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二、选择题1. Derivational morpheme contrasts sharply with inflectional morpheme in that the former changes the _____ while the latter does not.（北二外2017研）A. meaningB. word classC. formD. speech sound【答案】B【解析】morpheme语素，分为自由语素和黏着语素，其中黏着语素包括词根和词缀两种类型，词缀分为派生词缀（derivational affixes）和屈折词缀（inflectional affixes）。
派生词缀黏附在词根语素上构成新词，也即增加了新的词汇义内容或改变了词的类别归属。
屈折词缀只能改变一个词的形式，不能构成新词。
也即屈折词缀增加的是表示句法范畴的意义，并且总是不改变词的类别归属。
即两者重要区别在于是否改变了词的类别，故B为正确答案。
2. The branch of linguistics that studies the systems and patterns of speech soundsin a language is called _____.（对外经贸2017研）A. acousticsB. phonologyC. phoneticsD. articulation【答案】B【解析】音位学是研究人类语言中的语音模块系统和模式的方法。
3. Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest, and explain the reason in ONE sentence.（南京大学2007研）A. resolutionB. residentC. restartD. resignation【答案】C【解析】/s/ 在restart中位于清辅音前，所以被轻音化。
第10章认知语言学10.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Cognitive linguistics认知语言学2. Categorization and categories范畴化与范畴3. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy概念隐喻与转喻4. Iconicity and grammaticalization象似性与语法化常考考点：认知语言学定义；范畴化与范畴定义分类等；概念隐喻与转喻的定义，层次分类；象似性的分类以及语法化等。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of cognitive linguisticsII. Categorization and categories1. Definition of categorization2. The classical theory3. The prototype theory4. Levels of categorizationIII. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy1. Conceptual metaphor2. Conceptual metonymyIV. Iconicity1. Iconicity of order2. Iconicity of distance3. Iconicity of complexityV. GrammaticalizationI. Definition of cognitive linguistics (认知语言学定义)【考点：名词解释】Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information.认知语言学是一种研究自然语言的方法，集中研究语言组织，处理与传达信息的作用。
第二部分章节题库第1章导论I.Fill in the blanks.1.In Saussure’s view,the relationship between signifier(sound image)andsignified(concept)is_____.（北二外2003研）【答案】arbitrary【解析】索绪尔认为符号的形式或声音与其意义之间没有逻辑联系，所以两者之间的关系是任意的。
2.Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present(in time and space)at the moment of communication.This quality is labeled as_____.（北二外2003研）【答案】displacement【解析】移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、事件和观点。
3._____refers to the role language plays in communication(e.g.to express ideas, attitudes)or in particular social situations(e.g.Religious,legal).（北二外2016研）【答案】Function【解析】本题考查语言学中对“语言的功能”的定义。
功能指的是语言在沟通中（例如表达观点、态度）或在特定社交场合（如宗教、法律）中所起的作用。
4.The features that define our human languages can be called_____features.（北二外2006研）【答案】design【解析】人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。
第10章认知语言学I. Fill in the blanks.1. ______ is the mental process of classification, while ______ is the products of the preceding process.【答案】Categorization; category【解析】范畴化是人类对经验进行分类的过程。
范畴是范畴化的产物。
2. ______ is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information.【答案】Cognitive linguistics【解析】认知语言学是一种研究自然语言的方法，集中研究语言组织，处理与传达信息的作用。
3. There are three aspects in basic-level categories: ______, ______ and ______.【答案】perception; communication; knowledge organization【解析】基本层次范畴的三方面：感知，交流和知识系统。
Ⅱ. Multiple Choices.1. In the following sentences, which is not a metonymy?A. The sax has the flu today.B. Watergate changed American politics.C. Wall Street is in a panic.D. She is the apple in her parents’eyes.【答案】D【解析】其他三句为转喻，D为暗语。
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTIONDefinition : linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is always guided by the three cannons of science:exhaustiveness, consistency and economy.LinguisticsLinguistics versus traditional grammar:Scope Microlinguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Macrolinguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics Neurolinguistics StylisticsDiscourse analysis Computational linguistics Cognitive linguisticsDefinition:Ding-Dong Theory: human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered. Sing-Song Theory: language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise.Pooh-Pooh Theory: language came from interjections, which express he speaker ’s emotions.Origins Yo-He-Ho Theory: language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work.Ta-Ta Theory : language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongues movements.Bow-Wow Theory: language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature.DesignfeaturesFunctionsLinguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written while traditional grammaremphasizes the priority of written language.Traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages. Linguistics describes each language on its own merits. language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system---elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles. Language is arbitrary --- there is no intrinsic connection between the word (e.g. pen) and the thing(e.g.what we write with).Language is vocal---the primary medium for all languages is sound. Language is used for human communication ---it is human-specific, very different form systems of animal communication. Arbitrarines s: this refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, English should use the sounds/d ɔg/ to refer to the animal dog, but Chinese should use “gou ” to refer to te same animal. A dog may be called a pig if the first man happens to name it as a “pig ”. So, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack ” and “bang ” are exceptions, but words these are relatively few compared withe the total number of words in language. Duality: language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Productivity : productivity or creativity refers to man ’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before. Interchangeability : interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease. Displacement: displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time. Specialization : specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Cultural transmission : language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A human being brought up in isolations simply doesn ’t acquire language, as is demonstrated by the studies of children brought up by animals without human contact. Animals transmit their cries simply from parent to child, while human baby doesn ’t speak any language at birth. What language a baby is going to speak is determined by the culture he is born into. A Chinese baby born and brought up in London by an English family will speak English, while an English kid brought up in a Chinese community will speak Chinese.Phatic function/communion Directive function Informative functionInterrogative function Expressive function Evocative function Performative functionSome major concepts in linguisticsDescriptive and prescriptive grammarDescriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language; while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language.As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Most modern linguistics is descriptive.Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsWhen we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on he difference in two or more than two tates of language over decades or centuries.Langue and paroleF.de Saussure made an important distinction between langue and parole. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue. Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech.Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is , the actual use of this knowledge.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSaussure has put forward another pair of concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. The former refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements, which form linear sequences. The later means the vertical relationship between forms, which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.Functionalism and formalismFunctionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication. Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.课后练习If language is partially defined as communication, can we call the noises that dogs make language? Why or why not? No,we can’t call the noises that dogs make as language even though language is partially defined as communication. There are two reasons for that: first, language is human-specific,it is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used only for human communication. Second, language has design features which are totally lack in animal communication systems. For example, language has two levels of structures: at one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Noises made by dogs represent certain meaning but can not be further analyzed into smaller units.What is the difference between a prescriptive and a descriptive approach to language?Descriptive approach to language attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive approach to language tells people what should be in the language. Most contemporary linguists believe that whatever occurs naturally in the language should be described. Certain forms are sued more regularly than others and by different people. Though some forms occur less frequently they should not be ignored. They can all be recorded and explained as aspects of the languages since hey are actually used.A wolf is able to express subtle gradations of emotion by different positions of the ears, the lips, and the tail. There are eleven postures of the tail that express such emotions as self-confidence, confident threat, lack of tension, uncertain threat, depression, defensiveness, active submission, and complete submission. This system seems to be complex. Suppose there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express in this way. Would you then say a wolf had a language similar to man’s ? If not, why not?No, we can not say a wolf has a language similar to that of men even though there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express with his positions of body parts. There are two reasons for that:First, language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is human-specific. Second, language has design features which are lack in animals’communication systems. For example, language has two levels of structures: at one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. But in wolf’s communication system, one position stands for one certain meaning, and can not be further analyzed into smaller units. And no the other hand, human linguistic units can be grouped and regrouped, arranged and rearranged according to certain rules but those positions owned by wolf have no such features. Therefore, wolf’s this system is not so productive as human languages.Chapter 2 THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE INTRODUCTIONPhonology : is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.Phoneme:Minimal pairsandminimal sets\Free variationDistinctive featuressyllablesConsonant clusterSuprasegmentalsWith some phonetic knowledge we can give a much more precise description to speech sounds. And with somephonological knowledge we can become more aware of the functions of sounds in different languages. Moreimportantly, phonetics and phonology have made the greatest contribution to “teaching”machines to “talk”.Phoneme is the phonological units of language, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which anddistinguish meaning.For example, sip and zip is signaled by the fact that the initial sound of the first word is s/s/ and the initial sound of thesecond word is z/z/./s/and /z/can therefore distinguish or contrast words. Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes.Minimal pairs are pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound.For example, chunk andjunk ,ban and bin, be and bat, fan and van, fine and vine, sink and zinc, site and side are minimal pairs in English.When a group of words can be differentiated each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in thesame position), then we have a minimal set. For example, a minimal set based on the vowel phonemes of Englishwould include feat, fit ,fate fat fought and foot, and one based on consonants could have big, pig, rig, fig, dig and wig.when two or more sounds occur in the same positon without any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be infree variation.For example, there are two pronunciation of the word either,we can say /i:δər/ and /’aıδər/.When a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another it is a distinctive feature (or a phonemic feature).For example, seal and zeal distinguishes by /s/ ad /z/,/s/ is voiceless and /z/ is voiced,so /s/ and /z/ is a voicingdifference.The English word beautiful consists of three speech units: beau-ti-ful. These units, which are often longer thanone sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables.Syllable structure syllableonset Rime(rhyme)Nucleus(peak) codaConsonant(s) vowel consonant(s)In English some words may contain a sequence of two or more consonants in one syllable, for example, /spl/ in/’splendid/. Sequences of consonants like this are called consonant clusters.Initial cluster: /spl/ in /’splӕʃ/ splash Final cluster: /st/ in /test/ test Medial cluster: /str/ in /’peıstrı/ pastryA word which begins with three-consonant clusters always observes three strict rules:The first consonant must be /s/The second phoneme must be /p /or /t/ or /k/The third consonant must be /l / or /r / or /w / or /j /Sound contrasts that extend over several segments (phonemes),and such contrasts are called suprasegmentals.Suprasegmental featuresStress IntonationWhen a word has more than one syllable, one ofthem will be pronounced with more prominencethan others. This brings us to another speechsound phenomenon, that of stress.When sounds which are identical as to their place ormanner features may differ in length, pitch or loudness.When speaking, people generally raise and lower thepitch of their voice. This phenomenon is calledintonation.Definition: The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics.Articulatory phonetics, which is the study of how speech sounds are produced, or “articulated ”. Three research fields Acoustic phonetics, which deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air.Auditory phonetics, which deals with how speech sounds are perceived by the listener.ArticulatorsandfunctionsVoicedandvoiceless soundsNasalandoral soundsVariations of soundsV owelsClassification of English Speech Sounds Consonants Pharynx is a tube which begins just above the larynx. Velum or soft palate i s seen in the position that allows air to pass through the nose and the mouth. Hard palate is often called the “roof of the mouth ”, you can feel its smooth curved surface with your tongue. Alveolar ridge or alveolum is between the top front teeth and hard palate. Tongue can be moved into many different places and different shapes. Larynx is also an articulator. Notices Jaws are sometimes called articulators,but the jaws are not articulators in the same way as others. The nose and the nasal cavity not articulators as others. Teeth Lips When the vocal cords are spread apart, the airstream from the lungs is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freely. The sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless sounds. The sounds represented by /p/,/t/,/k/,and /s/ in the English words seep/si:p/,seat/si:t/,and seek/si:k/ are voiceless sounds. When the vocal cords are drawn together, the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced sounds. The sounds represented by /b/, /d/, /g/ and /z/ in the English words cob/k ɒb/,cod/k ɒd/,cog/k ɒg/,and daze/de ız / are voiced sounds. When the velum is lowered, air escapes through the nose as well as the mouth; sounds produced this way are called nasal sounds. There are three nasal consonants /m/, /n/,and /ŋ/ in English. When the velum is raised all the way to touch the back of the throat, the passage through the nose is cut off. When the nasal passage is blocked in this way, the air can escape only through the mouth. Sounds produced this way are called oral sounds. /p/ and /b/ are oral sounds. Definition: vowels are sounds produced without obstruction, so o turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived. Front vowels: /i:/ /ı/ /e/ /ɛ/ /ӕ/ /ɑ/ The height of the tongue Central vowels: /з:/ /ə/ /ʌ/ Back vowels: /u:/ /u/ /ɔ:/ /ɔ/ /ɑ:/ The shape of the lip Rounded vowels: /u:/ /u/ /ɔ:/ /ɔ/Unrounded vowels: /i:/ /ı/ /e/ /ɛ/ /ӕ/ /ɑ/ /з:/ /ə/ /ʌ/ /ɑ:/Open vowels: /ӕ/ /ɑ/ /ɔ/ /ɑ:/ The width of the mouth Close vowels: /i:/ /ı/ /u:/ /u/ Semi-open vowels: /ɔ://e/ /ɛ/ /з:/ /ə/ /ʌ/Consonants are sounds produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. Bilabials / p, b, m, w/ Labiodentals / f, v/Dentals /ө, δ /in terns of place of articulation Alveolars / t, d, n, s, z, r, l / Palatals / ʤ, ʧ / Velars /k, g, ŋ /glottal /h /Stops / p, b, t, d, k, g / Fricatives /f, v, ө, δ, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h / Affricates / ʤ, ʧ /In terms of manners of articulation Liquids /l, r /Nasals /m, n, ŋ /Glides /j, w /Liaison: The phenomenon of the linking of two words in speech, in particular when the second word begins with a vowel, is called liaison. The phrase “an egg ” is often pronounced /ə’neg/.Elision : the loss of a sound or sounds in speech is called elision. The word “suppose ” is often pronounced as /sp əʊz/, “factory ” as /’f ӕktr ı/.Assimilation : the way that sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables is called assimilation. In English the negative prefix occurs as “im-” before words such as “possible ”---”impossible ”.CAPTER 2 课后练习2.What is the test most often