Federal government of the United States

The United State political systemAs far as I am concerned, I believe that the Constitutional federal republish of The United State is democratic. The United State federal system pursues the principe of “Checks and Balances”. The American constitution required that the state authority consisted of legislative branch, executive branch, judicial branch , which was parallel to others and restricted others. The Congress consists of the House and the Senate. Each state has two senators despite the population, which ensures that the small states have an equal power in one of the houses of Congress. The House of Representatives are elected according to the proportion of the population states. The main duty of the Congress is to make laws. Only when the House and the Senate vote and pass the bill and then send it to the president for his signature, can it become a law. The chief executive of the United State is the president. He is head of government, commander–in–chief of the armed forces and chief of state. The president is elected by the citizens and he has to be responsible for them. The president can veto the law that the Congressproposes. However,Congress can enact the law despite the president’s views only if two thirds of the members of both houses vote in favour of it. The judicial branch is headed by the Supreme Court. The judges are appointed by the president. The judges can have lifelong tenure if they do not commit a crime.In my opinion, I think that both the presidential election and the enactment of law in the United State are democratic. Thomas Jefferson ever said“As far as I understand it, the supreme power of the most reliable person in charge can only be the people themselves”in 1820. The American system of government represents the citizens benefit and promotes the economic development rapidly.However, the American system has also existed disadvantages. I think the racial prejudice is a serious problem in American society. A 18‐year‐old black youth named Michael Brown was shot by a white policeman and finally died in Missouri, America on August 9th 2014. which caused large‐scale demonstrations and developed the violent incident such as beating,smashing and looting in many places. When the grand jury judgedthat the white policeman can not be accused on November 24th , the protests spread quickly more than 170 cities in America. This issue caused wild public concern not only at home but also all over the world. Unfortunately, the racial problem has not been solved yet.Different from the America, China carried out the system of people’s congress, which fits our country’s situation. In political parties, America has two‐party system but China insists an single‐party system. I think that Chinese system has high efficiency in a short time but has poor long‐term stability, because of lacking power supervision. Instead, American system has low efficiency in short‐term but has high efficiency for a long time. Therefore, we can not say the Chinese system is superior to American system, because they both fit their own country’s situation and have positive impact on the economical development. However,the officials looting has become a more and more serious problem in our country. The officials’duties are serving to the people and doing something beneficial to the public. But they failed in their responsibility and looted,which may cause the public feel disappointed to the government. Although the government has taken effective measures to suppress the corruption,officials looting remains a serious problem in our country. So,I think that our government should perfect the power supervision system constantly and prevent the officials from looting. Only by doing this, our country may become better and better.。

【珍藏】美国政府结构名称中英文对照GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES美国政府CONSTITUTION宪法一、LEGISLATIVE BRANCH立法部门Congress国会Senate参议院House of Representatives众议院Architect of the Capitol国会大厦Congressional Budget Office国会预算办公室General Accounting Office总会计署Government Printing Office印刷局Library of Congress美国国会图书馆Office of Technology Assessment国会技术评估办公室Stennis Center for Public Service ：Stennis公众服务中心二、EXECUTIVE BRANCH行政部门President总统Vice President副总统Executive Office of the President总统行政办公室Council of Economic Advisers总统经济顾问委员会Council on Environmental Quality总统环境质量委员会National Economic Council国家经济委员会National Security Council国家安全委员会Office of Management and Budget管理与预算办公室Office of National AIDS Policy国家艾滋病政策办公室Office of National Drug Control Policy国家麻醉品控制政策办公室Office of Science and Technology Policy科技政策办公室President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Boa rd总统国外情报顾问委员会U.S. Trade Representative美国贸易代表White House Office for Women’s Initiatives and Out reach 白宫妇女办公室Department of Agriculture农业部Department of Commerce商业部Department of Defense国防部Department of Education教育部Department of Energy能源部Department of Health and Human Services卫生和公共事业部Department of Housing and Urban Development住宅与城市发展部Department of the Interior内务部Department of Justice司法部Department of Labor劳工部Department of State国务院Department of Transportation交通部Department of the Treasury财政部Department of Veterans Affairs退伍军人事务部Independent Establishments, Government Corporations, and Quasi-official Agencie s独立机构、政府法人社团和半官方中介机构Advisory Council on Historic Preservation历史保护咨询委员会Central Intelligence Agency中央情报局Commission on Civil Rights民权委员会Commodity Futures Trading Commission商品期货贸易委员会Consumer Product Safety Commission消费者产品安全委员会Corporation for National Service国家服务团Environmental Protection Agency环保局Equal Employment Opportunity Commission平等就业机会委员会Export-Import Bank of the United States美国进出口银行FarmCredit Administration农业信贷管理局Federal Communications Commission联邦通讯委员会Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation联邦储蓄保险公司Federal Election Commission联邦选举委员会Federal Emergency Management Agency联邦紧急事务管理局Federal Labor Relations Authority联邦劳工关系局Federal Maritime Commission联邦海事委员会Federal Reserve System联邦储备银行系统Federal Retirement Thrift Investment Board联邦退休储蓄和投资委员会Federal Trade Commission联邦贸易委员会General Services Administration总务管理局Merit Systems Protection Board功绩制保护委员会National Aeronautics and Space Administration国家航空航天局National Archives and Records Administration国家档案局National Foundation on the Arts and Humanities国家艺术人文基金会National Labor Relations Board国家劳工关系委员会National Railroad Passenger Corporation国家铁路客运公司National Performance Review国家绩效评估委员会National Science Foundation国家科学基金会National Transportation Safety Board国家交通安全委员会Nuclear Regulatory Commission核管理委员会Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission职业安全与健康管理局Office of Government Ethics政府道德办公室Office of Personnel Management人事管理办公室Office of Special Counsel特别检察官办公室Overseas Private Investment Corporation海外私人投资公司Peace Corps和平队Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation养老金受益担保公司Postal Rate Commission邮政费率委员会Railroad Retirement Board铁道职工退休委员会Securities and Exchange Commission证券交易委员会Selective Service System义务兵役管理部Small Business Administration小企业主利益保护局Smithsonian Institution史密森学会Social Security Administration社会保障部Tennessee Valley Authority田纳西州河谷授权委员会U.S. Agency for International Development美国国际开发署U.S. International Trade Commission美国国际贸易委员会U.S. Postal Service美国邮政服务局U.S. Trade and Development Agency美国贸易及发展署Voice of America美国之音三、JUDICIAL BRANCH司法机构Supreme Court最高法院U.S. Courts of Appeals美国地区法院U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit美国联邦巡回地区法院U.S. District Courts联邦地方法院U.S. Court of Federal Claims联邦申诉法庭U.S. Court of International Trade国际贸易法院U.S. Tax Court税务法院U.S. Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces武装部队地区法院U.S. Court of Veterans Appeals退伍军人地区法院Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts美国法院行政管理办公室Federal Judicial Center联邦司法中心。

