英语语义学SemanticsSemanticsSemanticsSemantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Semantics = Theory of MeaningIts goal is to reveal how language are matched with their proper meanings by the speakers of that language.Lexical semantics—the study of word meanings. it deals not only with the meanings of individual words but also the relationship between the meanings of different words.Compositional semantics—is concerned exclusively with the meanings of phrases and sentences.History of Semantics1893 - French linguist Breal coined ―semantique‖.1897 – Breal first use it as the science of meaning.1900 – Its English version came out.1980s – semantics began to be introduced into China.One of the most famous books on semantics is The Meaning of Meaning(1923). Semantic Triangle 语义三⾓Concept（meaning）refers tosymbolizesSymbol Thing（word）（referent）stands forThe Referential Theory 指称论Concept (Meaning): the mental image, the abstraction or generalization of objects of the same kind.Referent (Thing): the physical entity or actual object, event, idea or whatever if denoted by a word, phrase or expression. Concept VS. Referent (Thing)A referent may exist in the physical world.The concept is abstracted from the referent and labeled by a word.Sense 语义Sense is the inherent meaning of the linguistic form independent of situational context.It’s abstract and de-contextualized.Sense RelationsSense relations between wordsWords are in different sense relations with each other.There are generally 5 kinds of sense relations:1) synonymy 同义2) antonymy 反义3) hyponymy 上下义4) polysemy ⼀词多义5) homonymy 同⾳同形异义1. SynonymyIt is the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.2. AntonymyIt is the oppositeness of meaning.Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions:Gradable antonymyComplementary antonymyConverse antonymy (relational opposites)Gradable antonymy 分级反义词good/ bad, long /short, narrow/ wideThe members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. There are often intermediate forms between them.Not good≠badHot ---warm---cool---coldComplementary antonymy 互补反义词alive/ dead, male/ female, present/ absent, pass/ fail , boy/ girlIt is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one means the denial of the other.Converse antonymy 换位反义词(relational opposites关系对⽴反义词)buy/ sell, lend/ borrow, before /after,teacher/ student, above /belowThe members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities.ExerciseClassify the following pairs of antonyms:Gradable antonymyComplementary antonymyConverse antonymymarried-single male-female hot-coldgive-take big-small awake-asleepnorth-south logical-illogical win-losebuy-sell doctor-patient above-below3. Hyponymy上下义关系It is the sense relation between two words in which the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another word. HyponymyMusical instruments ---piano flute guitar violin tuba tromboneFish---snapper salmon bass sole troutSalmon---chinook spring coho king sockey4. PolysemyA word is polysemic if it has more than one meaning.Wood:family treea geographical area with many trees5. HomonymyWhen two or more words are the same in pronunciation or in spelling or in both but different in meaning, they are called homonyms.3 types of homonyms:perfect homonyms(同⾳同形异义词)homographs（同形异义词）homophones (同⾳异义词).Perfect homonymsPerfect homonyms are words which are the same in both pronunciation and spelling but different in meaning.bank (银⾏、河岸)bear (容忍、⽣（孩⼦）)sound (声⾳、完美的)HomographsHomographs are words which are the same in spelling, but different in pronunciation and meaning."bow" /b??/ -----"⼸―"bow" /bau/ -----"鞠躬"HomophonesHomophones are words which are the same in pronunciation, but different in spelling and meaning.tail / taleto / two / toopair / pearsee / seaI / eye piece / peace。
