计算机网络-外文文献-外文翻译-英文文献-新技术的计算机网络

附录一、英文原文：The NetWorksBirth of the NetThe Internet has had a relatively brief, but explosive history so far. It grew out of an experiment begun in the 1960's by the U.S. Department of Defense. The DoD wanted to create a computer network that would continue to function in the event of a disaster, such as a nuclear war. If part of the network were damaged or destroyed, the rest of the system still had to work. That network was ARPANET, which linked U.S. scientific and academic researchers. It was the forerunner of today's Internet.In 1985, the National Science Foundation (NSF) created NSFNET, a series of networks for research and education communication. Based on ARPANET protocols, the NSFNET created a national backbone service, provided free to any U.S. research and educational institution. At the same time, regional networks were created to link individual institutions with the national backbone service.NSFNET grew rapidly as people discovered its potential, and as new software applications were created to make access easier. Corporations such as Sprint and MCI began to build their own networks, which they linked to NSFNET. As commercial firms and other regional network providers have taken over the operation of the major Internet arteries, NSF has withdrawn from the backbone business.NSF also coordinated a service called InterNIC, which registered all addresses on the Internet so that data could be routed to the right system. This service has now been taken over by Network Solutions, Inc., in cooperation with NSF.How the Web WorksThe World Wide Web, the graphical portion of the Internet, is the most popular part of the Internet by far. Once you spend time on the Web,you will begin to feel like there is no limit to what you can discover. The Web allows rich and diverse communication by displaying text, graphics, animation, photos, sound and video.So just what is this miraculous creation? The Web physically consists of your personal computer, web browser software, a connection to an Internet service provider, computers called servers that host digital data and routers and switches to direct the flow of information.The Web is known as a client-server system. Your computer is the client; the remote computers that store electronic files are the servers. Here's how it works: Let's say you want to pay a visit to the the Louvre museum website. First you enter the address or URL of the website in your web browser (more about this shortly). Then your browser requests the web page from the web server that hosts the Louvre's site. The Louvre's server sends the data over the Internet to your computer. Your webbrowser interprets the data, displaying it on your computer screen.The Louvre's website also has links to the sites of other museums, such as the VaticanMuseum. When you click your mouse on a link, you access the web server for the VaticanMuseum.The "glue" that holds the Web together is called hypertext and hyperlinks. This feature allow electronic files on the Web to be linked so you can easily jump between them. On the Web, you navigate through pages of information based on what interests you at that particular moment, commonly known as browsing or surfing the Net.To access the Web you need web browser software, such as Netscape Navigator or Microsoft Internet Explorer. How does your web browser distinguish between web pages and other files on the Internet? Web pages are written in a computer language called Hypertext Markup Language or HTML.Some Web HistoryThe World Wide Web (WWW) was originally developed in 1990 at CERN, the European Laboratory for Particle Physics. It is now managed by The World Wide Web Consortium, also known as the World Wide Web Initiative.The WWW Consortium is funded by a large number of corporate members, including AT&T, Adobe Systems, Inc., Microsoft Corporation and Sun Microsystems, Inc. Its purpose is to promote the growth of the Web by developing technical specifications and reference software that will be freely available to everyone. The Consortium is run by MIT with INRIA (The French National Institute for Research in Computer Science) acting as European host, in collaboration with CERN.The NationalCenter for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, was instrumental in the development of early graphical software utilizing the World Wide Web features created by CERN. NCSA focuses on improving the productivity of researchers by providing software for scientific modeling, analysis, and visualization. The World Wide Web was an obvious way to fulfill that mission. NCSA Mosaic, one of the earliest web browsers, was distributed free to the public. It led directly to the phenomenal growth of the World Wide Web.Understanding Web AddressesYou can think of the World Wide Web as a network of electronic files stored on computers all around the world. Hypertext links these resources together. Uniform Resource Locators or URLs are the addresses used to locate these files. The information contained in a URL gives you the ability to jump from one web page to another with just a click of your mouse. When you type a URL into your browser or click on a hypertext link, your browser is sending a request to a remote computer to download a file.What does a typical URL look like? Here are some examples:/The home page for study english.ftp:///pub/A directory of files at MIT* available for downloading.news:rec.gardens.rosesA newsgroup on rose gardening.The first part of a URL (before the two slashes* tells you the type of resource or method of access at that address. For example:·http - a hypertext document or directory·gopher - a gopher document or menu·ftp - a file available for downloading or a directory of such files·news - a newsgroup·telnet - a computer system that you can log into over the Internet·WAIS* - a database or document in a Wide Area Information Search database ·file - a file located on a local drive (your hard drive)The second part is typically the address of the computer where the data or service is located. Additional parts may specify the names of files, the port to connect to, or the text to search for in a database.You can enter the URL of a site by typing it into the Location bar of your web browser, just under the toolbar.Most browsers record URLs that you want to use again, by adding them to a special menu. In Netscape Navigator, it's called Bookmarks. In Microsoft Explorer, it's called Favorites. Once you add a URL to your list, you can return to that web page simply by clicking on the name in your list, instead of retyping the entire URL.Most of the URLs you will be using start with http which stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol*. http is the method by which HTML files are transferred over the Web. Here are some other important things to know about URLs:· A URL usually has no spaces.