专业英语四级（阅读）-试卷156(总分：30.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、 READING COMPREHENSION(总题数：11，分数：30.00)1.PART V READING COMPREHENSION__________________________________________________________________________________________ 解析：2.SECTION AIn this section there are several passages followed by ten multiple-choice questions. For each question, there are four suggested answers marked [A], [B], [C] and [D]. Choose the one that you think is the best answer.__________________________________________________________________________________________ 解析：Americans often say that there are only two things a person can be sure of in life: death and taxes. Americans do not have a corner on the " death" market, but many people feel that the United States leads the world with the most taxes. Taxes consist of the money which people pay to support their government. There are generally three levels of government in the United States: federal, state, and city; therefore, there are three types of taxes. Salaried people who earn more than a few thousand dollars must pay a certain percen-tage of their salaries to the federal government. The percentage varies from person to person. It depends on their salaries. The federal government has a graduated income tax, that is, the percentage of the tax(14 to 70 percent)increases as a person's income increases. With the high cost of taxes, people are not very happy on April 15, when the federal taxes are due. The second tax is for the state government; New York, California, North Dakota, or any of the other forty-seven states. Some states have an income tax similar to that of the federal government. Of course, the percentage for the state tax is lower. Other states have a sales tax, which is a percentage charged to any item which you buy in that state. For example, a person might want to buy a packet of cigarettes for twenty-five cents. If there is a sales tax of eight percent in that state, then the cost of the cigarettes is twenty-seven cents. This figure includes the sales tax. Some states use income tax in addition to sales tax to raise their revenues. The state tax laws are diverse and confusing. The third tax is for the city. This tax comes in two forms: property tax(people who own a home have to pay taxes on it)and excise tax, which is charged on cars in a city. The cities use these funds for education, police and fire departments, public works and municipal buildings. Since Americans pay such high taxes, they often feel that they are working one day each week just to pay their taxes. People always complain about taxes. They often protest that the government uses their tax dollars in the wrong way. They say that it spends too much on useless and impractical programs. Although Americans have different views on many issues, they tend to agree on one subject; taxes are too high.（分数：6.00）(1).What does the sentence "Americans do not have a corner on the ' death' market" in Paragraph1 mean?（分数：2.00）A.Americans cannot monopolize the "death" market. √B.Americans do not have a secret place to keep from death in their life.C.Americans are not good at doing business in the "death" market.D.There is no such a place as a "death" market in the U. S.解析：(2).Which of the following is CORRECT about the percentage of the federal tax and the state tax?（分数：2.00）A.They have the same percentage.B.The percentage of the state tax is higher than that of the federal tax.C.The percentage of the federal tax is higher than that of the state tax. √D.It is not mentioned in the passage.解析：(3).Which of the following usages of the taxes is NOT mentioned in the passage?（分数：2.00）A.For raising their revenues.B.For public works and municipal buildings.C.For police and fire departments.D.For sustaining development. √解析：According to the American College Health Association's most recent annual national survey, 30 percent of college students reported feeling "so depressed that it was difficult to function" at some time over the past year. Nearly three fourths of respondents in a 2011 National Alliance on Mental Illness study of college students diagnosed with mental health conditions said they experienced a mental health crisis while in school. The Americans with Disabilities Act(ADA)and other federal disability laws prohibit discrimination against students whose psychiatric(精神病的)disabilities "substantially limit a major life activity" and mandates that colleges and universities provide them with "reasonable accommodations"—such as lower course loads and extended deadlines. Despite that very clearly stated law, dozens of current students across the country told Newsweek they were punished for seeking help: kicked out of campus housing with nowhere else to go, abruptly forced to withdraw from school and even involuntarily committed to psychiatric wards. "Colleges are very accustomed to accommodating learning and physical disabilities, but they don't understand simple ways of accommodating mental health disabilities, " says Professor Peter Lake, an expert on higher education law and policy who sees widespread fear and reluctance across the board to "promote diversity that encompasses mental disabilities and mood disorders." Lake often tells skeptics about a man who suffered from clinical depression and constantly talked about suicide: His name was Abraham Lincoln. "We don't want to remove these people, " Lake says. "We want to expand the definition of diversity to make sure they're included." Most lifetime cases of mental health conditions begin by the age of 24, and thanks to a variety of factors, including rising antidepressant(抗抑郁药)prescription rates and stigma reduction efforts, college students are more and more likely to ask campus counselors for assistance. The number of students seeking counseling for "severe" psychological problems jumped from 16 percent in 2000 to 39 percent in 2012; the percentage of students who report suicidal thoughts has risen along with it. "Schools should encourage students to seek treatment. But a lot of policies I see involve excessive use of discipline and involuntary leaves of absence, and they discourage students from asking for the help they need, " says Karen Bower, a private attorney who specializes in disability discrimination cases in higher education. "Ultimately, that makes the campus less safe. " Two large-scale studies found that around 10 percent of college student respondents had thought about suicide in the past year, but only 1. 5 percent admitted to having made a suicide attempt. Combined with data from other studies, that suggests that the odds that a student with suicidal thoughts will actually commit suicide are 1 , 000 to 1. "Thus, policies that impose restrictions on students who manifest suicidal thought will sweep in 999 students who would not commit suicide for every student who will end his or her life, " Paul S. Appelbaum writes in Law & Psychiatry: "Depressed? Get Out!" "Colleges don't want people who are suicidal around, so what's supposed to happen to them?" says Ira Burnim, legal director of the DC Bazelon Center for Mental Health Law. "We're going to lock them in a bomb shelter?" Kicking students off campus for mental health issues typically does more harm than good by isolating them from their support systems when what they really need is stability and empathy, he says. Moreover, it's often a completely unnecessary overreaction.（分数：6.00）(1).Students with mental disabilities might be punished in the following ways EXCEPT______.（分数：2.00）A.getting out of campus dormsB.dropping out of schoolsC.staying in psychiatric wardsD.prolonging academic years √解析：(2).Increasing college students turn to professional counselors for help because______.（分数：2.00）A.great efforts have been made to weaken the feeling of disgrace √B.it is encouraged to decrease the dose of medicineC.it is more economical for students without incomeD.mental health conditions become more severe than before解析：解析：细节题。

1.解放宣言the Emancipation ProclamationThe Emancipation Proclamation is an executive order issued by United States President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during the American Civil War using his war powers. It was not a law passed by Congress. It proclaimed the freedom of slaves in the ten states then in rebellion, thus applying to 3.1 million of the 4 million slaves in the U.S. at that time. The Proclamation immediately freed 50,000 slaves, with nearly all the rest (of the 3.1 million) freed as Union armies advanced. The Proclamation did not compensate the owners, did not itself outlaw slavery, and did not make the ex-slaves (called freedmen) citizens. On September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued a preliminary proclamation that he would order the emancipation of all slaves in any state of the Confederate States of America that did not return to Union control by January 1, 1863. None returned, and the order, signed and issued January 1, 1863, took effect except in locations where the Union had already mostly regained control. The Proclamation made abolition a central goal of the war (in addition to reunion), outraged white Southerners who envisioned a race war, angered some Northern Democrats, energized anti-slavery forces, and weakened forces in Europe that wanted to intervene to help the Confederacy. Slavery was made illegal everywhere in the U.S. by the Thirteenth Amendment, which took effect in December 1865.2.独立宣言The Declaration of Independence was a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American colonies, then at war with Great Britain, regarded themselves as independent states, and no longer a part of the British Empire. Drafted by Thomas Jefferson between June 11 and June 28, 1776, the Declaration of Independence is at once the nation's most cherished symbol of liberty and Jefferson's most enduring monument. Here, in exalted and unforgettable phrases, Jefferson expressed the convictions in the minds and hearts of the American people. The political philosophy of the Declaration was not new; its ideals of individual liberty had already been expressed by John Locke and the Continental philosophers. What Jefferson did was to summarize this philosophy in "self-evident truths" and set forth a list of grievances against the King in order to justify before the world the breaking of ties between the colonies and the mother country.3.感恩节Thanksgiving, or Thanksgiving Day, is a holiday celebrated in the United States on the fourth Thursday in November. It has officially been an annual tradition since 1863, when, during the Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln proclaimed a national day of "Thanksgiving and Praise to our beneficent Father who dwelleth in the Heavens," to be celebrated on Thursday, November 26. As a federal and popular holiday in the U.S., Thanksgiving is one of the major holidays of the year. Together with Christmas and the New Year, Thanksgiving is a part of the broader holiday season.The event that some Americans commonly call the "First Thanksgiving" was celebrated by the Pilgrims to give thanks to God for guiding them safely to the New World. The first Thanksgiving feast lasted three days, providing enough food for 53 Pilgrims and 90 Native Americans.The feast consisted of fish(cod, eels, and bass) and shellfish (clams, lobster, and mussels), wild fowl (ducks, geese, swans, and turkey), venison, berries and fruit, vegetables (peas, pumpkin, beetroot and possibly, wild or cultivated onion), harvest grains (barley and wheat), and the Three Sisters: beans, dried Indian maize or corn, and squash.The New England colonists were accustomed to regularly celebrating "thanksgivings"—days of prayer thanking God for blessings such as military victory or the end of a drought4.自由女神像The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World) is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor, dedicated on October 28, 1886. The statue, a gift to the United States from the people of France, is of a robed female figure representing Libertas, the Roman goddess of freedom, who bears a torch and a tabula ansata (a tablet evoking the law) upon which is inscribed the date of the American Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. A broken chain lies at her feet. The statue has become an icon of freedom and of the United States.The statue was administered by the United States Lighthouse Board until 1901 and then by the Department of War; since 1933 it has been maintained by the National Park Service. The statue was closed for renovation for much of 1938. In the early 1980s, it was found to have deteriorated to such an extent that a major restoration was required. While the statue was closed from 1984 to 1986, the torch and a large part of the internal structure were replaced.5.新政The New Deal was a series of economic programs implemented in the United States between 1933 and 1936. They involved presidential executive orders or laws passed by Congress during the first term of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The programs were a liberal response to the Great Depression, and focused on what historians call the "3 Rs": Relief, Recovery, and Reform. That is, Relief for the unemployed and poor; Recovery of the economy to normal levels; and Reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression. The New Deal produced a political realignment, making the Democratic Party the majority, with its base in liberal ideas, the white South, traditional Democrats, big city machines, and the newly empowered labor unions and ethnic minorities.6.常春藤联盟The Ivy League is an athletic conference comprising eight private institutions of higher education in the Northeastern United States. The conference name is also commonly used to refer to those eight schools as a group. The eight institutions are Brown University, Columbia University, Cornell University, Dartmouth College, Harvard University, Princeton University, the University of Pennsylvania, and Yale University. The term Ivy League also has connotations of academic excellence, selectivity in admissions, and social elitism. The term became official after the formation of the NCAA Division I athletic conference in 1954. Ivy League schools are often viewed by the public as some of the most prestigious and are often ranked amongst the best universities in the United States and worldwide.7.Constitution宪法The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the United States of America. The first three Articles of the Constitution establish the rules and separate powers of the three branches of the federal government: a legislature, the bicameral Congress; an executive branch led by the President; and a federal judiciary headed by the Supreme Court. The last four Articles frame the principle of federalism. The Tenth Amendment confirms its federal characteristics.The Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787, by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and ratified by conventions in eleven states. It went into effect on March 4, 1789. The Constitution guides American society in law and political culture. It is the oldest charter of supreme law in continuous use, and it influenced later international figures establishing national constitutions. Recent impulses for reform center on concerns for extending democracy and balancing the federal budget.8.联邦制Federalism refers to a dual form of government in which there is a functional and territorial division of authority. In other words, it refers to a political system in which there are local units of government, as well as a national government. There is a division of political authority. There are certain powers that both levels have, for example, the power to tax. The two levels can cooperate.9.制宪会议The Constitutional Convention took place from May 14 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to address problems in governing the United States of America, which had been operating under the Articles of Confederation following independence from Great Britain. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the convention. The result of the Convention was the United States Constitution, placing the Convention among the most significant events in the history of the United States.The most contentious disputes revolved around the composition and election of the senate, how "proportional representation" was to be defined, whether to divide the executive power between three persons or divest the power into a single president, how to elect the president, how long his term was to be and whether he could stand for reelection, what offenses should be impeachable, the nature of a fugitive slave clause, whether to allow the abolition of the slave trade, and whether judges should be chosen by the legislature or executive. Once the convention began, the delegates first agreed on the principles of the convention. A Committee of Detail assembled during the July 4 recess and produced a rough draft. Most of this rough draft remained in place, and can be found in the final version of the constitution.10.国会The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States, consisting of the Senate, its upper house, and the House of Representatives, its lower house. Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D.C.Both representatives and senators are chosen through direct election. There are 535 voting Members of Congress; the House of Representatives has a membership of 435 and the Senate has a membership 100. Members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by population using the United States Census results, each state in the union having at least one representative in the Congress. Regardless of population, each of the 50 states has two senators; the 100 senators each serve a six-year term. The terms are staggered so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election. Most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent 11.总统选举团The Electoral College consists of the electors appointed by each state who formally elect the President and Vice President of the United States. Since 1964, there have been 538 electors in each presidential election.[1]Article II, Section 1, Clause 2 of the Constitution specifies how many electors each state is entitled to have and that each state's legislature decides how its electors are to be chosen. U.S. territories are not represented in the Electoral College. The Electoral College is an example of an indirect election, as opposed to a direct election by United States citizens (such as for members of the United States House of Representatives).美国政府的构成与功能The Government of the United States of America is the federal government of the constitutional republic of fifty states that comprise the United States of America, as well as one capitol district, and several other territories. The federal government is composed of three distinct branches: legislative, executive and judicial, which powers are vested by the U.S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the federal courts, including the Supreme Court, respectively; the powers and duties of these branches are further defined by acts of Congress, including the creation of executive departments and courts inferior to the Supreme Court.如何理解个人主义Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that stresses "the moral worth of the individual".[1]Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance[2] while opposing external interference upon one's own interests by society or other institutions such as the government.[2]Individualism makes the individual its focus[1] and so starts "with the fundamental premise that the human individual is of primary importance in the struggle for liberation." Liberalism, existentialism and anarchism are examples of movements that take the human individual as a central unit of analysis.[3]It has also been used as a term denoting "The quality of being an individual; individuality"[2]related to possessing "An individual characteristic; a quirk."[2]Individualism is thus also associated with artistic and bohemian interests and lifestyles where there is a tendency towards self creation and experimentation as opposed to tradition or popular mass opinions and behaviors[2][4]as so also with humanist philosophical positions and ethics.美国政党的功能1.Parties offer choices and simplify issues, which makes the vote’s job easier.2.The selection of candidates is a job in itself.3.In the general election itself,parties play a crucial role.4.Parties help shape public opinion.5.The party in power is expected to develop policies and govern.6.The party out of power is expected to criticize the party in power.7.The political party is an organization that allows like-minded and public-spirited people tomeet,socialize,and,get started in a career in politics.法律制定的过程Either House may propose a bill→{1.read 2.studied mented 4.amended →vote(if pass)→the other HouseApproval of both House—president{1.agree 2.veto—Congress 213 majority1.a bill is introduced2.the bill is then referred to the committee by leadership in that particular house.3.the committee takes action.4.the bill goes on a calendar, which is a traffic-regulating device.5.the bill goes to the floor6.after a bill is passed by one house,it goes to the other.7.if there are similar bills from both houses,a conference committee will meet to resolve differences.8.once the exact wording is agreed upon by both houses,the bill goes to the president for his approval or veto.9 only when the president signs the bill does it become law.。