Package‘RcppCCTZ’November6,2022Type PackageTitle'Rcpp'Bindings for the'CCTZ'LibraryVersion0.2.12Date2022-11-06Author Dirk EddelbuettelMaintainer Dirk Eddelbuettel<**************>Description'Rcpp'Access to the'CCTZ'timezone library is provided.'CCTZ'isa C++library for translating between absolute and civil times using the rulesof a time zone.The'CCTZ'source code,released under the Apache2.0License, is included in this package.See<https:///google/cctz>for more details.License GPL(>=2)Imports Rcpp(>=0.11.0)Suggests tinytestLinkingTo RcppSystemRequirements A64-bit POSIX OS such as Linux or OS X with IANA time zone data in/usr/share/zoneinfo as well as arecent-enough C++11compiler(such as g++-4.9or later which ispreferred,g++-4.8works too).On Windows the zoneinfo includedwith R is used;and time parsing support is enabled via abackport of std::get_time from the LLVM libc++library.URL https:///eddelbuettel/rcppcctz,https:///code/tz.htmlBugReports https:///eddelbuettel/rcppcctz/issues RoxygenNote6.0.1NeedsCompilation yesRepository CRANDate/Publication2022-11-0616:30:02UTC12RcppCCTZ-package R topics documented:RcppCCTZ-package (2)formatDatetime (3)parseDatetime (4)toTz (5)tzDiff (6)Index8RcppCCTZ-package A Simple Wrapper to the CCTZ Library for Time Zone CalculationsDescriptionCCTZ contains two underlying libraries which build on the C++11library chrono.Thefirst covers civil time for computing with human-scale time such as dates and time.It is header-only.The second covers time zones and allow translation between absolute time and civil time.RcppCCTZ brings CCTZ to R by means of Rcpp.DetailsCCTZ requires a valid timezone library as well as recent-enough compiler to cope with C++11.Windows is supported since version0.2.0via the g++-4.9compiler,but note that it provides an incomplete C++11library.The std::get_time function was ported from libc++of the LLVM to enable this.However,string formatting is more limited as the libc++library used by g++-4.9does not provide complete C++11semantics.As one example,CCTZ frequently uses"%F%T"which do not work on Windows;one has to use"%Y-%m-%d%H:%M:%S".Author(s)Dirk Eddelbuettel wrote the package;Dan Dillon ported std::get_time from LLVM’s libc++;Bradley White and Greg Miller wrote the underlying CCTZ library.Maintainer:Dirk Eddelbuettel<**************>ReferencesThe CCZT repository at https:///google/cctz has additional information.ExampleshelloMoon()formatDatetime3 formatDatetime Format a Datetime vector as a string vectorDescriptionFormat a Datetime vectorUsageformatDatetime(dtv,fmt="%Y-%m-%dT%H:%M:%E*S%Ez",lcltzstr="UTC",tgttzstr="UTC")formatDouble(secv,nanov,fmt="%Y-%m-%dT%H:%M:%E*S%Ez",tgttzstr="UTC")Argumentsdtv A Datetime vector object to be formattedfmt A string with the format,which is based on strftime with some extensions;see the CCTZ documentation for details.lcltzstr The local timezone object for creation the CCTZ timepointtgttzstr The target timezone for the desired formatsecv A numeric vector with seconds since the epochnanov A numeric vector with nanoseconds since the epoch,complementing secv. DetailsAn alternative to format.POSIXct based on the CCTZ library.The formatDouble variant uses two vectors for seconds since the epoch and fractional nanoseconds,respectively,to provide fuller resolution.ValueA string vector with the requested format of the datetime objectsNoteWindows is now supported via the g++-4.9compiler,but note that it provides an incomplete C++11 library.This means we had to port a time parsing routine,and that string formatting is more limited.As one example,CCTZ frequently uses"%F%T"which do not work on Windows;one has to use "%Y-%m-%d%H:%M:%S".Author(s)Dirk Eddelbuettel4parseDatetime Examples##Not run:now<-Sys.time()formatDatetime(now)#current(UTC)time,in full precision RFC3339formatDatetime(now,tgttzstr="America/New_York")#same but in NYformatDatetime(now+0:4)#vectorised##End(Not run)parseDatetime Parse a Datetime vector from a string vectorDescriptionParse a Datetime vectorUsageparseDatetime(svec,fmt="%Y-%m-%dT%H:%M:%E*S%Ez",tzstr="UTC")parseDouble(svec,fmt="%Y-%m-%dT%H:%M:%E*S%Ez",tzstr="UTC")Argumentssvec A string vector from which a Datetime vector is to be parsedfmt A string with the format,which is based on strftime with some extensions;see the CCTZ documentation for details.tzstr The local timezone for the desired formatDetailsAn alternative to as.POSIXct based on the CCTZ libraryValueA Datetime vector object for parseDatetime,a numeric matrix with two columns for seconds andnanoseconds for parseDoubleAuthor(s)Dirk EddelbuetteltoTz5Examplesds<-getOption("digits.secs")options(digits.secs=6)#max valueparseDatetime("2016-12-0710:11:12","%Y-%m-%d%H:%M:%S")#full secondsparseDatetime("2016-12-0710:11:12.123456","%Y-%m-%d%H:%M:%E*S")#fractional seconds parseDatetime("2016-12-07T10:11:12.123456-00:00")##default