为社会公认的词语和规则的总和。

言语：个人说或写的行为和结果2、区别组合关系和聚合关系3、语言和言语的关系：A、一般和个别B、抽象和具体四、语言学的功能（为什么要学语言学概论）1、便与从事与语言相关的工作2、有利于语言规划、信息处理等语言应用3、便于观察语言现象、发现并解释语言规律4、便于提高发现、分析与解决问题的能力5、在语言理论的指导下,透过语言使用我们可以洞悉人类心理的奥秘,为更好地掌握和利用心智打下基础五、怎样学习语言学概论1、勤观察,培养对语言现象的敏锐洞察力2、多思考,培养强烈的问题求解意识3、三个充分：观察充分、描写充分、解释充分第二章语言的本质与起源一、语言的本质（什么是语言？）1、①（为什么）语言是人类特有的、②（为什么是）最重要的全民交际工具。

现代语言学教程霍凯特读书笔记摘要：1.霍凯特的现代语言学教程概述2.语言学的基本概念与理论3.霍凯特的现代语言学教程的贡献与影响4.读书笔记的价值与意义正文：霍凯特的现代语言学教程是一本非常具有代表性的语言学教材，它为语言学领域的学者和研究者提供了许多有价值的理论和观点。

本文将从以下几个方面探讨霍凯特的现代语言学教程以及我的读书笔记。

首先，让我们来了解一下霍凯特的现代语言学教程的概述。

这本书主要分为三个部分，第一部分是语言学的基本概念与理论，包括语言的定义、语言的功能、语言的结构等方面；第二部分是语言学的研究方法，包括实验方法、观察方法、比较方法等；第三部分是语言学的应用，包括语言教学、语言翻译、语言规划等方面。

这本书的结构清晰，内容丰富，是一本非常优秀的语言学教材。

接下来，我们来讨论一下语言学的基本概念与理论。

霍凯特在这本书中对语言学的基本概念与理论进行了详细的介绍和阐述。

他认为，语言是人类最重要的交际工具，是人类社会发展的重要标志。

语言具有语音、语法、语义、语用等结构，这些结构相互关联，共同构成了语言的完整系统。

此外，霍凯特还介绍了语言的演变、语言的习得、语言的变异等重要概念，这些概念对于我们理解语言的本质和规律具有重要的意义。

再来看一下霍凯特的现代语言学教程的贡献与影响。

这本书对于语言学的发展具有重要的贡献，它不仅提供了许多有价值的理论和观点，而且也为语言学的研究提供了新的思路和方法。

此外，这本书对于语言学的教学和应用也产生了深远的影响，它成为了许多语言学课程的主要教材，也为语言工作者提供了重要的参考资料。

最后，我们来谈一下读书笔记的价值与意义。

读书笔记是一种非常重要的学习方法，它可以帮助我们整理思路，加深理解，提高记忆。

读书笔记也可以帮助我们发现问题，思考问题，解决问题。

因此，读书笔记对于我们的学习和研究具有重要的价值和意义。

总的来说，霍凯特的现代语言学教程是一本非常优秀的语言学教材，它为我们提供了许多有价值的理论和观点。

语言学笔记大全第一章语言的社会功能一、什么是语言？什么是说话？语言是音义结合的符号系统，人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具。

说话是人们运用语言工具跟人们交流思想的行为。

二、语言和说话的关系要弄清楚“什么是语言”的问题，首先要弄清楚的是，语言和说话不是一回事。

语言不等于说话，也不等于说出来的话。

说话是运用语言跟人们交流思想的行为，本身不等于语言。

但是，另一方面，语言的存在又必须以说话为前提，一个人如果长期生活在孤岛上，没有说话的需要，不跟人交谈，他就会失去语言能力。

如刘连仁的例子（课本37页）。

这件事告诉我们语言与说话的联系与区别：语言好象是一种工具，需要人去用，不用就会“生锈”，就会“退化”。

而说话则是人们运用语言工具跟人们交流思想的行为，说出来的话是这种行为“生产”出来的“产品”，是为了适应他人的需要而存在的，没有这种需要，人们就会丧失说话的语言能力，这就是等于说：语言不等于说话，也不等于说出来的话。

那么，什么是语言？它在哪儿？回答是：语言存在于说话之中，人们可以从所说的话中找出语言来。

三、语言的作用是什么？语言是人类社会的交际工具。

每个社会，无论它是经济发达的社会，还是经济十分落后的社会，都必须有自己的语言，都离不开语言这个交际工具，语言是组成社会必不可少的一个因素，是人类与动物相区别的重要特征之一。

语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带，没有语言，人类无法交际，人与人之间的联系就会中断，社会就会崩溃，不复存在。

四、什么是社会？什么是交际工具？所谓社会，就是指生活在同一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体，既一般所说的部落、部族和民族。

交际工具是指人们用来交流思想，进行交际的工具。

五、为什么说语言是人类最重要的交际工具？人们在进行社会交际的时候，除了运用语言传递信息外，也可以借助其他手段传递信息，表达思想。

比如运动场上，篮球教练用手势表示谁犯规、谁发球等内容，不用语言；部队用长短不同的号声表示起床、集合、冲锋、撤退等信息；在海上，船与船之间用旗语传递信息等等。