美国政权制度“三权分立”三权分立, 美国, 制度, 政权The federal government of the United States was established by the US Constitution（宪法）, which is the supreme law of the nation, providing a framework for the US government. The document defines three main branches of government: legislative, executive and judicial（立法，行政，司法）. Through a system of separating the powers of these branches, these three branches form a system of “check and balances”(制衡原则) where each one helps to regulate the others.Let’s get back to the 3 branches of government. The legislative branch has the power to create, amend and change laws. The primary components of any legislature are the chambers, or houses. These chambers/houses are assemblies, a group of people gathered together for a similar purpose, in this case to debate and vote on bills--proposed laws that have not yet been adopted. A legislature with one house is called, unicameral（单院制）, and with two is bicameral（两院制）. The US legislature, known as the US Congress, is a bicameral legislature, with two houses differing in duties, powers, and the methods used to select its members. Our two legislative houses are known as the House of Representatives and the Senate（众议院与参议院）.The House of Representatives is based on each state’s population, although each state has at least one representative.Currently there are 435 voting members of the House, and each representative serves a 2-year term. The head of the House is known as the Speaker. The Senate is different in that every state elects 2 senators, regardless of the state population, to serve 6-year terms. As the US has 50 states, we have a total of 100 senators. Although the two chambers have different duties, the consent of both houses must be obtained to make anylaw.美国三权分立的利弊(英文)？这是一篇有关美国三权分立优缺点的英文短文,应该对您有用.The separation of powers, also known as trias politica, is a model for the governance of democratic states. The model was first developed in ancient Greece and cam e into widespread use by the Roman Republic as part of the uncodified Constitutio n of the Roman Republic. Under this model, the state is divided into branches or estates, each with separate and independent powers and areas of responsibility. Th e normal division of estates is into an executive, a legislature, and a judiciary.Parliamentary democracies do not have distinct separation of powers. The executiv e, which often consists of a prime minister and cabinet ("government"), is drawn fr om the legislature (parliament). This is the principle of responsible government. Ho wever, although the legislative and executive branches are connected, in parliament ary systems there is usually an independent judiciary and the government's role in the parliament does not give them unlimited legislative influence.Advantages and disadvantages the separation of powers, also known as trias politic a, is a model for the governance of democratic states. the model was first develop ed in ancient greece and came into widespread use by the roman republic as part of the uncodified constitution of the roman republic. under this model, the state is divided into branches or estates, each with separate and independent powers and areas of responsibility. the normal division of estates is into an executive, a legisl ature, and a judiciary.parliamentary democracies do not have distinct separation of powers. the executive, which often consists of a prime minister and cabinet ("government"), is drawn fro m the legislature (parliament). this is the principle of responsible government. howe ver, although the legislative and executive branches are connected, in parliamentary systems there is usually an independent judiciary and the government's role in the parliament does not give them unlimited legislative influence。

General introduction1.The State System国家体制A state of dictatorship of the bourgeoisie 资产阶级专政国家Federalism 联邦制度The separation of powers 三权分立Respect for the constitution and the rule of law 尊重宪法和法律规定2.The Constitution 宪法3.The Federal Government 联邦政府The executive 行政权→president 总统The legislative 立法权→congress 国会→Senate 参议院& the House of Representatives 众议院The judicial 司法权→Supreme Court 最高法院& Lower Federal Courts 下属联邦法院Checks and balances 制约与平衡"Tripartite" Political System 三权分立1.Executive Branch 行政机构Propose legislation to Congress 向国会建议立法Veto 否决Override 推翻Vacant occur 有空缺Succession 继任Impeachment 弹劾2.Legislative BranchLevy(征收)federal taxescongress 国会Senate 参议院the House of Representatives 众议院Representative 众议院议员Senator 参议院议员3.Judicial BranchThe Supreme Court 最高法院The chief justice 首席法官Associate justices 大法官Federal courts of appeal 上诉法院Federal district courts 地方法院Interpret the Constitution of the United States 解释宪法Resolve disputes 调解争端judicial review（司法审查）13 departmentsState 国务院Treasury 财政部Defense 国防部Justice 司法部Interior 内政部Agriculture农业部Commerce商业部Labor劳工部Education 教育部Transportation 交通部Energy 能源部Health and Human Service卫生与公共服务事业部Housing and Urban Development住房与城市发展部American electionCaucus 核心会议Conservative 保守派Debate 辩论Divided government 分治的政府Federal Election Campaign Act(FECA) 联邦竞选法Federal Election Commission(FEC) 联邦选举委员会Front loading 前期吃重Front runner 领先者Gender gap 性别差异Hard money/Soft money 硬钱/软钱Liberal 自由派Matching funds 对等资金Midterm election 中期选举Platform 政纲Plurality rule 简单多数原则Primary 初选Protest vote 投抗议票Public funding 公共资助Push polling导向性民意调查Redistricting 选区重划Single member district 单一席位选区Super Tuesday 超级星期二Coattails燕尾提举力Convention bounce会后弹升Front-loading前置Electoral College选举团Plurality简单多数Primary election预选选举Single-member district单一席位选区Ticket splitting选票分散Town meeting社民会议Tracking survey跟踪调查universal sufferage 普选exit poll 出口民意Political Parties 政党Democratic Party 民主党Republican Party 共和党Ballot 投票presidential campaign 总统竞选Presidential candidate 总统候选人。