RFC3339formatparseDatetime("20161207101112.123456","%E4Y%m%d%H%M%E*S")#fractional seconds now<-trunc(Sys.time())parseDatetime(formatDatetime(now+0:4))#vectorisedoptions(digits.secs=ds)toTz Shift datetime object from one timezone to anotherDescriptionChange from one given timezone to another.UsagetoTz(dtv,tzfrom,tzto,verbose=FALSE)Argumentsdtv A DatetimeVector object specifying when the difference is to be computed.tzfrom Thefirst time zone as a character vector.tzto The second time zone as a character vector.verbose A boolean toggle indicating whether more verbose operations are desired,de-fault is FALSE.DetailsTime zone offsets vary by date,and this helper function converts a Datetime object from one given timezone to another.ValueA DatetimeVector object with the given(civil time)determined by the incoming object(and itstimezone)shifted to the target timezone.Author(s)Dirk EddelbuettelExamples##Not run:toTz(Sys.time(),"America/New_York","Europe/London")#this redoes the Armstrong on the moon in NYC and Sydney exampletoTz(ISOdatetime(1969,7,20,22,56,0,tz="UTC"),"America/New_York","Australia/Sydney",verbose=TRUE) #we can also explicitly format for Sydney timeformat(toTz(ISOdatetime(1969,7,20,22,56,0,tz="UTC"),"America/New_York","Australia/Sydney",verbose=TRUE),tz="Australia/Sydney")##End(Not run)tzDiff Return difference between two time zones at a given date.DescriptionDifference between two given timezones at a specified date.UsagetzDiff(tzfrom,tzto,dt,verbose=FALSE)Argumentstzfrom Thefirst time zone as a character vector.tzto The second time zone as a character vector.dt A Datetime object specifying when the difference is to be computed.verbose A boolean toggle indicating whether more verbose operations are desired,de-fault is FALSE.DetailsTime zone offsets vary by date,and this helper function computes the difference(in hours)betweentwo time zones for a given date time.ValueA numeric value with the difference(in hours)between thefirst and second time zone at the givendateAuthor(s)Dirk EddelbuettelExamples##Not run:#simple call:difference nowtzDiff("America/New_York","Europe/London",Sys.time())#tabulate difference for every week of the yeartable(sapply(0:52,function(d)tzDiff("America/New_York","Europe/London",as.POSIXct(as.Date("2016-01-01")+d*7)))) ##End(Not run)Index∗packageRcppCCTZ-package,2example0(RcppCCTZ-package),2example1(RcppCCTZ-package),2example2(RcppCCTZ-package),2example3(RcppCCTZ-package),2example4(RcppCCTZ-package),2 exampleFormat(RcppCCTZ-package),2 formatDatetime,3formatDouble(formatDatetime),3 helloMoon(RcppCCTZ-package),2 parseDatetime,4parseDouble(parseDatetime),4 RcppCCTZ(RcppCCTZ-package),2 RcppCCTZ-package,2toTz,5tzDiff,68。
跨文化交际考试重点归纳work Information Technology Company.2020YEAR题型：part I, True or False,30% （提醒学生在答题时要正确的画A，错的画B）15x2 （除第八章）part II. Multiple Choices 20%, 20x1.(2,4,5细节)Part III. Cultural Puzzles 10% (与课后习题中的cultrual puzzles 类似，不过是四个选项，范围为课后习题中的cultural puzzles 和我们在每个单元划出的重点案例）5X2.Part IV. Term Matching 15%（名词解释，从备选的terms 中选择与其对应的definitions，要考到的terms 都已经发给大家） 15x1.Part V. Short-Answer Questions 15% (简答题，范围在我们划过的重点内） 5X3. Part VI. Case Study 10% (课外案例分析，阅读一个案例，回答三个小问题，题目不会超出课内讲解的内容）10 x1.要补充的重点为p114, （E. Discover the meaning of some common gestures in English), p129, (B. What are the characteristics of feminine talk and masculine talk respectively)另外让学生深入研究unit 5 和Unit 2，Unit 4(culturally-loaded words)，以及每单元的重点案例，以及单元后面的练习A, B(划过的问答题）,C (Euphemism Understanding), 以及E (cultural puzzles)TermsUnit 11. Economic globalization:经济全球化 the integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, and the spread of technology.2. Global village:地球村 All the different parts of the world form one community linked together by electronic communications, especially the Internet.3. Melting pot:大熔炉a socio-cultural assimilation of people of different backgrounds and nationalities.4. Cultural Diversity:文化多样性the mix of people from various backgrounds in the labor force with a full mix of cultures and sub-cultures to which members belong.5. Intercultural communication:跨文化交际communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.6. Culture:文化 a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms, which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people.7. Enculturation:文化适应all the activities of learning one’s culture are called enculturation.8. Acculturation:文化传入 the process which adopts the changes brought about by another culture and develops an increased similarity between the two cultures.9. Ethnocentrism:民族优越感the belief that your own cultural background is superior.munication:交际to share with or to make common, as in giving to anothera part or share of your thoughts, hopes, and knowledge.