· A URL always uses forward slashes (//).If you enter a URL incorrectly, your browser will not be able to locate the site or resource you want. Should you get an error message or the wrong site, make sure you typed the address correctly.You can find the URL behind any link by passing your mouse cursor over the link. The pointer will turn into a hand and the URL will appear in the browser's status bar, usually located at the bottom of your screen.Domain NamesWhen you think of the Internet, you probably think of ".com." Just what do those three letters at the end of a World Wide Web address mean?Every computer that hosts data on the Internet has a unique numerical address. For example, the numerical address for the White House is 198.137.240.100. But since few people want to remember long strings of numbers, the Domain Name System (DNS)* was developed. DNS, a critical part of the Internet's technical infrastructure*, correlates* a numerical address to a word. To access the White House website, you could type its number into the address box of your web browser. But most people prefer to use "." In this case, the domain name is .In general, the three-letter domain name suffix* is known as a generic top-level domain and describes the type of organization. In the last few years, the lines have somewhat blurred* between these categories..com - business (commercial).edu - educational.org - non-profit.mil - military.net - network provider.gov - governmentA domain name always has two or more parts separated by dots and typically consists of some form of an organization's name and the three-letter suffix. For example, the domain name for IBM is ""; the United Nations is "."If a domain name is available, and provided it does not infringe* on an existing trademark, anyone can register the name for $35 a year through Network Solutions, Inc., which is authorized to register .com, .net and .org domains. You can use the box below to see if a name is a available. Don't be surprised if the .com name you want is already taken, however. Of the over 8 million domain names, 85% are .com domains.ICANN, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers, manages the Domain Name System. As of this writing, there are plans to add additional top-level domains, such as .web and .store. When that will actually happen is anybody's guess.To check for, or register a domain name, type it into the search box.It should take this form: In addition to the generic top-level domains, 244 national top-level domains were established for countries and territories*, for example:.au - Australia.ca - Canada.fr - France.de - Germany.uk - United KingdomFor US $275 per name, you can also register an international domain name with Net Names. Be aware that some countries have restrictions for registering names.If you plan to register your own domain name, whether it's a .com or not, keep these tips in mind:The shorter the name, the better. (But it should reflect your family name, interest or business.)The name should be easy to remember.It should be easy to type without making mistakes.Remember, the Internet is global. Ideally, a domain name will "read" in a language other than English.Decoding Error MessagesAs you surf the Net, you will undoubtedly find that at times you can't access certain websites. Why, you make wonder? Error messages attempt to explain thereason. Unfortunately, these cryptic* messages baffle* most people. We've deciphered* the most common ones you may encounter.400 - Bad RequestProblem: There's something wrong with the address you entered. You may not be authorized* to access the web page, or maybe it no longer exists.Solution: Check the address carefully, especially if the address is long. Make sure that the slashes are correct (they should be forward slashes) and that all the names are properly spelled. Web addresses are case sensitive, so check that the names are capitalized in your entry as they are in the original reference to the website.401 - UnauthorizedProblem: You can't access a website, because you're not on the guest list, your password is invalid or you have entered your password incorrectly.Solution: If you think you have authorization, try typing your password again. Remember that passwords are case sensitive.403 - ForbiddenProblem: Essentially the same as a 401.Solution: Try entering your password again or move on to another site.404 - Not FoundProblem: Either the web page no longer exists on the server or it is nowhere to be found.Solution: Check the address carefully and try entering it again. You might also see if the site has a search engine and if so, use it to hunt for the document. (It's not uncommon for pages to change their addresses when a website is redesigned.) To get to the home page of the site, delete everything after the domain name and hit the Enter or Return key.503 - Service unavailableProblem: Your Internet service provider (ISP) or your company's Internet connection may be down.Solution: Take a stretch, wait a few minutes and try again. If you still have no luck, phone your ISP or system administrator.Bad file requestProblem: Your web browser may not be able to decipher the online form you want to access. There may also be a technical error in the form.Solution: Consider sending a message to the site's webmaster, providing any technical information you can, such as the browser and version you use.Connection refused by hostProblem: You don't have permission to access the page or your password is incorrect.Solution: Try typing your password again if you think you should have access.Failed DNS lookupProblem: DNS stands for the Domain Name System, which is the system that looks up the name of a website, finds a corresponding number (similar to a phone number), then directs your request to the appropriate web server on the Internet. When the lookup fails, the host server can't be located.Solution: Try clicking on the Reload or Refresh button on your browser toolbar. If this doesn't work, check the address and enter it again. If all else fails, try again later.File contains no dataProblem: The site has no web pages on it.Solution: Check the address and enter it again. If you get the same error message, try again later.Host unavailableProblem: The web server is down.Solution: Try clicking on the Reload or Refresh button. If this doesn't work, try again later.Host unknownProblem: The web server is down, the site may have moved, or you've been disconnected from the Net.Solution: Try clicking on the Reload or Refresh button and check to see that you are still online. If this fails, try using a search engine to find the site. It may have a new address.Network connection refused by the serverProblem: The web server is busy.Solution: Try again in a while.Unable to locate hostProblem: The web server is down or you've been disconnected from the Net.Solution: Try clicking on the Reload or Refresh button and check to see that you are still online.Unable to locate serverProblem: The web server is out-of-business or you may have entered the addressincorrectly.Solution: Check the address and try typing it again.二、英文翻译：网络网络的诞生迄今为止，因特网的历史虽比较简短，但仍然是突破性的。