美国中英文简介美利坚合众国是一个宪法联邦共和国，主要位于北美。

它拥有50个州和一个联邦区,它同样可以称作the United States, the U.S., the U.S.A., the U.S. of A., America, the States, or (poetically) Columbia。

自从20世纪中叶，即二战结束后开始，美国已主宰全球经济、政治、军事、科学、科技及文化领域。

尤其在冷战过后，正因它的诸多影响，美国被公认为超级强国。

在1776年7月4日，当代表13个英国殖民地的第二届全国会议采纳了独立宣言之时，标志着英国的统治宣告结束，而自主统治即将崛起。

1789年见证了美国政府结构的转变，以美国宪法替代了联邦契约。

这一天，50个州采用了这份宪法，并普遍认为这一天是各个州联合在一起，成为了美利坚合众国中的一份子。

The United States of America is a constitutional federal republic, situated primarily in North America. It comprises 50 states and one federal district, and has several territories with differing degrees of affiliation. It is also referred to, with varying formality, as the United States, the U.S., the U.S.A., the U.S. of A., America, the States, or (poetically) Columbia.Since the mid-20th century, following World War II, the United States has emerged as a dominant global influence in economic, political, military, scientific, technological, and cultural affairs. Because of its influence, the U.S. is considered a superpower and, particularly after the Cold War, a hyperpower by some.The country celebrates its founding date as July 4, 1776, when the Second Continental Congress—representing thirteen British colonies—adopted the Declaration of Independence that rejected British authority in favor ofself-determination.The structure of the government was profoundly changed in 1789, when the states replaced the Articles of Confederation with the United States Constitution. The date on which each of the fifty states adopted the Constitution is typically regarded as the date that state "entered the Union" to become part of the United States.General Information on the USAThe United States consists of 50 states and Washington D.C. The last two States to join the Union were Alaska (49th) and Hawaii (50th). Both joined in 1959.Washington DC is a federal district under the authority of the U.S. Congress. Washington DC is represented in Congress by an elected, non-voting Delegate to the House of Representatives. Residents have been able to vote in presidential elections since 1961.Puerto Rico is a commonwealth associated with the United States. Puerto Ricans are U.S. citizens. Puerto Ricans do not vote in U.S. Presidential elections, but they do elect a non-voting commissioner to the U.S. House of Representatives.U.S. V irgin Islands - St. John, St. Croix, and St. Thomas is an unincorporated territory of the United States. Administered by the Office of Insular Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior. Indigenous inhabitants are U.S. citizens, but do not vote in U.S. Presidential elections.Northern Mariana Islands is a commonwealth in political union with the United States. Self-governing with locally elected governor and legislature.American Samoa is a unincorporated territory of the United States. Administered by the Office of Insular Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior.Guam is a unincorporated territory of the United States. Administered by the Office of Insular Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior. Inhabitants are U.S. citizens, but do not vote in U.S. Presidential elections.Other Dependent Areas of the United States: Baker Island - Howland Island - Jarvis Island - Johnston Atoll - Kingman Reef - Midway Islands - Navassa Island - Palmyra Atoll - Wake IslandGeographyAmericans often speak of their country as one of several large regions. These regions are cultural units rather than governmental units - formed by history and geography and shaped by the economics, literature and folkways that all the parts of a region share.What makes one region different from another? Within several regions, language is used differently and there are strong dialects. There are also differences in outlook and attitude based on geography. A region's multicultural heritage as well as distinct demographic characteristics like age and occupation also make regions different and special.The United States is a varied land - of forests, deserts, mountains, high flat lands and fertile plains. The country lies mostly in the temperate zone but there is a very wide range of climate variations. The continental United States stretches 4,500 kilometers from the Atlantic Ocean on the east to the Pacific Ocean on the west. It borders Canada on the north and reaches south to Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico. The United States covers a total area of 9 million square kilometers (including Alaska and Hawaii). Alaska is the largest in area of the 50 states, and Texas isthe second largest.From the Appalachian Mountains in the East to the Rocky Mountains in the West, the center of the country is drained by the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers and their branches. The Mississippi is one of the world's great rivers; it was known to Native Americans as the "father of waters." Water from the source of its main branch, the Missouri River, flows about 6,400 kilometers from the northern Rocky Mountains to the mouth of the Mississippi in the Gulf of Mexico. On a topographic map of the United States, the mountains look like jagged masses, the plains like vast, open flat spaces, and the rivers like meandering threads. Today, highways, railways and transcontinental aircraft criss-cross the land, making travel easy. But only a few generations ago, the topographic features on the map represented great dangers and difficulties.Today's visitors, riding over a good road in the Cascade Mountains in the west coast states of Oregon and Washington, may see marks on the rocks made by ropes where pioneer settlers painfully lowered their horses and wagons down cliffs to reach the fertile river valley far below. In the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California, the main route now runs through a mountain pass which was once too narrow for a wagon to go through. Pioneer families reaching that pass had to take their wagons apart piece by piece, carry them through, and then reassemble them on the other side. In 1848, pioneers who crossed the continent made the trip in 109 days - if they were fortunate and strong. Today a New Y ork family can drive by car to San Francisco in less than a week.HistoryThe first Europeans to reach North America were Icelandic V ikings, led by Leif Ericson, about the year 1000. Traces of their visit have been found in the Canadian province of Newfoundland, but the V ikings failed to establish a permanent settlement and soon lost contact with the new continent.Five centuries later, the demand for Asian spices, textiles, and dyes spurred European navigators to dream of shorter routes between East and West. Acting on behalf of the Spanish crown, in 1492 the Italian navigator Christopher Columbus sailed west from Europe and landed on one of the Bahama Islands in the Caribbean Sea. Within 40 years, Spanish adventurers had carved out a huge empire in Central and South America. In the 16th and 17th Century, Northern Europeans settled in what is now the North East Coast of the United States, which soon fell under the British Crown and stayed an English Colony till the Revolutionary Wars in the late 18th Century. Please see links below for an outline of the history of the United States, with a few selected focus areas.Government OverviewThe United States is a federal union of 50 states, with the District of Columbia as the seat of the federal government. The Constitution outlines the structure of the national government and specifies its powers and activities, and defines the relationship between the national government and individual state governments. Power is shared between the national and state (local) governments. Within each state are counties, townships, cities and villages, each of which has its own elective government.Governmental power and functions in the United States rest in three branches of government: the legislative, judicial, and executive. Article 1 of the Constitution defines the legislative branch and vests power to legislate in the Congress of the United States. The executive powers of the President are defined in Article 2. Article 3 places judicial power in the hands of one Supreme Court and inferior courts as Congress sees necessary to establish. In this system of a "separation of powers" each branch operates independently of the others, however, there are builtin "checks and balances" to prevent a concentration of power in any one branch and to protect the rights and liberties of citizens. For example, the President can veto bills approved by Congress and the President nominates individuals to serve in the Federal judiciary; the Supreme Court can declare a law enacted by Congress or an action by the President unconstitutional; and Congress can impeach the President and Federal court justices and judges.EconomyThe United S tates entered the 21st century with an economy that was bigger, and by many measures more successful, than ever. Though the United States held less than 5 percent of the world's population, it accounted for more than 25 percent of the world's economic output. In the 1990s, the American economy recorded the longest uninterrupted period of expansion in its history. A wave of technological innovations in computing, telecommunications, and the biological sciences were profoundly affecting how Americans work and play.The United States remains a "market economy." Americans continue to believe that an economy generally operates best when decisions about what to produce and what prices to charge for goods are made through the give-and-take of millions of independent buyers and sellers, not by government or by powerful private interests.Besides believing that free markets promote economic efficiency, Americans see them as a way of promoting their political values as well -- especially, their commitment to individual freedom and political pluralism and their opposition to undue concentrations of power. The American belief in "free enterprise" has not precluded a major role for government, however. Americans at times have looked to government to break up or regulate companies. that appeared to be developing so much power that they could defy market forces. They have relied on government to address matters the private economy overlooks, from education to protecting the environment. And despite their advocacy of market principles, they have used government at times to nurture new industries, and at times even to protect American companies from competition.。