used for determining phonemes in a language?Minimal pair test or substitution test is the first rule of thumb to determine the phonemes of any language, that is , to see whether substituting one sound for another result in a different word. If it does , the two sound represent different phonemes. For example, we see from the contrast between fine and vine and between chunk and junk that /f /, /v /,/ʧ /and /ʤ/ must be phonemes in English because substituting /v/ for /f /,or /ʤ/ for /ʧ / produce a different word.3. What’s the difference between an open and a closed syllable?The units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables. Syllables can be divided into two sorts: the open syllables and the closed syllables. Syllables like me, by or no that have an onset and a nucleus, but no coda are called open syllables; while the coda is present in the syllables like up, cup or hat, which is called closed syllables.4.For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature or features which they share/p/ /b/ /m/ feature: bilabial,stop,consonant/g/ /p/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /b/ feature: stop, consonant/ʊ/ /u:/ /ɒ/ feature: back, rounded, vowel the single feature that distinguishes the following pairs of sounds./ δ / : /ө,/ voi cing ( voiceless vs. voiced )/p /: /f / place of articulation ( bilabial vs. labio-dental ) /ı /: /e / the height of the tone rising. ( high vs. mid )/b /: /m / manner of articulation. (stop vs. nasal) /s /: /ʃ / place of articulation (alveolar vs. palatal) /s /: /δ / place of articulation (alveolar vs. dental)6.The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial and final positions. Initial Medial finalpit/bit rapid/rabid cap/cabFind similar seets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given:Initial Medial final/k/-/g/ Kook/gook raking/raging lak/leg/m/-/n/ Moon/noon dime/dine beam/bean/b/-/v/ Berry/very dribble/drivel dub/dove/b/-/m/ Be/me ribbed/rimmed rib/rim/p/-/f/ Pat/fat depend/defend rap/raff7.The english data below provide examples of stress placement on certain verbs.A ap’pear col’lide e’rase ca’rouse cor’rode Ba’daptcol’lapsee’lectob’servetor’mentCas’tonishcon’sideri’maginede’termine‘promise1)Describe in words the stress placement on these verbs. Make sure you refer to syllable structure in your statement.2)Provide syllable representations of the words col’lide, e’lect, and con’sider in order to illustrate your conclusion about stress placement in these forms.1)Stress in languages may be predictable by rules: lexical category, morphological structure and number of syllables all seem to berelevant factors for the placement of stress in English words.For two-syllable verbs, the final(ultimate) syllable will receive main stress if tie has a long vowel or ends in at least two consonants. In this case, the first(penultimate) syllable may have secondary stress, contain an unstressed full vowel, or contain a reduced vowel. For example, a’dapt, e’lect.If the ultimate syllable does not have a long vowel or end in two or more consonants, the penultimate syllable is stressed, as in’promise. Otherwise, the main stress will be put on the second syllable. For example, ca’rouse, ob’serve, astonish, de’termine.If there is a double-letter in the word, the main stress should be put between them, or in other words, on the second one of the two. Such as ap’pear, cor’rode, col’lide, col’lase2)They are two-syllable words; therefore the final (ultimate ) syllable will receive main stress,, as col’lide, e’lect and con’side.。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》主要内容Chapter 1 IntroductionI. Definition of linguisticsThe scientific or systemic study of language, which is always guided by the three canons of science: exhaustiveness, consistency and economy.II. Linguistics vs. traditional grammarLinguistics differs from traditional grammar at least in three basic ways.1. Linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness.2. Linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.3. Linguistics describes each language on its own merits.III. Scope of linguisticsMicrolinguistics: Phonetics; Phonology; Morphology; Syntax; Semantics; Pragmatics Macrolinguistics:Sociolinguitics; Psycholinguistics; Neurolinguistics; Stylistics; Discourse analysis; Computational linguistics; Cognitive linguistics; Applied linguisticsIV. Definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.V. Origin of languageDing-Dong Theory: Human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered.Sing-Song Theory: Language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise.Pooh-Pooh Theory: Language came from interjections, which express the speaker’s emotions. Yo-He-Ho Theory: Language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work.Ta-Ta Theory: Language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongue movements. Bow-Wow Theory:Language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature.VI. Design features of language1. Arbitrariness: This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with.2. Duality: Language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning.3. Productivity: Productivity or creativity refers to man’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language.4. Interchangeability:Interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive message, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.5. Displacement: Displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time.6. Specialization: Specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication.7. Cultural transmission:Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity.VII. Functions of language1. Phatic function / communion: Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain socialcontact between the speaker and the hearer. Greetings, farewells and comments on the weather serve this