New technique of the computer networkAbstractThe 21 century is an ages of the information economy, being the computer network technique of representative techniques this ages, will be at very fast speed develop soon in continuously creatively, and will go deep into the people's work, life and study. Therefore, control this technique and then seem to be more to deliver the importance. Now I mainly introduce the new technique of a few networks in actuality live of application.keywordsInternet Network System Digital Certificates Grid Storage1. ForewordInternet turns 36, still a work in progressThirty-six years after computer scientists at UCLA linked two bulky computers using a 15-foot gray cable, testing a new way for exchanging data over networks, what would ultimately become the Internet remains a work in progress.University researchers are experimenting with ways to increase its capacity and speed. Programmers are trying to imbue Web pages with intelligence. And work is underway to re-engineer the network to reduce Spam (junk mail) and security troubles.All the while threats loom: Critics warn that commercial, legal and political pressures could hinder the types of innovations that made the Internet what it is today.Stephen Crocker and Vinton Cerf were among the graduate students who joined UCLA professor Len Klein rock in an engineering lab on Sept. 2, 1969, as bits of meaningless test data flowed silently between the two computers. By January, three other "nodes" joined the fledgling network.Then came e-mail a few years later, a core communications protocol called TCP/IP in the late 70s, the domain name system in the 80s and the World Wide Web - now the second most popular application behind e-mail - in 1990. The Internet expanded beyond its initial military and educational domain into businesses and homes around the world.Today, Crocker continues work on the Internet, designing better tools for collaboration. And as security chairman for the Internet's key oversight body, he is trying to defend the core addressing system from outside threats.He acknowledges the Internet he helped build is far from finished, and changes are in store to meet growing demands for multimedia. Network providers now make only "best efforts" at delivering data packets, and Crocker said better guarantees are needed to prevent the skips and stutters now common with video.Cerf, now at MCI Inc., said he wished he could have designed the Internet with security built-in. Microsoft Corp.Yahoo Inc. and America Online Inc., among others, are currently trying to retrofit the network so e-mail senders can be authenticated - a way to cut down on junk messages sent using spoofed addresses.Many features being developed today wouldn't have been possible at birth given the slower computing speeds and narrower Internet pipes, or bandwidth, Cerf said.2.Digital CertificatesDigital certificates are data files used to establish the identity of people and electronic assets on the Internet. They allow for secure, encrypted online communication and are often used to protect online transactions.Digital certificates are issued by a trusted third party known as a certification authority (CA). The CA validates the identity of a certificate holder and “signs” the certificate to a ttest that it hasn’t been forged or altered in any way.New Uses For Digital CertificatesDigital certificates are now being used to provide security and validation for wireless connections, and hardware manufacturers are one of the latest groups to use them. Not long ago, Version Inc. announced its Cable Modem Authentication Services, which allow hardware manufacturers to embed digital certificates into cable modems to help prevent the pirating of broadband services through device cloning.Using Version software, hardware makers can generate cryptographic keys and corresponding digital certificates those manufacturers or cable service providers can use to automatically identify individual modems.This ‘ast-mile’authentication not only protects the value of existing content and services but also positions cable system operators to bring a broad new range of content, applications and value-added services to market.When a CA digitally signs a certificate, its owner can use it as an electronic passport to prove his identity. It can be presented to Web sites, networks or individuals that require secure access.Identifying information embedded in the certificate includes the holder’ s name and e-mail address, the name of the CA, a serial number and any activation or expiration data for the certificate. When the CA verifies a user’s identity, the certificate uses the holder’s public encryption key to protect this data.Certificates that a Web server uses to confirm the authenticity of a Web site for a user’s browser also employ public keys. When a user wants to send confidential information to a Web server, such as a credit-card number for an online transaction, the browser will access the public key in the server’s digital certificate to verify its identity.Role of Public-Key CryptographyThe public key is one half of a pair of keys used in public-key cryptography, which provides the foundation for digital certificates.Public-key cryptography uses matched public and private keys for encryption and decrypt ion. These keys have a numerical value that’s used by an algorithm to scramble information and make it readable only to users with the corresponding decryption key.Others to encrypt information meant only for that person use a person’s public key. When he receives the information, he uses his corresponding private key, which is kept secret, to decrypt the data. A person's public key can be distributed without damaging the private key. A Web server using a digital certificate can use its private key to make sure that only it can decrypt confidential information sent to it over the Internet.The Web server’s certificate is validated by a self-signed CA certificate that identifies the issuing CA. CA certificates are preinstalled on most major Web browsers, including Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator.The CA certificate tells users whether they can trust the Web server certificate when it’s presented to the browser. If the validity of the Web server certificate is affirmed, the certificate’s public key is used to secure information for the server using Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) technology.Digital certificates are used by the SSL security protocol to create a secure “pipe” between two parties that seek confidential communication. SSL is used in most major Web browsers and commercial Web servers.3. Digital Wallets----A digital wallet is software that enables users to pay for goods on the Web ．It holds credit-card numbers and other personal information such as a shipping address ．Once entered，the data automatically populates order fields at merchant sites ．----When using a digital wallet，consumers don’t need to fill out order forms on each site when they purchase an item because the information has already been stored and is automatically updated and entered into the order fields across merchant sites ．Consumers also benefit when using digital wallets because their information is encrypted or protected by a private software code ．And merchants benefit by receiving protection against fraud ．----Digital wallets are available to consumers free of charge，and they’re fairly easy to obtain ．For example，when a consumer makes a purchase at a merchant site that’s set up to handle server-side digital wallets，he types his name and payment and shippin g information into the merchant’s own form ．At the end of the purchase，one consumer is asked to sign up for a wallet of his choice by entering a user name and password for future purchases ．Users can also acquire wallets at a wallet vendor’s site ．----Although a wallet is free for consumers，vendors charge merchants for wallets ．----Digital wallets come in two main types: client-side and server- side ．Within those divisions are wallets that work only on specific merchant sites and those that are merchant agnostic ．----Client-based digital wallets，the older of the two types，are falling by the wayside，according to analysts，because they require users to download and installsoftware ．A user downloads the wallet application and inputs payment and mailing information ．At that point，the information is secured and encrypted on the user’s hard drive ．The user retains control of his credit card and personal information locally ．----With a server-based wallet，a user fills out his personal information，and a cookie is automatically downloaded ．(A cookie is a text contains information about the user ．）In this scenario，the consumer information resides on the server of a financial institution or a digital wallet vendor rather than on the user’s PC ．----Server-side wallets provide assurance against merchant fraud because they use certificates to verify the identity of all parties ．When a party makes a transaction，it presents its certificate to the other parties involved ．A certificate is an attachment to an electronic message used to verify the identity of the party and to provide the receiver with the means to encode a reply ．----Furthermore，the cardholder’s sensitive data is typically housed at a financial institution，so there’s an extra sense of security because financial environments generally provide the highest degree of security ．----But even though wallets provide easy shopping online，adoption hasn’t been widespread ．----Standards are pivotal to the success of digital wallets ．----Last month，major vendors，including Microsoft Corp ．， Sun Microsystems Inc ．and America Online Inc ．announced their endorsement of a new standard called EMCL，or E-Commerce Modeling Language，to give Web merchants a standardized way to collect electronic data for shipping，billing and payment ．4. Grid StorageDefinition: Grid storage, analogous to grid computing, is a new model for deploying and managing storage distributed across multiple systems and networks, making efficient use of available storage capacity without requiring a large, centralized switching system.A grid is, in fact, a meshed network in which no single centralized switch or hub controls routing. Grids offer almost unlimited scalability in size and performancebecause they aren’t constrained by the need for ev er-larger central switches. Grid networks thus reduce component costs and produce a reliable and resilient structure.Applying the grid concept to a computer network lets us harness available but unused resources by dynamically allocating and deal locating capacity, bandwidth and processing among numerous distributed computers. A computing grid can span locations, organizations, machine architectures and software boundaries, offering power, collaboration and information access to connected users. Universities and research facilities are using grids to build what amounts to supercomputer capability from PCs, Macintoshes and Linux boxes.After grid computing came into being, it was only a matter of time before a similar model would emerge for making use of distributed data storage. Most storage networks are built in star configurations, where all servers and storage devices are connected to a single central switch. In contrast, grid topology is built with a network of interconnected smaller switches that can scale as bandwidth increases and continue to deliver improved reliability and higher performance and connectivity.Based on current and proposed products, it appears that a grid storage system should include the following:Modular storage arrays: These systems are connected across a storage network using serial ATA disks. The systems can be block-oriented storage arrays or network-attached storage gateways and servers.Common virtualization layer: Storage must be organized as a single logical pool of resources available to users.Data redundancy and availability: Multiple copies of data should exist across nodes in the grid, creating redundant data access and availability in case of a component failure.Common management: A single level of management across all nodes should cover the areas of data security, mobility and migration, capacity on demand, and provisioning.Simplified platform/management architecture: Because common management is so important, the tasks involved in administration should be organized in modular fashion, allowing the auto discovery of new nodes in the grid and automating volume and .Three Basic BenefitsApplying grid topology to a storage network provides several benefits, including the following:Reliability. A well-designed grid network is extremely resilient. Rather than providing just two paths between any two nodes, the grid offers multiple paths between each storage node. This makes it easy to service and replace components in case of failure, with minimal impact on system availability or downtime.Performance. The same factors that lead to reliability also can improve performance. Not requiring a centralized switch with many ports eliminates a potential performance bottleneck, and applying load-balancing techniques to the multiple paths available offers consistent performance for the entire network.Scalability. It’s easy to expand a grid network using inexpensive switches with low port counts to accommodate additional servers for increased performance, bandwidth and capacity. In essence, grid storage is a way to scale out rather than up, using relatively inexpensive storage building blocks.计算机网络摘要：21世纪是信息经济的时代，作为这个时代的代表技术，计算机网络技术将在非常快的速度发展很快，不断创造性地将进入人们的工作，学习和生活中深。