President of the United StatesThe President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.Article II of the U.S. Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president and charges him with the execution of federal law, alongside the responsibility of appointing federal executive, diplomatic, regulatory, and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with foreign powers, with the advice and consent of the Senate. The president is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves, and to convene and adjourn either or both houses of Congress under extraordinary circumstances.[3]Since the founding of the United States, the power of the president and the federal government have grown substantially[4]and each modern president, despite possessing no formal legislative powers beyond signing or vetoing congressionally passed bills, is largely responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of his party and the foreign and domestic policy of the United States.[5] The president is frequently described as the most powerful person in the world.[6][7][8][9][10][11]The president is indirectly elected by the people through the Electoral College to a four-year term, and is one of only two nationally elected federal officers, the other being the Vice President of the United States.[12] The Twenty-second Amendment, adopted in 1951, prohibits anyone from ever being elected to the presidency for a third full term. It also prohibits a person from being elected to the presidency more than once if that person previously had served as President, or Acting President, for more than two years of another person's term as President. In all, 43 individuals have served 55 four-year terms.[13] On January 20, 2009, Barack Obama became the forty-fourth and current president.OriginIn 1783, the Treaty of Paris left the United States independent and at peace, but with an unsettled governmental structure. The Second Continental Congress had drawn up the Articles of Confederation in 1777, describing a permanent confederation, but granting to the Congress of the Confederation—the only federal institution created—little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced. In part, this reflected the anti-monarchy view of the Revolutionary period; the new American system was explicitly designed to prevent the rise of an American tyrant.By the end of the Revolutionary War, the Continental dollar had depreciated to the point of worthlessness. The viability of the federal government was threatened by political unrest in several states, efforts by debtors to use popular government to erase their debts, and the inability of Congress to raise revenue to pay off the public debts incurred during the war. The Congress also appeared unable to become a forum for productive cooperation among the States encouraging commerce and economic development. In response, the Philadelphia Convention was convened, ostensibly to devise amendments to the Articles of Confederation, but which instead began to draft a new system of government that would include greater executive power while retaining the checks and balances thought to be essential restraints on any imperial tendency in the office of the president.Individuals who presided over the Continental Congress during the Revolutionary period and under the Articles of Confederation had the title "President of the United States in Congress Assembled", often shortened to "President of the United States". However, the office had little distinct executive power. With the 1788 ratification of the Constitution, a separate executive branch was created, headed by the "President of the United States". This new Chief Executive role no longer bore the duties of presiding over Congress in a supervisory role, but the title "President" was carried over nevertheless. This title was a major understatement of the actual role empowered to the office by the Constitution, and this choice of words can be seen as a deliberate effort by the Founding Fathers to prevent the head of state position from evolving toward becoming a monarchical position, with the accompanying potential for abuse of such power.A president's executive authority under the Constitution, tempered by the checks and balances of the judicial and legislative branches of the federal government, was designed to solve several political problems faced by the young nation and to anticipate future challenges, while still preventing the rise of an autocrat.Powers and dutiesArticle I legislative roleThe first power conferred upon the president by the U.S. Constitution is the legislative power of the presidential veto. The Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options:1.Sign the legislation; the bill then becomes law.2.Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections; the bill does notbecome law, unless each house of Congress votes to override the veto by a two-thirds vote.3.Take no action. In this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation.After 10 days, not counting Sundays, two possible outcomes emerge:o If Congress is still convened, the bill becomes law.o If Congress has adjourned, thus preventing the return of the legislation, the bill does not become law. This latter outcome is known as the pocket veto.In 1996, Congress attempted to enhance the president's veto power with the Line Item Veto Act. The legislation empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law while simultaneously striking certain spending items within the bill, particularly any new spending, any amount of discretionary spending, or any new limited tax benefit. Once a president had stricken the item, Congress could pass that particular item again. If the president then vetoed the new legislation, Congress could override the veto by its ordinary means, a two-thirds vote in both houses. In Clinton v. City of New York, 524 U.S.417 (1998), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled such a legislative alteration of the veto power to be unconstitutional.Article II executive powersWar and foreign affairs powersPerhaps the most important of all presidential powers is command of the United States armed forces as commander-in-chief. While the power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress, the president commands and directs the military and is responsible for planning militarystrategy. The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president's powers regarding the military; Alexander Hamilton explains this in Federalist No. 69:The President is to be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States. ... It would amount to nothing more than the supreme command and direction of the military and naval forces ... while that [the power] of the British king extends to the DECLARING of war and to the RAISING and REGULATING of fleets and armies, all [of] which ... would appertain to the legislature.[14] [Emphasis in the original.]Congress, pursuant to the War Powers Resolution, must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed, rendering it ineffectual.[15]Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation.Along with the armed forces, the president also directs U.S. foreign policy. Through the Department of State and the Department of Defense, the president is responsible for the protection of Americans abroad and of foreign nationals in the United States. The president decides whether to recognize new nations and new governments, and negotiates treaties with other nations, which become binding on the United States when approved by two-thirds vote of the Senate.Although not constitutionally provided, presidents also sometimes employ "executive agreements" in foreign relations. Frequently, these agreements regard the orientation of executive discretion in the administration of matters germane to executive power; for example, the extent to which either country presents an armed presence in a given area, how each country will enforce copyright treaties, or how each country will process foreign mail. However, the 20th century witnessed a vast expansion of the use of executive agreements, and critics have challenged the extent of that use as supplanting the treaty process and removing constitutionally prescribed checks and balances over the executive in foreign relations. Supporters counter that the agreements offer a pragmatic solution when the need for swift, secret, and/or concerted action arises. Administrative powersThe president is the chief executive of the United States, putting him at the head of the executive branch of the government, whose responsibility is to "take care that the laws be faithfully executed." The executive branch has over four million employees, including members of the military.[16]Presidents make numerous executive branch appointments: an incoming president may make up to 6,000 before he takes office and 8,000 more during his term. Ambassadors, members of the Cabinet, and other federal officers, are all appointed by a president with the "advice and consent" of a majority of the Senate. Appointments made while the Senate is in recess are temporary and expire at the end of the next session of the Senate.The power of a president to fire executive officials has long been a contentious political issue. Generally, a president may remove purely executive officials at his discretion.[17]However, Congress can curtail and constrain a president's authority to fire commissioners of independent regulatory agencies and certain inferior executive officers by statute.[18]The president possesses the ability to direct much of the executive branch through executive orders. To the extent the orders are grounded in federal statute or executive power granted in the U.S. Constitution, these orders have the force of law. Thus, executive orders are reviewable by federal courts or can be rendered null through legislative changes to statute.Juridical powersThe president also has the power to nominate federal judges, including members of the United States courts of appeals and the Supreme Court of the United States. However, these nominations do require Senate confirmation. Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance. When nominating judges to U.S. district courts, presidents often respect the long-standing tradition of Senatorial courtesy. Presidents may also grant pardons and reprieves, as is often done just before the end of a presidential term.Historically, two doctrines concerning executive power have develop that enable the president to exercise executive power with a degree of autonomy. The first is executive privilege, which allows the president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to the president in the performance of executive duties. George Washington first claimed privilege when Congress requested to see Chief Justice John Jay's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great Britain. While not enshrined in the Constitution, or any other law, Washington's action created the precedent for the privilege. When Richard Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during the Watergate scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S.683 (1974), that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution. When President Bill Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding the Lewinsky scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in Clinton v. Jones, 520 U.S.681 (1997), that the privilege also could not be used in civil suits. These cases established the legal precedent that executive privilege is valid, although the exact extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined. Additionally, federal courts have allowed this privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees, but have weakened that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve the president.[The state secrets privilege allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information or documents from discovery in legal proceedings if such release would harm national security. Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when Thomas Jefferson refused to release military documents in the treason trial of Aaron Burr and again in 1876 in Totten v. United States, when the Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy.[20] However, the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court until United States v. Reynolds (1953) where it was held to be a common law evidentiary privilege.[21] Before the September 11 attacks, use of the privilege had been rare, but increasing in frequency.[22]Since 2001, the government has asserted the privilege in more cases and at earlier stages of the litigation, thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before reaching the merits of the claims, as in the Ninth Circuit's ruling in Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan.[21][23][24] Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions. Legislative facilitatorRepresenting the executive branch of government, the president cannot simultaneously hold a seat in Congress. Therefore, the president cannot directly introduce legislative proposals for consideration in Congress. The president can, however, take an indirect role in shaping legislation, especially if the president's political party has a majority in one or both houses of Congress. For example, the president or other officials of the executive branch may draft legislation and then ask senators or representatives to introduce these drafts into Congress. The president can further influence the legislative branch through constitutionally mandated, periodic reports to Congress.These reports may be either written or oral, but today are given as the State of the Union address, which often outlines the president's legislative proposals for the coming year.According to Article II, Section 3, Clause 2 of the Constitution, the president may convene either or both houses of Congress. If both houses cannot agree on a date of adjournment, the president may appoint a date for Congress to adjourn.Selection processEligibilityArticle II, Section 1, Clause 5 of the Constitution sets the principal qualifications one must meet to be eligible to the office of president. A president must:∙be a natural born citizen of the United States;[27]∙be at least thirty-five years old;∙have been a permanent resident in the United States for at least fourteen years.A person who meets the above qualifications is still disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions:∙Under the Twenty-second Amendment, no eligible person can be elected president more than twice. The Twenty-second Amendment also specifies that if any eligible person who serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a term for which some other eligible person was elected president, the former can only be elected president once.Scholars disagree whether anyone no longer eligible to be elected president could be elected vice president, pursuant to the qualifications set out under the Twelfth Amendment.[28]∙Under Article I, Section 3, Clause 7, upon conviction in impeachment cases the Senate has the option of disqualifying convicted individuals from holding other federal offices, including the Presidency.[29]∙Under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment, the Constitution prohibits an otherwise eligible person from becoming president if that person swore an oath to support the Constitution, and later rebelled against the United States. However, the Congress, by a two-thirds vote of each house, can remove the disqualification.Campaigns and nominationMain articles: United States presidential primary, United States presidential nominating convention, United States presidential election debates, and United States presidential election The modern presidential campaign begins before the primary elections, which the two major political parties use to clear the field of candidates in advance of their national nominating conventions, where the most successful candidate is made the party's nominee for president. Typically, the party's presidential candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee, and this choice is rubber-stamped by the convention.Nominees participate in nationally televised debates, and while the debates are usually restricted to the Democratic and Republican nominees, third party candidates may be invited, such as Ross Perot in the 1992 debates. Nominees campaign across the country to explain their views, convince voters and solicit contributions. Much of the modern electoral process is concerned with winning swing states through frequent visits and mass media advertising drives.Election and oathPresidents are elected indirectly in the United States. A number of electors, collectively known as the Electoral College, officially select the president. On Election Day, voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors. Each state is allocated a number of electors, equal to the size of its delegation in both Houses of Congress combined. Generally, the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College.The winning slate of electors meet at its state's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election, to vote. They then send a record of that vote to Congress. The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president, acting in his capacity as President of the Senate and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming congress, which was elected at the same time as the president.Pursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the president's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election. This date, known as Inauguration Day, marks the beginning of the four-year terms of both the president and the vice president. Before executing the powers of the office, a president is constitutionally required to take the presidential oath:I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.[30]Although not required, presidents have traditionally used a Bible to take oath of office and suffixed "So help me God!" to the end of the oath. Further, though no law requires that the oath of office be administered by any specific person, presidents are traditionally sworn in by the Chief Justice of the United States.Tenure and term limitsThe term of office for president and vice president is four years. George Washington, the first president, set an unofficial precedent of serving only two terms, which subsequent presidents followed until 1940. Before Franklin D. Roosevelt, attempts at a third term were encouraged by supporters of Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt; neither of these attempts succeeded. In 1940, Franklin Roosevelt declined to seek a third term, but allowed his political party to "draft" him as their presidential candidate and was subsequently elected to a third term. In 1941, the U.S. became involved in World War II, which later led voters to elect Roosevelt to a fourth term in 1944.After the war, and in response to Roosevelt's shattering of precedent, the Twenty-second Amendment was adopted. The amendment bars anyone from being elected president more than twice, or once if that person served more than half of another president's term. Harry S. Truman, who was president when the amendment was adopted, and so by the amendment's provisions exempt from its limitation, also briefly sought a third (a second full) term before withdrawing from the 1952 election.Since the amendment's adoption, four presidents have served two full terms: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton and George W. Bush. Jimmy Carter and George H. W. Bush sought a second term, but were defeated. Richard Nixon was elected to a second term, but resigned before completing it. Lyndon B. Johnson was the only president under the amendment to be eligible to serve more than two terms in total, having served for only fourteen months following John F. Kennedy's assassination. However, Johnson withdrew from the 1968 Democratic Primary, surprising many Americans by stating, "I shall not seek, and I will not accept,the nomination of my party for another term as your president." Gerald Ford sought a full term, after serving out the last two years and five months of Nixon's second term, but was not elected. Vacancy or disabilitySee also: Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution, United States presidential line of succession, Presidential Succession Act, and Impeachment in the United States Vacancies in the office of president may arise under several possible circumstances: death, resignation and removal from office.Article II, Section 4of the Constitution allows the House of Representatives to impeach high federal officials, including the president, for "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors." Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 gives the Senate the power to remove impeached officials from office, given a two-thirds vote to convict. The House has thus far impeached two presidents: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998. Neither was subsequently convicted by the Senate; however, Johnson was acquitted by just one vote.Under Section 3 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the president may transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice president, who then becomes acting president, by transmitting a statement to the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate stating the reasons for the transfer. The president resumes the discharge of the presidential powers and duties when he transmits, to those two officials, a written declaration stating that resumption. This transfer of power may occur for any reason the president considers appropriate; in 2002 and again in 2007, President George W. Bush briefly transferred presidential authority to Vice President Dick Cheney. In both cases, this was done to accommodate a medical procedure which required Bush to be sedated; both times, Bush returned to duty later the same day.[31]Under Section 4 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the vice president and a majority of the Cabinet may transfer the presidential powers and duties from the president to the vice president once they transmit a written declaration to the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate that the president is unable to discharge the presidential powers and duties. If this occurs, then the vice president will assume the presidential powers and duties as acting president; however, the president can declare that no such inability exists and resume the discharge of the presidential powers and duties. If the vice president and cabinet contest this claim, it is up to Congress, which must meet within two days if not already in session, to decide the merit of the claim.The United States Constitution mentions the resignation of the president but does not regulate the form of such a resignation or the conditions for its validity. Pursuant to federal law, the only valid evidence of the president's resignation is a written instrument to that effect, signed by the president and delivered to the office of the Secretary of State.[32] On August 9, 1974, facing likely impeachment in the midst of the Watergate scandal, Richard Nixon became the only president ever to resign from office.The Constitution states that the vice president becomes president upon the removal from office, death or resignation of the preceding president. If the offices of president and vice president both are either vacant or have a disabled holder of that office, the next officer in the presidential line of succession, the Speaker of the House, becomes acting president. The line then extends to the president pro tempore of the Senate, followed by every member of the cabinet in a set order. CompensationThe president earns a $400,000 annual salary, along with a $50,000 annual expense account, a $100,000 non-taxable travel account and $19,000 for entertainment.[36][37] The most recent raise in salary was approved by Congress and President Bill Clinton in 1999 and went into effect in 2001. The White House in Washington, D.C. serves as the official place of residence for the president; he is entitled to use its staff and facilities, including medical care, recreation, housekeeping, and security services. Naval Support Facility Thurmont, popularly known as Camp David, is a mountain-based military camp in Frederick County, Maryland used as a country retreat and for high alert protection of the president and his guests. Blair House, located adjacent to the Old Executive Office Building at the White House Complex and Lafayette Park, is a complex of four connected townhouses exceeding 70,000 square feet (6,500 m2) of floor space which serves as the president's official guest house and as a secondary residence for the president if needed.[38]For ground travel, the president uses the presidential state car, which is an armored limousine built on a heavily modified Cadillac-based chassis.[39]One of two identical Boeing VC-25aircraft, which are extensively modified versions of Boeing 747-200B airliners, serve as long distance travel for the president, and are referred to as Air Force One while the president is on board.[40][41] The president also uses a United States Marine Corps helicopter, designated Marine One when the president is aboard.The United States Secret Service is charged with protecting the sitting president and his family. As part of their protection, presidents, first ladies, their children and other immediate family members, and other prominent persons and locations are assigned Secret Service codenames.[42] The use of such names was originally for security purposes and dates to a time when sensitive electronic communications were not routinely encrypted; today, the names simply serve for purposes of brevity, clarity and tradition.[43][44]Post-presidencyBeginning in 1959, all living former presidents were granted a pension, an office and a staff. The pension has increased numerous times with Congressional approval. Retired presidents now receive a pension based on the salary of the current administration's cabinet secretaries, which is $191,300 as of 2008.[45]Some former presidents have also collected congressional pensions.[46] The Former Presidents Act, as amended, also provides former presidents with travel funds and franking privileges.Until 1997, all former presidents, and their families, were protected by the Secret Service until the president's death. The last president to have lifetime Secret Service protection is Bill Clinton; George W. Bush and all subsequent presidents will be protected by the Secret Service for a maximum of ten years after leaving office.[47]Some presidents have had significant careers after leaving office. Prominent examples include William Howard Taft's tenure as Chief Justice of the United States and Herbert Hoover's work on government reorganization after World War II. Grover Cleveland, whose bid for reelection failed in 1888, was elected president again four years later in 1892. Two former presidents served in Congress after leaving the White House: John Quincy Adams was elected to the House of Representatives, serving there for seventeen years, and Andrew Johnson returned to the Senate in 1875. John Tyler served in the provisional Congress of the Confederate States during the Civil War and was elected to the Confederate House of Representatives.Presidents may use their predecessors as emissaries to deliver private messages to other nations,[48] or as official representatives of the United States to state funerals and other important foreign。