function.2. Directive function:Language is used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences are of this function.3. Informative function: Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. Declarative sentences serve this function.4. Interrogative: Language is used to ask for information from others. All questions expecting replies serve this function.5. Expressive function:Language is used to reveal the speaker’s attitudes and feelings. Ejaculations serve this function.6. Evocative function:Language is used to create certain feelings in the hearers. Jokes, advertising, and propaganda serve this function.7. Performative function:Language is used to do things or to perform acts. The judge’s imprisonment sentences, the president’s declaration of war or the Queen’s naming of a ship, etc., serve this function.VIII. Some major concepts in linguistics1. Descriptive and prescriptive grammar(1) Descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language; while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language.(2) As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Most modern linguistics is descriptive.2. Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsWhen we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.3. Lange and paroleF. de Saussure made an important distinction between langue and parole: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refer to particular realization s of langue. Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech.4. Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have their language as a system of abstract formal relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is, the actual use of this knowledge.5. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSaussure has put forward another pair of concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. The former refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements, which form linear sequences. The later means the vertical relationship between forms, which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.6. Functionalism and formalismFunctionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication.Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.Chapter 2 Sounds in languageI. Phonetics1. Phonetics:The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics.2. Three major research fields of PhoneticsArticulatory phonetics: It is the study of how speech sounds are produced, or articulated. Acoustic phonetics: It deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air.Auditory phonetics: It deals with how speech sounds are perceived by the listener.II. Articulators1. Seven major articulators:pharynx, velum or soft palate, hard palate, alveolar ridge or alveolum, tongue, teeth and lips2. Voiced and voiceless soundsWhen the vocal cords are spread apart, the airstream from the lung is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freely. The sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless sounds.When the vocal cords are drawn together, the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced sounds.3. Nasal and oral soundsWhen the velum is lowered, air escapes through the nose as well as the mouth; sounds produced this way are called nasal sounds.When the velum is raised all the way to touch the back of the throat, the passage through the nose is cut off, the air can escape only through the mouth. Sounds produced this way are called oral sounds.III. Classification of English speech sounds1. Consonants(1) Consonants: consonants are sounds produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.(2) Manner of articulation and place of articulationManner of articulation refers to the type of stricture involved in the production of a consonant (the particular way the airstream is obstructed).Place of articulation refers to the involvement of the articulators in the production of a particular consonant (where the airstream is most obstructed).(3) Classification of consonantsIn terms of manners of articulation, consonants can be grouped into stops, fricatives, affricated, liquids, nasals and glides.In terms of place of articulation, the consonants can be grouped into bilabials, labiodentals, dentals, alveolars, palatals, velars and glottal.2. Vowel(1) Vowels: vowels are sounds produced without obstruction, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.(2) The height of the tongue: front vowel; central vowels; back vowels(3) The shape of the lips: rounded vowels; unrounded vowels(4) The width of the mouth: open vowels; close vowels; semi-open vowels(5) Monophthongs and diphthongsMonophthongs: They are those pure vowels that have an unchanging quality, either from the number or the con stant quality.Diphthongs: A sequence of two sounds produced from one vowel position to anther.IV. Variations of sounds1. Liaison: The phenomenon of the linking of two words in speech, in particular when the second word begins with a vowel, is called liaison.2. Elision: The loss of a sound or sounds in speech is called elision.3. Assimilation: The way that sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause change in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables is called assimilation.V. Phonology1. Phonology:phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.2. Phoneme:phoneme is a basic unit of phonological study, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which can distinguish meaning.3. Minimal pairs and setsMinimal pairs are pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound.When a group of words can be differentiated each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then we have a minimal set.4. Free variation: When two or more sounds occur in the same position without any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.5. Distinctive features: When a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another