现代网络技术的英语作文The Advancements of Modern Network Technology。

With the rapid development of modern technology, network technology has become an indispensable part of our daily lives. It has revolutionized the way we communicate, work, and learn. In this essay, I will discuss the advancements of modern network technology and its impact on society.Firstly, the internet has become a global platform for communication. Social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram have changed the way we interact with each other. We can now connect with people from all over the world, share our thoughts and ideas, and even conduct business online. This has made communication more efficient and convenient.Secondly, modern network technology has transformed the way we work. With the rise of remote work, employees canwork from anywhere in the world as long as they have an internet connection. This has reduced commuting time and costs, increased productivity, and improved work-life balance. Moreover, cloud computing has made it easier for businesses to store and access data from anywhere in the world.Thirdly, modern network technology has revolutionized the way we learn. Online education platforms like Coursera, Udemy, and Khan Academy have made education more accessible and affordable. Students can now learn from the comfort of their homes, at their own pace, and without the need for physical classrooms. This has also made education more inclusive, as students from all over the world can access the same resources.However, modern network technology also has its drawbacks. One of the biggest concerns is the issue of online privacy and security. With the rise of cybercrime, it is important to be aware of the risks associated with sharing personal information online. Furthermore, the dependence on technology has led to a decrease in face-to-face communication, which can affect social skills and relationships.In conclusion, modern network technology has brought about many advancements that have transformed the way we live, work, and learn. While there are some concerns about its impact on society, the benefits of technology cannot be ignored. It is important to strike a balance between the use of technology and maintaining human connections.。