高三英语政治制度阅读理解30题1<背景文章>The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy. The political system of the UK is known for its stability and long history.The British monarchy is a symbol of national unity and continuity. The Queen or King has limited powers and mainly performs ceremonial duties. The real power lies in the hands of Parliament.The Parliament of the United Kingdom consists of two houses: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The House of Commons is elected by the people and is responsible for making laws and scrutinizing the work of the government. The House of Lords is made up of peers and has a revising and delaying function.The British political system also features a multi-party system. The main political parties are the Conservative Party, the Labour Party, and the Liberal Democrats.In the UK, the prime minister is the head of government and is appointed by the Queen or King on the recommendation of the House of Commons. The prime minister leads the Cabinet and is responsible for the day-to-day running of the country.The British political system is based on the principles of democracy, the rule of law, and the separation of powers. It ensures that the people have a say in how the country is governed and that the rights and freedoms of individuals are protected.<问题1>What is the main function of the British monarchy?A. Making laws.B. Performing ceremonial duties.C. Running the country.D. Electing the prime minister.答案：B。

宪法案例1.MARBURY v. MADISONJustice (P) v. Secretary of state (D)5 U.S (1 Cranch) 137 (1803).NATURE OF CASE :Writ of mandamus to compel delivery of commission.FACT SUMMARY: President Jefferson’s Secretary of State, Madison (D),refused to deliver a commission granted to Marbury (P) by former President Adams.CONCISE RULE OF LAW: The Supreme Court has the power, implied from Article VI. §2 of the Constitution, to review acts of Congress and if they are found repugnant to the Constitution, to declare them void.FACTS: On March2,1801,the outgoing President of the United States, John Adams, named forty-two justices of the peace for the District of Columbia under the Organic Act passed the same day by Congress. William Marbury (P) was one of the justices named. The commissions of Marbury (P) and other named justices were signed by Adams on his last day in office, March3,and signed and sealed by the Acting Secretary of State, John Marshall. However,the formal commissions were not delivered by the end of the day.The new President, Thomas Jefferson, treated those appointments that were not formalized by delivery of the papers of commission prior to Adams leaving office as a nullity. Marbury (P) and other affected colleagues brought this writ of mandamus to the Supreme Court to compel Jefferson’s Secretary of State, James Madison(D),to deliver the commissions. John Marshall,the current Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, delivered the opinion.ISSUE: Does the Constitution give the Supreme Court the authority to review acts of Congress and declare them, if repugnant to the Constitution, to be void?HOLDING AND DECISION: (Marshall, C.J.) Yes. The Supreme Court has the power, implied from Article VI, §2 of the Constitution, to review acts of Congress and if they are found repugnant to the Constitution, to declare them void. The government of the United States is a government of laws,not of men. The President, bound by these laws, is given certain political powers by the Constitution which the may use at his discretion. To aid him in his duties, he is authorized to appoint certain officers to carry out his orders. Their acts as officers are his acts and are never subject to examination by the courts. However, where these officers are never subject to exanination by the courts. However, where these officcers are given by law specific duties on which individual rights depend, any individual injured by breach of such duty mayresort to his country’s laws for a remedy. Here ,Marrbury (P) had a right to the commission, and Madison’s (D) refusal to deliver it violated that right. The present case is clearly one for mandamus. However, should the Supreme Court be the court to issue it ? The Judiciary Act of 1789 established and authorized United States courts to issue writs of mandamus to courts or persons holding office under U.S. authority. Secretary of State Madison (D) comes within the Act. If the Supreme Court is powerless to issue the writ of mandamus to him, it must be because the Act is unconstitutional. Article III of the Constitution provides that the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction in all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and where a state is a party. In all other cases, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction. Marbury (P) urged that since Article III contains no restrictive words, the power to assign original jurisdiction to the courts remains in the legislature. But if Congress is allowed to distribute the original and appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, as in the Judiciary Act, then the constitutional grant of Article III is form without substance. But no clause in the Constitution is presumed to be without effect. For the Court to issue a mandamus, it must be an exercise of appellate jurisdiction. The grant of appellate jurisdiction is the power revise and correct proceedings already instituted; it does not creat the cause. To issue a writ of mandamus ordering an executive officer to deliver a paper is to create the original action for that paper. This would be an exercise of appellate jurisdiction. The grantof appellate jurisdiction is the power to recise and correct proceedings already instituted; it does not create the cause. To issue a writ of mandamus ordering an executive officer to deliver a paper is to create the original action for that paper. This would be an unconstitutional exercise of original jurisdiction beyong the power of the court. It is the province and duty of the judicial department to say what the law is. And any law, including acts of the legislature, which is repugnant to the Constitution is void. Mandamus denied.2.McCULLOCH v.MARYLANDBank cashier (D) v. State (p)17 u.s.(4 Wheat)(1819).NATURE OF CASE : Action arising out of violation of a state statute. FACT SUMMARY: McCulloch (D), the cashier of the Baltimore branch of the U.S. Bank issued band notes in violation of a Maryland (P) statute providing that no bank, without authority from the state, could issue bank notes except on stamped paper issued by the state.CONCISE RULE OF LAW: 1)Certain federal powers giving Congress the discretion and power to choose and enact the means to perform the duties imposed upon it are to be implied from the Necessary and Proper Clause. 2)The Federal Constitution and the laws made pursuant to it aresupreme and control the Constitutions and the laws of the states.FACTS :A Maryland (P) statute prohibites any bank operating in the state without state authority from issuing bank notes except upon stamped paper issued by the state. The law specifies the fees payable for the paper, and provides for penalties for violators. An Act of Congress established a U.S.Bank.McCulloch (D), the U.S.Bank’s cashier for its Baltimore branch, issued bank notes without complying with the Maryland (p)law.ISSUE: 1)Does Congress have the power to incorporate a bank? 2)Does a state have the power to impose fees on the operation of an institution created by Congress pursuant to its constitutional powers?HOLDING AND DECISION:(Marshall,C.J.) 1) Yes. Certain federal powers giving Congress the discretion and power to choose and enact the means to perform the duties imposed upon it are to be implied from the Necessary and Proper Clause. It’s true that this government is one of enumerated powers. However, the Constitution does not exclude incidental or implied powers. It does not require that everything be granted expressly and minutely described. To have so required would have entirely changes the character of the Constitution and made it into a legal code. The enumerated powers given to the government imly the ordinary means of execution. thepower of creating a corporation may be implied as incidental to other powers, or used as a means of executing them. The Necessary and Proper Clause gives Congress the power to make “all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution ” the powers vested by the Constitution in the U.S. Government. Maryland(P) arg ues that the word “necessary”limits the right to pass laws for the execution of the granted powers to those which are indispensable. However, in common usage “necessary” frequently means convenient, useful, and essential. Considering the word’s common usage, its usage in another part of the Constitution (Article 1, Section 10), and its inclusion among the powers given to Congress, rather than among the limitations upon Congress, it cannot be held to restrain Congress. The sound construction of the Constitution must allow Congress the discretion to choose the means to perform the duties imposed upon ti. As long as the end is legitimate and within the scope of the Constitution, any means which are appropriate,which are plainly adapted to that end , and which are not prohibited by the Constitution, but are consistent with its spirit, are constitutional. A bank is a convenient ,useful, and essential instrument for handling national finances. Hence, it is within Congress’s power to enact a law incorporating a U.S.Bank. 2) No. The Federal Constitution and the laws made pursuant to it are supreme and control the Constitutions and the laws of the states. Maryland(P) was incorrect in its contention that the powers of the federal government are delegated by the states which alone are trulysovereign. The Constitution derives its authority from the people,not from the states. Here, Maryland’s(P) statute in effect taxes the opration of the U.S.Bank, a bank properly created within Congress’s power. The power to tax involves the power to destroy. Here it is in opposition to the supreme congressional power to create a bank. Also,when a state taxes an organization created by the ernment ,it acts upon an institution created by people over whom it claims no control. The states have no power, by taxation or otherwise, to impede, burden, or in any manner control the operations of constitutional laws enacted by Congress. The Maryland (P) statute is ,therefore, unconstitutional and void.3.THE POWERS OF CONGRESS QUICK REFERENCE RULES OFLAWUNITED STATES v. LOPEZFederal Government (P) v.Handgun possessor (D)514 u.s 549 (1995)NATURE OF CASE :Certiorari from reversal of conviction for violation of the Gun-Free School Zones Act.FACT SUMMARY: Lopez (D) was arrested for carrying a handgun in school in violation of state and federal law.CONCISE RULE OF LAW: Congress has the authority to regulate through its commerce power only those activities that have a substantial effect upon interstate commerce.FACTS : Lopez (D) was a twelfth-grade student at Edison High School in San Antonio, Texas. He arrived at school with a .38caliber hangun and five bullets. He was arrested and charged under Texas law for firearm possession on school premises. State charges were dropped after federal agents charged Lopez (D) with violating the Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990. The district court convicted Lopez (D) . The court of appeals for the Fifth Circuit reversed because it held that the Act was beyond the power of Congress under the Commerce Clause.ISSUE: Does the Gun-Free School Zones Act exceed the powers of Congress under the Commerce Clause?H OLDING AND DECISION:(Rehnquist,C.J.) Yes. Congress has the authority to regulate through its commerce power only those activities that have a substantial effect upon interstate commerce. The Constitution creates a federal government of enumerated powers that are listed in Article 1,§8.That power expanded dramatically under later court decisions but has always retained some outer limits. There are three broad categories of activity which Congress may regulate under its commerce power: (1)Congress may regulate the use of the channels of interstate commerce; (2) Congress may regulate and protect the instrumentalities of interstate commerce even if the threat is only from intrastate activeities; and (3) Congress may regulate those activities having a substantial relation to interstate commerce. The activities addressed by the Gun-Free School Zones Act definitelly do not fall into either of the first two categories. Moreover, there is nothing in the statute