it is a distinctive feature (or a phonemic feature).VI. Syllables and consonant cluster1. Syllables: The English word beautiful consists of three speech units: beau-ti-ful. These units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables. Syllable structure:syllableonset rime (rhyme)nucleus (peak) codaconsonant(s) vowel consonant(s)2. Consonant cluster: In English some words may contain a sequence of two or more consonants in one syllable, for example, /spl/ in /′splendid/. Sequences of consonants like this are called consonant clusters.VII. Suprasegementals1. Suprasegmental features: The sound contrasts that extend over several segments (phonemes), are called suprasegmentals.2. Stress: When a word has more than one syllable, one of them will be pronounced with more prominence than others. This brings us to the speech sounds phenomenon, that of stress.3. Intonation: Speech sounds which are identical as to their place or manner features may differ in length, pitch or loudness. When speaking, people generally raise and lower the pitch of their voice. This phenomenon is called intonation.Chapter 3 MorphologyI. Morphology: morphology, as a branch of linguistics, is the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words.II. MorphemeMorpheme: morpheme is the smallest unit of language, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.2. Types of morphemes(1) Free morphemeFree morphemes are those which may occur alone or constitute words by themselves. All monomorphemes are free morphemes and polymorphemic words, which consist wholly of free morphemes, are compounds.A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is, a free morpheme, such as talk. Such an element is called a root. A word may contain more than one root.When they are used with bound morphemes, the basic word-form involved is technically as the stem.Free morphemes can be divided into two categories. The first one is the set of message we convey. These free morphemes are called lexical morphemes and, since we can create new lexical morphemes for the language rather easily, they are called an open class of words.The second category of free morphemes is called functional morphemes. As we almost never add new functional morphemes to the language, they are called a closed class of words.(2) Bound morphemesSome morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words, e.g. –s, -er, -ed and –ing. Such morphemes are called bound morphemes.Bound morphemes are actually affixes. All affixes in English are bound. Affixes can be joined to the beginning of the root or stem, in which case they are called prefixes. Prefixes can change the meaning or function of the word.Affixes can also be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which case they are called suffixes. Suffixes can also change the meaning or function of the word.Bound morphemes can be classified into two categories. One category is derivational morphemes, which are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.The other category is inflectional morphemes, which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.III. Morphs and allomorphMorphs are the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the level of parole.An allomorph is a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme.IV. Types of word formation1. Compounding:By means of compounding, two free morphemes are combined to form acompound. Compounds have strict patterns. The first element in the compound receives the main stress, but it is generally the second element that determines the compound’s new word class.2. Derivation: Derivation is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes. In contrast to compounding, a derivational word consists of at least a free morpheme and a bound morpheme.3. Other ways of word formation(1) Conversion: Many words have more than one part of speech. A noun can become a verb easily and a verb can be used as a noun. Such instances are called conversion. Conversion is also called zero derivation.(2) Backformation: There are times when we remove a suffix to get a new word. For example, as we have editor, we get edit by dropping or. This process is called backformation.(3) Clipping: The process by which parts of a word have been cut off is called clipping. Clipping occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often in casual speech.(4) Blending: A single new word can also be formed by combing two separate forms. This process is usually called blending. Typically, blending is finished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word.(5) Acronym: Some new words are formed from the first letters of a series of words. They are pronounced as a single word.(6) Initialism: Some new words are composed of the first letters of a series of words and pronounced by saying each letter in them. These kinds of words are called initialisms.Chapter 4 SyntaxI. Syntax1. Syntax: Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.2. Word classesThe general word classes include: nouns; adjectives; verbs; adverbs; prepositions; pronouns and conjunctions.II. Two approaches1. The prescriptive approach: It is an approach taken by some grammarians, mainly in eighteenth century England, which views grammar as a set of rules for the “proper”use of a language, and it is still to be found today and may be best characterized as the prescriptive approach.2. The descriptive approach:Throughout the 20th century, linguists collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used. This is called the descriptive approach and it is the basis of most modern attempts to characterize the structure of different languages.III. Structural analysisIts main objective is to study the distribution of linguistic forms in a language. The method involves the use of “test-frames” which can be sentences with empty slots in them. By developing a set of test-frames of this type and discovering what forms fit the slots in the test-frames, we can produce a description of some aspects of the sentence structures of a language.1. The constituent structure grammarA grammar which analyzes sentences using only the idea of constituency, which reveals a hierarchy of structural levels, is referred to as a constituent structure grammar.2. Immediate constituent analysis (IC analysis)(1) Definition: The immediate constituent analysis may be defined as the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents ——word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. However, for the sake of convenience, in practice we usually stop at the level of word. The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or with a tree diagram.