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英文参考文献及翻译Linux - Operating system of cybertimesThough for a lot of people , regard Linux as the main operating system to make up huge work station group, finish special effects of " Titanic " make , already can be regarded as and show talent fully. But for Linux, this only numerous news one of. Recently, the manufacturers concerned have announced that support the news of Linux to increase day by day, users' enthusiasm to Linux runs high unprecedentedly too. Then, Linux only have operating system not free more than on earth on 7 year this piece what glamour, get the favors of such numerous important software and hardware manufacturers as the masses of users and Orac le , Informix , HP , Sybase , Corel , Intel , Netscape , Dell ,etc. , OK?1.The background of Linux and characteristicLinux is a kind of " free (Free ) software ": What is called free,mean users can obtain the procedure and source code freely , and can use them freely , including revise or copy etc.. It is a result of cybertimes, numerous technical staff finish its research and development together through Inte rnet, countless user is it test and except fault , can add user expansion function that oneself make conveniently to participate in. As the most outstanding one in free software, Linux has characteristic of the following:(1)Totally follow POSLX standard, expand the network operatingsystem of supporting all AT&T and BSD Unix characteristic. Because of inheritting Unix outstanding design philosophy , and there are clean , stalwart , high-efficient and steady kernels, their all key codes are finished by Li nus Torvalds and other outstanding programmers, without any Unix code of AT&T or Berkeley, so Linu x is not Unix, but Linux and Unix are totally compatible.(2)Real many tasks, multi-user's system, the built-in networksupports, can be with such seamless links as NetWare , Windows NT , OS/2 , Unix ,etc.. Network in various kinds of Unix it tests to be fastest in comparing and assess efficiency. Support such many kinds of files systems as FAT16 , FAT32 , NTFS , Ex t2FS , ISO9600 ,etc. at the same time .(3) Can operate it in many kinds of hardwares platform , including such processors as Alpha , SunSparc , PowerPC , MIPS ,etc., to various kinds of new-type peripheral hardwares, can from distribute on global numerous programmer there getting support rapidly too.(4) To that the hardware requires lower, can obtain very good performance on more low-grade machine , what deserves particular mention is Linux outstanding stability , permitted " year " count often its running times.2.Main application of Linux At present,Now, the application of Linux mainly includes:(1) Internet/Intranet: This is one that Linux was used most at present, it can offer and include Web server , all such Inter net services as Ftp server , Gopher server , SMTP/POP3 mail server , Proxy/Cache server , DNS server ,etc.. Linux kernel supports IPalias , PPP and IPtunneling, these functions can be used for setting up fictitious host computer , fictitious service , VPN (fictitious special-purpose network ) ,etc.. Operating Apache Web server on Linux mainly, the occupation rate of market in 1998 is 49%, far exceeds the sum of such several big companies as Microsoft , Netscape ,etc..(2) Because Linux has outstanding networking ability , it can be usedin calculating distributedly large-scaly, for instance cartoon making , scientific caculation , database and file server ,etc..(3) As realization that is can under low platform fullness of Unix that operate , apply at all levels teaching and research work of universities and colleges extensively, if Mexico government announce middle and primary schools in the whole country dispose Linux and offer Internet service for student already.(4) Tabletop and handling official business appliedly. Application number of people of in this respect at present not so good as Windows of Microsoft far also, reason its lie in Lin ux quantity , desk-top of application software not so good as Windows application far not merely,because the characteristic of the freedom software makes it not almost have advertisement that support (though the function of Star Office is not second to MS Office at the same time, but there are actually few people knowing).3.Can Linux become a kind of major operating system?In the face of the pressure of coming from users that is strengthened day by day, more and more commercial companies transplant its application to Linux platform, comparatively important incident was as follows, in 1998 ①Compaq and HP determine to put forward user of requirement truss up Linux at their servers , IBM and Dell promise to offer customized Linux system to user too. ②Lotus announce, Notes the next edition include one special-purpose edition in Linux. ③Corel Company transplants its famous WordPerfect to on Linux, and free issue. Corel also plans to move the other figure pattern process products to Linux platform completely.④Main database producer: Sybase , Informix , Oracle , CA , IBM have already been transplanted one's own database products to on Linux, or has finished Beta edition, among them Oracle and Informix also offer technical support to their products.4.The gratifying one is, some farsighted domestic corporations have begun to try hard to change this kind of current situation already. Stone Co. not long ago is it invest a huge sum of money to claim , regard Linux as platform develop a Internet/Intranet solution, regard this as the core and launch Stone's system integration business , plan to set up nationwide Linux technical support organization at the same time , take the lead to promote the freedom software application and development in China. In addition domestic computer Company , person who win of China , devoted to Linux relevant software and hardware application of system popularize too. Is it to intensification that Linux know , will have more and more enterprises accede to the ranks that Linux will be used with domestic every enterprise to believe, more software will be planted in Linux platform. Meanwhile, the domestic university should regard Linux as the original version and upgrade already existing Unix content of courses , start with analysing the source code and revising the kernel and train a large number of senior Linux talents, improve our country's own operating system. Having only really grasped the operating system, the software industry of our country could be got rid of and aped sedulously at present, the passive state led by the nose byothers, create conditions for revitalizing the software industry of our country fundamentally.中文翻译Linux—网络时代的操作系统虽然对许多人来说，以Linux作为主要的操作系统组成庞大的工作站群，完成了《泰坦尼克号》的特技制作，已经算是出尽了风头。