（以下为components of communication)PS: what is the difference between encoding & decodingEncoding is the process of putting an idea into a symbol.Decoding is the process of assigning meaning to the symbols received.11. Source发送信息的人The source is the person with an idea he or she desires to communicate.12.Encoding编码Unfortunately (or perhaps fortunately), humans are not able to share thoughts directly. Your communication is in the form of a symbol representing the idea you desire to communicate. Encoding is the process of putting an idea into a symbol.13.Message信息The term message identifies the encoded thought. Encoding is the process, the verb; the message is the resulting object.14.Channel渠道The term channel is used technically to refer to the means by which the encoded message is transmitted. The channel or medium, then, may be print, electronic, or the light and sound waves of the face-to-face communication. 15.Noise噪音The term noise technically refers to anything that distorts the message the source encodes.16.Receiver接的人The receiver is the person who attends to the message.17.Decoding解码Decoding is the opposite process of encoding and just as much an active process. The receiver is actively involved in the communication process by assigning meaning to the symbols received.18.Receiver response反馈The receiver is the person who attends to the message. Receiver response refers to anything the receiver does after having attended to and decoded the message.19.Feedback反馈Feedback refers to that portion of the receiver response of which the source has knowledge and to which the source attends and assigns meaning. 20.Context语境The final component of communication is context. Generally, context can be defined as the environment in which the communication takes place and which helps define the communication.精讲案例Case 1 (p.1) case 2 (p.2)思考题1、what are the four trends that lead to the development of the global villageP8-9+简要说明convenient transportation systemsinnovative communication systemseconomic globalizationwidespread migrations2.What are the three ingredients of culture?Artifacts(the material and spiritual products people produce)Behavior(what they do)Concept(what they think)3.How to understand cultural iceberg? P7The aspects of culture that are explicit,visible,taught.The aspects of culture that are intangible and not taught directly.4.What are the characteristic of culture?Shared ,learned,dynamic,ethnocentric(文化中心主义），5.What are the characteristic of communication?Dynamic,irreversible,symbolic,systematic,transactional,contextualUnit 2-411. Pragmatics:语用学the study of the effect that language has on human perceptions and behavior.12. Semantics:语意 the study of the meaning of words.13. Denotation:字面意思 the literal meaning or definition of a word --- the explicit, particular, defined meaning.14. Connotation:弦外之音the suggestive meaning of a word --- all the values, judgments, and beliefs implied by a word, the historical and associative accretion of the unspoken significance behind the literal meaning.15. Taboo:禁忌语 some objects, words or actions that are avoided by a particular group of people, or in certain culture for religious or social reasons.16. Euphemism:委婉语 the act of substituting a mild, indirect, or vague term for one considered harsh, blunt, or offensive.精讲案例Case 1, case 2(p.17) case 4 (p. 19) Case 2 (p 43) case 3 (p.45) Case 1 (p.67) case 3 (p.69)思考题6. How is Chinese addressing different from American addressing? (p.33)The Americans tend to address only with given names while the Chinese may use the full name. Even when the full names are used in some formal occasions by the Americans,the given names would be placed before the surname while the Chinese would do the opposite.Chinese often extend kinship terms to people not related by blood or marriage while the Americans seldom do so.The Chinese tend to address the people with titles but in English only a few occupation or titles could be used.7. What are the social