(2) Advantages: Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed.(3) Problems:①At the beginning, some advocators insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at any level, will be cut into two parts. But this is not always possible.②Constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams in IC analysis. The most serious problem is that there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis.IV. The transformational grammar1. Chomsky’s classical theoryIn the earliest version of transformational grammar sometimes now called the “classical theory”—Chomsky put forward a model which consisted of three parts: a set of phrase structure rules, transformation rules and morphophonemic rules.(1) The phrase structure rules were based on constituent structure analysis but formalized as a set of rules. Chomsky emphasized the generative aspect of such rules although any constituent structure grammar is generative by definition, that is, it can produce many sentences.(2) Chomsky then introduced the idea of a set of transformation rules which could transform these simple “kernel” sentences S NP + VP into a number of related sentences.(3) The morphophonemic rules would apply to the output of the transformational rules. Their function was to provide the correct morphological shape to the various parts of the structure and finally to give the appropriate phonological description.2. The standard theory(1) Deep structure and surface structureThe deep structure is the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents.The surface structure is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.(2) The standard theoryDeep structure to SemanticsTransformational componentSurface structure to PhonologyV. Systemic-Functional grammar1. General accountThe characteristics of the theory are systemic and functional. It characterized Halliday’s theory as more attention is paid to paradigmatic relations than to syntagmatic relations. And this is the main concern of Chomsky. What is new in Halliday is that he has tried to relate the functions of language to its structures. He argues that there are three general functions of language: ideational, interpersonal and textual. And they are related to three grammatical systems: transitivity, mood and theme.2. Three general functions of language(1) The function that in which we conceptualize the world for our own benefit and that of others is called ideational function.(2) Language serves to set up and maintain social and personal relations, including communication roles such as questioner and respondent, and to express the language user’s own attitudes and comments on the content of an utterance. This function of language is called interpersonal function.(3) Language also makes links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used. This is what enables the speaker or writer to construct a text, and enables the listener or reader to distinguish a text from a random set of sentences. This function of language is called textual function.Chapter 5 SemanticsI. Semantics: Semantics is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in all its formal aspects.II. Some approaches to the study of meaning1. Meaning as naming(1) Referential theory or naming theoryThe meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or names, is often called referential theory or naming theory.(2) ProblemsOne of them is that it is not always immediately obvious what is being named.2. Meaning as conceptAny particular sound image is psychologically associated with a particular concept. Semantic triangleconcept………………………..symbol referent“Symbol” is the linguistic element, i.e. word, sentence, etc. and the “referent” is the object in the world of experience, while “concept” is human thought.3. Meaning as behaviorBloomfield argued that meaning exists in the relation between speech and the practical events that precede and follow it. The meaning of a linguistic form is thus defined as observable behaviors. Such an approach to meaning is called behaviorism, or behaviorist theory, which clearly draws on psychology.4. Meaning as contextThe view that meaning is found in the context within which a particular expression is uttered suggests that we can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, the observable context. Such an approach to meaning clearly draws on sociology.5. Meaning as truth conditionsKnowing the meaning of a sentence is the same as knowing the conditions under which the sentence is true or false. And knowing the meaning of a word or expression is knowing the part that it plays in the truth or falsehood of the sentence containing it. Such an approach to meaning is called truth-conditional theory / semantics, which clearly draws on formal logic.III. Word meaning1. Sense and reference(1) Sense is to be defined in terms of relationships which hold between the linguistic elements themselves (mostly words), it is concerned with intralinguistic relations.