文献来源：/Freepaper/Jisuanji/wangluo/200810/28156.html一、原文New technique of the computer networkAbstractThe 21 century is an ages of the information economy, being the computer network technique of representative techniques this ages, will be at very fast speed develop soon in continuously creatively, and will go deep into the people's work, life and study. Therefore, control this technique and then seem to be more to deliver the importance. Now I mainly introduce the new technique of a few networks in actuality live of application.keywordsInternet Digital Certificates Digital Wallets Grid Storage1. ForewordInternet turns 36, still a work in progressThirty-six years after computer scientists at UCLA linked two bulky computers using a 15-foot gray cable, testing a new way for exchanging data over networks, what would ultimately become the Internet remains a work in progress.University researchers are experimenting with ways to increase its capacity and speed. Programmers are trying to imbue Web pages with intelligence. And work is underway to re-engineer the network to reduce Spam (junk mail) and security troubles.All the while threats loom: Critics warn that commercial, legal and political pressures could hinder the types of innovations that made the Internet what it is today.Stephen Crocker and Vinton Cerf were among the graduate students who joined UCLA professor Len Klein rock in an engineering lab on Sept. 2, 1969, as bits of meaningless test data flowed silently between the two computers. By January, three other "nodes" joined the fledgling network.Then came e-mail a few years later, a core communications protocol called TCP/IP in the late 70s, the domain name system in the 80s and the World Wide Web - now thesecond most popular application behind e-mail - in 1990. The Internet expanded beyond its initial military and educational domain into businesses and homes around the world.Today, Crocker continues work on the Internet, designing better tools for collaboration. And as security chairman for the Internet's key oversight body, he is trying to defend the core addressing system from outside threats.He acknowledges the Internet he helped build is far from finished, and changes are in store to meet growing demands for multimedia. Network providers now make only "best efforts" at delivering data packets, and Crocker said better guarantees are needed to prevent the skips and stutters now common with video.Cerf, now at MCI Inc., said he wished he could have designed the Internet with security built-in. Microsoft Corp.Yahoo Inc. and America Online Inc., among others, are currently trying to retrofit the network so e-mail senders can be authenticated - a way to cut down on junk messages sent using spoofed addresses.Many features being developed today wouldn't have been possible at birth given the slower computing speeds and narrower Internet pipes, or bandwidth, Cerf said.2.Digital CertificatesDigital certificates are data files used to establish the identity of people and electronic assets on the Internet. They allow for secure, encrypted online communication and are often used to protect online transactions.Digital certificates are issued by a trusted third party known as a certification authority (CA). The CA validates the identity of a certificate holder and “signs” the certificate to attest that it hasn’t been forged or altered in any way.New Uses For Digital CertificatesDigital certificates are now being used to provide security and validation for wireless connections, and hardware manufacturers are one of the latest groups to use them. Not long ago, Version Inc. announced its Cable Modem Authentication Services, which allow hardware manufacturers to embed digital certificates into cable modems to help prevent the pirating of broadband services through device cloning.Using Version software, hardware makers can generate cryptographic keys and corresponding digital certificates those manufacturers or cable service providers can use to automatically identify individual modems.This ‘ast-mile’authentication not only protects the value of existing content and services but also positions cable system operators to bring a broad new range of content, applications and value-added services to market.When a CA digitally signs a certificate, its owner can use it as an electronic passport to prove his identity. It can be presented to Web sites, networks or individuals that require secure access.Identifying information embedded in the certificate includes the holder’ s name and e-mail address, the name of the CA, a serial number and any activation or expiration data for the certificate. When the CA verifies a user’s identity, the certificate uses the holder’s public encryption key to protect this data.Certificates that a Web server uses to confirm the authenticity of a Web site for a user’s browser also employ public keys. When a user wants to send confidential information to a Web server, such as a credit-card number for an online transaction, the browser will access the public key in the server’s digital certificate to verify its identity.Role of Public-Key CryptographyThe public key is one half of a pair of keys used in public-key cryptography, which provides the foundation for digital certificates.Public-key cryptography uses matched public and private keys for encryption and decryption. These keys have a numerical value that’s used by an algorithm to scramble information and make it readable only to users with the corresponding decryption key.Others to encrypt information meant only for that person use a person’s public key. When he receives the information, he uses his corresponding private key, which is kept secret, to decrypt the data. A person's public key can be distributed without damaging the private key. A Web server using a digital certificate can use its private key to make sure that only it can decrypt confidential information sent to it over the Internet.The Web serve r’s certificate is validated by a self-signed CA certificate that identifies the issuing CA. CA certificates are preinstalled on most major Web browsers, including Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator.The CA certificate tells users whether they can trust the Web server certificate when it’s presented to the browser. If the validity of the Web server certificate is affirmed, the certificate’s public key is used to secure information for the server using Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) technology.Digital certificates are used by the SSL security protocol to create a secure “pipe” between two parties that seek confidential communication. SSL is used in most major Web browsers and commercial Web servers.3. Digital Wallets----A digital wallet is software that enables users to pay for goods on the Web ．It holds credit-card numbers and other personal information such as a shipping address ．