functions of compliments (p.60) (答案p50 第一段)Compliments have a series of social functions: creating or reinforcing solidarity, greeting people, expressing thanks or congratulations, encouraging people, softening criticism, starting a conversation, or even overcoming embarrassment. Unit 517. Chronemics:时间学 The study of how people perceive and use time.18. Monochronic time:一元时间概念paying attention to and doing only one thing at a time.19. Polychronic time:多元时间概念being involved with many things at once.20. Proxemics:空间学the perception and use of space.21. Kinetics:身势学the study of body language22. Paralanguage:辅助语言involving sounds but not words and lying between verbal and nonverbal communication.精讲案例case 1 (p. 85) case 3 (p.87) case 5, 6 (p.90) case 7 (p.91)思考题8. What are the different features of M-time and P-time? (p97)M-time means paying attention to and doing only one thing at a time.M-time is noted for its emphasis on schedules, segmentation and promptness. It features one event at a time. Time is perceived as a linear structure and something concrete tangible.P-time means being involved with many things at once.P-time is less rigid and clock-bound. It features several activities at the same time. It is more flexible and human-centered.9. what is the meaning of common gestures in English P114 (答案P233-234)Unit 6精讲案例 case 1 (p.115) case 2 (p.116) p.124-126中的小案例思考题9. How is gender different from sex? （p.129） (答案P.119/120)10. What has influenced the gender socialization?There are two primary influences on gender socialization: family communication, particularly between mothers and children and recreational interaction among children.11.What are the six principles for effective cross-gender communication (p. 129) (答案127-128)Suspend judgement, recognize the validity of different communication styles, provide translation cues, enlarge your own communication style, suspend judgement.12.what are the characteristics of feminine talk and masculine talk respectively?P123Unit 7精讲案例case 1 (p.137) case 3 (p.139)13.Discuss the concepts of high context culture and low context culture (p153) (结合最后一个单元中ppt的讲解，了解high-context culture 和low-context culture 两个概念)A high-context communication or message is one in which most of the information is already in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicitly transmitted part of the message. In high-context cultures, verbal messages have little meaning without the surrounding context, which includes the overall relationship between all thepeople engaged in communication. (沉默是金；一切尽在不言中；心有灵犀一点通)A low context communication is the just the opposite; i.e. the mass of the information is vested in the explicit code.High-context culture low-context cultureJapanese Chinese Korean American ………….. German German-SwissUnit 923. A planetary culture:行星文化a culture that integrates eastern mysticism with western science and rationalism.24. Intercultural person:跨文化的人 represents someone whose cognitive, affective, and behavioral characteristics are not limited but open to growth beyond the psychological parameters of his or her own culture.思考题13. What are the American/Chinese cultural values like in terms of Cultural Orientation put forward by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck?（ppt中的补充内容）As far as the human nature is concerned, American culture holds that it is evil but perfectible through hard work. As to the relation of man to nature, they think mankind can conquer nature. They also have a linear time concept and therefore they are future-oriented. They focus on doing and think that only actions can solve the problem. They are quite individualistic and therefore they focus less on the benefits of the group.As far as the human nature is concerned, Chinese culture holds that it is good but corruptible without proper education. As to the relation of man to nature, they think mankind can live in harmony with nature. They also have a cyclical time concept and therefore they are past-oriented. They have a being-and-becoming attitude towards activity and think that man should keep an inner peace as nothing is eternal. They are quite collective and therefore they focus more on the benefits of the group. 14. Identify the features of each of four Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and use them to analyze the cases (案例分析)。