(2) Reference or extension deals with the relationship between linguistic elements (words, sentences, etc.) and the non-linguistic world of experience, e.g. things, actions, events and qualities.2. Seven types of meaningAccording to the British linguist G. Leech, meaning in its broadest sense can be classified into seven types: conceptual, connotative, social, affective, reflective, collocative and thematic meanings. Among them, connotative, social, affective, reflective and collocative meanings are called associative meaning.(1) Conceptual meaning also called denotative or cognitive meaning, is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. Conceptual meaning can be studied in terms of contrastive features or a binary feature formal.(2) Connotative meaning is the communicative value that a word or a combination of words ahs by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.(3) Social meaning is the meaning which an expression conveys about the contexts or social circumstances of its use.(4) Affective meaning conveys the language user’s feelings, including his attitude or evaluation in shaping his use of language.(5) Reflective meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to anther sense.(6) Collocative meaning: The associations a word gets because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its linguistic context are called collocative meanings.(7) Thematic meaning: It refers to the meaning arises out of the way in which the writer or speaker organizes his message.3. Semantic fields(1) Definition: It is the organization of related words and expression into a system which shows their relationship to one another.(2) Lexical gap: The absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of a language is called lexical gap.4. Componential analysisAll lexical items can be analyzed into a set of semantic features or semantic components which may be universal. This semantic theory is called Componential Analysis (CA).5. Major sense relations(1) Homonymy: In any language there are words which have the same linguistic form but are different in meaning.(2) Polysemy: When a word has two or more meanings that are related conceptually or historically, it is said to be polysemous or polysemic. Words of this kind are called polysemic or polysemous words.(3) Homophony:Words which sound alike but are written differently and often have different meanings are called homophones. Homophones are a type of homonymy, so they are sometimes called homonyms.(4) Synonymy: There are not only words that sound the same but have different meanings; there are also words that sound different but have the same meaning. Such words are called synonyms, and the sense relation of “sameness of meaning” is called synonymy.(5) Antonymy:Words that are opposite in meaning are often called antonyms. The oppositeness of meaning is called antonymy.(6) Hyponymy: It is the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy, where a more particular term (the hyponym) is included in the more general one (the superordinate): X is a Y.(7) Metonymy: It is the sense relation between terms which is the part of the other word and also called part / whole relationship. Metonymy can be expressed by the pattern “X is a part of Y.”IV. Sentence meaning1. Sentence and propositionThe semantic content shared by different expressions is a proposition. Generally speaking, one can find out whether the proposition is true or false.As for the relationship between sentences and proposition, different sentences convey the same message——they express the same proposition.2. Semantic roles(1) Definition: It is the way in which the referent of a noun phrase is involved in the situation described or represented by the clause.(2) Classification:Agent & patientExperiencerInstrumentCauseRecipientBenefactiveLocativeTemporal3. Semantic relationships between sentences(1) Entailment: Entailment is a type of meaning-dependence between one sentence and another. In terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between the two sentences if a entails b: When a is true, b is necessarily true; when b is false, a is false; when b is true, a may be true or false.(2) presuppositionIn terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between two sentences: When a is true, b is necessarily true; when a is false, b is till true; when b is true, a can either be true or false; when b is false, no truth value can be said about a.(3) SynonymyTwo sentences may have the same meaning, that is, in terms of truth value, a has the same truth vale as b: If a is true, b is true; also if a is false, b is false; and vice versa.(4) Inconsistency or contradictionA is inconsistent with b: if a is true, b is false; also, if b is true, a is false.(5) ImplicatureImplicature is also a type of semantic relation between two sentences. If we can draw conclusion b from sentence a, here b is the implicature of a.Chapter 6 PragmaticsI. Pragmatics1. Definition: Pragmatics is the study of speakers’intended meaning, or even the “invisible”meaning, that is, how hearers recognize what is meant even when it isn’t actually said or written.2. Difference between pragmatics analysis and grammatical analysisFirst, grammatical studies look for rules while pragmatic studies look for principles.Second, in grammar studies, we end up with products while in pragmatics we always deal with progress.3. Definition of micropragmatics and macropragmatics(1)To study the meaning of the pieces of language in smaller contexts is called micropragmatics. Phenomena such as reference, deixis, anaphora and presupposition, are the topics in this field.(2) To study on the larger chunks of language, and look deep into the mechanisms. This approach of study is called macropragmatics.II. Micropragmatics1. ReferenceAn inference is any additional information used by the hearer to connect what is said to what must be meant.In pragmatics, the act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something is called reference.。