Once entered，the data automatically populates order fields at merchant sites ．----When using a digital wallet，consumers don’t need to fill out order forms on each site when they purchase an item because the information has already been stored and is automatically updated and entered into the order fields across merchant sites ．Consumers also benefit when using digital wallets because their information is encrypted or protected by a private software code ．And merchants benefit by receiving protection against fraud ．----Digital wallets are available to consumers free of charge，and they’re fairly easy to obtain ．For example，when a consumer makes a purchase at a merchant site that’s set up to handle server-side digital wallets，he types his name and payment and shipping information into the merchant’s own form ．At the end of the purchase，one consumer is asked to sign up for a wallet of his choice by entering a user name and password for future purchases ．Users can also acquire wallets at a wallet vendor’s site ．----Although a wallet is free for consumers，vendors charge merchants for wallets ．----Digital wallets come in two main types: client-side and server- side ．Within those divisions are wallets that work only on specific merchant sites and those that are merchant agnostic ．----Client-based digital wallets，the older of the two types，are falling by the wayside，according to analysts，because they require users to download and install software ．A user downloads the wallet application and inputs payment and mailing information ．At that point，the information is secured and encrypted on the user’s hard drive ．The user retains control of his credit card and personal information locally ．----With a server-based wallet，a user fills out his personal information，and a cookie is automatically downloaded ．(A cookie is a text file that contains information about the user ．）In this scenario，the consumer information resides on the server of a financial institution or a digital wallet vendor rather than on the user’s PC ．----Server-side wallets provide assurance against merchant fraud because they use certificates to verify the identity of all parties ．When a party makes a transaction，it presents its certificate to the other parties involved ．A certificate is an attachment to an electronic message used to verify the identity of the party and to provide the receiver with the means to encode a reply ．----Furthermore，the cardholder’s sensitive data is typically housed at a financial institution，so there’s an extra sense of security because financial environments generally provide the highest degree of security ．----But even though wallets provide easy shopping online，adoption hasn’t been widespread ．----Standards are pivotal to the success of digital wallets ．----Last month，major vendors，including Microsoft Corp ．，Sun Microsystems Inc ．and America Online Inc ．announced their endorsement of a new standard called EMCL，or E-Commerce Modeling Language，to give Web merchants a standardized way to collect electronic data for shipping，billing and payment ．4. Grid StorageDefinition: Grid storage, analogous to grid computing, is a new model for deploying and managing storage distributed across multiple systems and networks, making efficient use of available storage capacity without requiring a large, centralized switching system.A grid is, in fact, a meshed network in which no single centralized switch or hub controls routing. Grids offer almost unlimited scalability in size and performance because they aren’t constrained by the need for ever-larger central switches. Grid networks thus reduce component costs and produce a reliable and resilient structure.Applying the grid concept to a computer network lets us harness available but unused resources by dynamically allocating and deal locating capacity, bandwidth and processing among numerous distributed computers. A computing grid can span locations, organizations, machine architectures and software boundaries, offering power, collaboration and information access to connected users. Universities and research facilities are using grids to build what amounts to supercomputer capability from PCs, Macintoshes and Linux boxes.After grid computing came into being, it was only a matter of time before a similar model would emerge for making use of distributed data storage. Most storage networks are built in star configurations, where all servers and storage devices are connected to a single central switch. In contrast, grid topology is built with a network of interconnected smaller switches that can scale as bandwidth increases and continue to deliver improved reliability and higher performance and connectivity.Based on current and proposed products, it appears that a grid storage system should include the following:Modular storage arrays: These systems are connected across a storage network using serial ATA disks. The systems can be block-oriented storage arrays or network-attached storage gateways and servers.Common virtualization layer: Storage must be organized as a single logical pool of resources available to users.Data redundancy and availability: Multiple copies of data should exist across nodes in the grid, creating redundant data access and availability in case of a component failure.Common management: A single level of management across all nodes should cover the areas of data security, mobility and migration, capacity on demand, and provisioning.Simplified platform/management architecture: Because common management is so important, the tasks involved in administration should be organized in modularfashion, allowing the auto discovery of new nodes in the grid and automating volume and file management.Three Basic BenefitsApplying grid topology to a storage network provides several benefits, including the following:Reliability. A well-designed grid network is extremely resilient. Rather than providing just two paths between any two nodes, the grid offers multiple paths between each storage node. This makes it easy to service and replace components in case of failure, with minimal impact on system availability or downtime.Performance. The same factors that lead to reliability also can improve performance. Not requiring a centralized switch with many ports eliminates a potential performance bottleneck, and applying load-balancing techniques to the multiple paths available offers consistent performance for the entire network.Scalability. It’s easy to expand a grid network using inexpensive switches with low port counts to accommodate additional servers for increased performance, bandwidth and capacity. In essence, grid storage is a way to scale out rather than up, using relatively inexpensive storage building blocks.四、译文新技术的计算机网络摘要：21世纪是信息经济的时代，作为这个时代的代表技术，计算机网络技术将在非常快的速度发展很快，不断创造性地将进入人们的工作，学习和生活中深。

中英文资料外文翻译网站建设技术1.介绍网络技术的发展,为今天全球性的信息交流与资在建立源共享和交往提供了更多的途径和可能。

足不出户便可以知晓天下大事,按几下键盘或点几下鼠标可以与远在千里之外的朋友交流,网上通信、网上浏览、网上交互、网上电子商务已成为现代人们生活的一部分。

Internet 时代, 造就了人们新的工作和生活方式,其互联性、开放性和共享信息的模式,打破了传统信息传播方式的重重壁垒,为人们带来了新的机遇。

随着计算机和信息时代的到来,人类社会前进的脚步在逐渐加快。

近几年网页设计发展,快得人目不暇接。

随着网页设计技术的发展,丰富多彩的网页成为网上一道亮丽的风景线。

要想设计美观实用的网页就应该深入掌握网站建设技术。

在建立网站时,我们分析了网站建立的目的、内容、功能、结构,应用了更多的网页设计技术。

2、网站的定义2.1 如何定义网站确定网站的任务和目标,是建设网站所面临的最重要的问题。

为什么人们会来到你的网站? 你有独特的服务吗? 人们第一次到你的网站是为了什么? 他们还会再来吗? 这些问题都是定义网站时必须考虑的问题。

要定义网站,首先,必须对整个网站有一个清晰认识,弄清到底要设计什么、主要的目的与任务、如何对任务进行组织与规划。

其次,保持网站的高品质。

在众多网站的激烈竞争中,高品质的产品是长期竞争的最大优势。

一个优秀的网站应具备：（1）用户访问网站的速度要快；（2）注意反馈与更新。

及时更新网站内容、及时反馈用户的要求；（3）首页设计要合理。

首页给访问者留下的第一印象很重要,设计务必精美,以求产生良好的视觉效果。

2.2 网站的内容和功能在网站的内容方面,就是要做到新、快、全三面。

网站内容的类型包括静态的、动态的、功能的和事物处理的。

确定网站的内容是根据网站的性质决定的,在设计政府网站、商业网站、科普性网站、公司介绍网站、教学交流网站等的内容和风格时各有不同。

我们建立的网站同这些类型的网站性质均不相同。

计算机网络加密技术外文翻译文献一、引言在当今数字化的时代，计算机网络已经成为人们生活和工作中不可或缺的一部分。

然而，随着网络的普及和应用的不断拓展，网络安全问题也日益凸显。

其中，数据的保密性和完整性成为了至关重要的关注点。

为了保护网络中的数据不被未经授权的访问、篡改或窃取，计算机网络加密技术应运而生。

二、计算机网络加密技术的基本概念（一）加密与解密的定义加密是将明文（原始的、可读的信息）通过特定的算法和密钥转换为密文（不可读的、混乱的信息）的过程。

而解密则是将密文恢复为明文的逆过程。

（二）加密算法的分类1、对称加密算法对称加密算法使用相同的密钥进行加密和解密操作。

常见的对称加密算法有 AES（高级加密标准）、DES（数据加密标准）等。

2、非对称加密算法非对称加密算法使用一对密钥，即公钥和私钥。

公钥可以公开，用于加密数据；私钥则由所有者保密，用于解密由对应公钥加密的数据。

常见的非对称加密算法有 RSA（RivestShamirAdleman）等。

（三）密钥的管理密钥是加密和解密过程中的关键因素。

密钥的生成、分发、存储和更新都需要严格的管理，以确保加密系统的安全性。

三、计算机网络加密技术的应用领域（一）电子商务在电子商务中，用户的个人信息、信用卡号码等敏感数据需要进行加密传输，以防止被窃取和篡改。

（二）网络通信例如电子邮件、即时通讯等，通过加密可以保护通信内容的隐私。

（三）数据库安全对数据库中的重要数据进行加密存储，即使数据库被非法访问，也能保证数据的保密性。

（四）移动设备手机、平板电脑等移动设备中的数据，如联系人、短信等，也可以通过加密来保护。

四、常见的计算机网络加密技术（一）SSL/TLS 协议SSL（Secure Sockets Layer）和其后续版本 TLS（Transport Layer Security）是用于在网络上进行安全通信的协议。

它们在客户端和服务器之间建立加密连接，确保数据传输的安全性。

.NET Framework介绍Alex Kriegel Framework是Microsoft为开发应用程序而创建的一个富有革命性的新平台。

这句话最有趣的地方是它的含糊不清，但这是有原因的。

首先，注意这句话没有说“在Windows操作系统上开发应用程序”。

尽管.NET Framework的Microsoft 版本运行在Windows操作系统上，但以后将推出运行在其他操作系统上的版本，例如Mono，它是.NET Framework的开发源代码版本(包含一个C#编译器)，该版本可以运行在几个操作系统上，包括各种Linux版本和Mac OS.Microsoft .NET Compact Framework(基本上是完整.NET Framework的一个子集)。

使用.NET Framework的一个主要原因是它可以作为集成各种操作系统的方式。

另外，上面给出的.NET Framework定义并没有限制应用程序的类型。

这是因为本来就没有限制。

.NET Framework可以创建Windows应用程序、Web应用程序、Web服务和其他各种类型的应用程序 Framework的设计方式保证它可以用于各种语言，包括C#语言,C++、Visual Basic、JScript，甚至一些旧的语言，如COBOL。

为此，还推出了这些语言的.NET版本，目前还在不断推出更多的.NET版本的语言。

所有这些语言都可以访问.NET Framework，它们还可以彼此交互。

C#开发人员可以使用Visual Basic程序员编写的代码，反之亦然。

所有这些提供了意想不到的多样这也是.NET Framework具有诱人前景的部分原因。

Framework主要包含一个非常大的代码库，可以在客户语言(如C#)中通过面向对象编程技术(OOP)来使用这些代码。

这个库分为不同的模块，这样就可以根据希望得到的结果来选择使用其中的各个部分。

例如，一个模块包含Windows 应用程序的构件，另一个模块包含联网的代码块，还有一个模块包含Web开发的代码块。

计算机网络论文Title: The Impact of Computer Networks on Modern Society。

Introduction。

In the past few decades, computer networks have become an integral part of modern society. From communication to business operations, the impact of computer networks is undeniable. This paper aims to explore the various ways in which computer networks have influenced and shaped modern society.Communication。

One of the most significant impacts of computer networks is on communication. With the advent of the internet and social media platforms, people can now communicate with each other across the globe in real-time. This has revolutionized the way we interact with each other, making the world a smaller and more connected place. Additionally, the rise of email and instant messaging has transformed the way we communicate in both personal and professional settings.Business Operations。