itself nor in its legislative history that expresses congressional findings regarding the effects upon interstate commerce of gun possession in a school zone. It would be imprudent to convert congressional authoirty under the Commerce Clause into a general police power of the sort retained by the States. AffirmesdCONCURRENCE: (Kennedy, J.) There are two lessons to be learned from reviewing prior decisions about the Commerce Clause. The first is that there is imprecision of content-based boundaries involved, such as distinction between “commerce”and “manufacture.”The second is that there is an immense stake in the stability of the Commerce Clause jurisprudence. Stare decisis counsels not to call into question the essential principles of Commerce Clause analysis. That does not mean,however, that courts lack the authority and responsibility to review congressional attempts to alter the federalbalance. Therefore, the political branches must not forget their sworn obligation to preserve and protect the Constitution. The Gun-Free School Zones Act upsets the federal balance and is an unconstitutional assertion of the commerce power.CONCURRENCE: (Thomas, J.) The power that we have accorded to Congress through the Commerce Clause has swallowde Article 1,§8. The “substantial effects ”test has eviscerated any notion of federalism. Without boundaries which limit use of the Commerce Clause to truly commercial activety, we give the federal government a blank check to regulate anything under the guise of the Commerce Clause.DISSENT:(Stevens,J.) Guns are articles of commerce and can be used to restrain commerce. The national interest justifies prohibiting the possession of guns by school-age children.DISSENT:(Souter,J. ) The Court should only look into whether the legislative judgment is within the realm of reason. Congress should have plenary power to legislate under the Commerce Clause as long as the law passes the rational basis test.DISSENT: (Breyer, J.) Violence in the schools interferes with the quality of education. Education is inextricably tied to the economy. Therefore, Congress could have rationally concluded that the possession of guns in school zones is related to interstate commerce. Furthermore, the majority decision contradictswell settled precedent that allows Congress to regulate noncommercial activity that affects interstate commerce.4.MISSOURI v. HOLLDState (P) v. Federal game warden (D)252 u.s. 416 (1920)NATURE OF CASE : An action in equity to enjoin the enforcement of the Migratory Bird-Treaty Act.FACT SUMMARY: Missouri(P) claims that the Bird Treaty Act was an unconstitutional interference with the rights reserved to the states by the Tenth Amendment.CONCISE RULE OF LAW: Congress can constitutionally enact a statute under Article 1, Section 8 to enforce a treaty created under Article 2, Section 2, even if the statute by itself is unconstitutional.FACTS : On December 8, 1916, the United States entered into a treaty with Great Britain to protect birds that migrated between Canada and the United States. Congress passed a statute to enforce the Migratoty Bird Treaty which allowed the Secretary of Agriculture to formulate regulations to enforce the treaty. The State of Missouri (P) filed a bill in equity to prevent Holland(D), The game warden of the United States,from enforcing the treaty . Missouri (P) claimed that the statute was an unconstitutional interference with the rightsreserved to the states by the Tenth Amendment and that it had a pecuniary interest as owner of the wild birds which were being interfered with. Before the treaty had been entered into, Congress had attempted to regulate the killing of migratory birds within the states and that statute, standing by itself, had been declared unconstitutional. The United States contended that Congress had the power to enact the statute to enforce the treaty and that the statute and treaty were the supreme law of the land.ISSUE: Can Congress validly enact a statute to enforce a treaty if the statute standing by itself would be unconstitutional because it interfered with the rights reserved to the states by the Tenth Amendment?HOLDING AND DECISION:(Holmes,C.J) Yes. Congress can constitutionally enact a statute under Article 1, Section 8 to enforce a treaty created under Article 2, Section 2 ,even if the statute by itself is unconstitutional.Article 11,Section2 grants the President the power to make treaties and Article VI, Section 2 declares that treaties shall be part of the supreme law of the land. If a treaty is a valid one, Article 1, Section 8 gives Congress the power to enact legislation that is a necessary and proper means to enforce the treaty. While acts of Congress are the supreme law of the land only when they are made in pursuance of the Constitution, treaties are valid when made under the authority of the United States. The Court stated that there were qualifications to the treaty-making power, but felt that the qualifications must be determined by looking at the facts of each case. Thereare situations that require national action which an act of Congress could not deal with, but which a treaty enforced with a congressional act could. Because Missouri (P) did not have the power to adequately control the problem connected with the migratory birds (nor did any other state acting alone), this was a situation which required national action. Therefore,even though Missouri(P) would have been able to establish regulations pertaining to the birds if Congress had not already done so, Congress could establish requlations in conjunction with the treaty without infringing on the rights reserved to the states by the Tenth Amendment. The court rejected Missouri’s(P) claim that it had a pecuniary interest as an owner when the birds were in the state. There is no ownership until there is possession and the birds never came into the possession of the state of Missouri(P). Congress can ,therefore, constitutionally enact a statute under Article 1, Section 8 to enforce a treaty even if the statute by itself would be unconstitutional.5.STEWARD MACHINE CO.v. DA VISTaxpayer (P) v. Federal government (D)301 u.s. 548 (1937)NATURE OF CASE : Action challenging the constitutionality of the Social Security Act as applied to employers of eight or more.FACT SUMMARY: The Social Security Act levies an excise tax onemployers of eight or more and the proceeds go into the General Traeasury; however, if a taxpayer has made contributions to a state unemployment fund, such contributions can be credited against the federal tax.CONCISE RULE OF LAW: A federal unemployment insurance tax statute which provides for credit for contributions made to state unemployment funds is valid since:1) Congress enacted it primarily to safeguard its own treasury; 2) the proceeds of the tax are not earmarked for a special group but go into the General Treasury;and 3) the act is directed to an end for which Congress and the states may lawfully cooperate.FACTS :The Social Security Act imposes an excise tax on employers of eight or more based on the wages paid. The proceeds go into the General Treasury. However if a taxpayer has made contributions to a state unemployment fund, such contributions can be credited against the federal tax proveded that the state law has ben certified by the Social Security Board as satisfying certain minimum criteria. Between 1929 and 1936 there was an unprecedented number of unemployed in the U.S.,and the states were unable to give the requisite relief to the needy. Steward Machine Co.(P) paid a tax in accordance with the statute and filed a claim to recover the payment,asserting that the statute is unconstitutional.ISSUE: Is a federal unemployment insurance tax which provides for credit for contributions made to a state unemployment fund constitutional. HOLDING AND DECISION:(Cardozo,J.) Yes. A federal unemployment insurance tax statute which provides for credit for contributions made to state unemployment funds is valid since: 1) Congress enacted it primarily to safeguard its own treasury;2) the proceeds of the tax are not earmarked for a special group but go into the General Treasury; and3) the act is directed to an end for which Congress and the states may lawfully cooperate. In a crisis so extreme as the unemployment crisis ,the use of the nation’s monies to relieve the unemployed and their dependents cannot be called a use for any purpose other than the promotion of the general welfare. By 1935, when Congress enacted the Social Security Act, the unemployment situation had become so severe that the states were unable to continue to help those in need. There was need of help from the nation if people were not to starve. Before Congress enacted the Social Security Act, few states had passed unemployment laws. Many held back for fear that the toll placed on industry by such legislation would put them at an economic disadvantage as compared with neighboring states. The purpose of Congress’intervention in enacting the Social Security Act was to safeguard its own treasury, and as an incident to that protection to place the states upon a footing of equal opportunity as to unemployment insurance. Unlike the Child Labor Tax the Federal Unemployment tax will be abated upon the doing of an act that will satisfythe fiscal need subserved by the tax. Unlike tax in Butler, the proceeds from the federal unemployment tax are not earmarked for a special group, but go into the General Treasury. Also the state unemployment law which is a condition of the credit has had the state’s approval(and could not be a law without such approval).Nor is the conditon linked to an irrevocable agreement. The state may choose to repeal its unemployment law,thereby terminating the credit. Further the credit condition is not directed to achieve an unlawful end, but an end the relief of unemployment, for which the nation and states may lawfully cooperate. Lastly the statute does not call for a surrender by the states of powers essential to their quasisovereign existence. The conditon requiring that the state laws meet the Social Security Board’s criteria is suitable to assure that those who look to the laws for protection, receive that protection.receive that protection.”What is basic and essential may be assured by suitable conditions.”The Social Security Act is constitutional.SEPARATE OPINION: (McReynolds, J.) I quote from a veto message sent to the Senate in 1854 by President Pierce concerning a bill to grant public lands to the states for the benefit of the insane,”It cannot be questioned that if Congress has power to make provision for the indigent insane, it has the same power to provide for the indigent who are not insane,and thus to transfer to the federal government the charge of all the poor in all the States.”SEPARATE OPIION: (Sutherland, J.) This act contemplates a surrender bythe states to the federal government of state power to administer their own unemployment laws. Hence it cannot be upheld.6.NEW YORK v. UNITED STATESState(P) v. Federal government (D)505 u.s 144 (1992)NATURE OF CASE : Appeal of dismissal suit for declaratory judgment . FACT SUMMARY: New York(P) sought a declaration that the Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Amendments Act (1985 Act) was unconstitutional.CONCISE RULE OF LAW: The federal government may not order a state government to enact particular legislation.FACTS :Three states had disposal sites for radioactive waste. After study and negotiation,the National Governors’Association (NGA) devIsed a plan which became the 1985 Act. The 1985 Act set deadlines for every state to join a regional waste compact, develop in-state disposal, or find another way to dispose of its own waste. The 1985 Act assured the sited states they would not have the entire nation’s waste burden,and gave the other 47 states seven more years of access to active sites. The 1985 Act provided three incentives for state compliance: (1) Congress authorized sited states to impose asurcharge, part of which would go into federal escrow, with funds to be returned to complying states; (2) Congress empowered sited states to deny access to states not in compliance; and (3) any state not in compliance by 1992 had to either take title to all waste generated in their state or else become liable to in-state waste generators for all damages. As of 1990 New York(P) had not joined a regional waste compact. Unable to settle on an in-state site, New York(P) sought to invalidate the 1985 Act as violative of state sovereignty principles of the Tenth Amendment. The sited states intervened as defendants. The district court dismissed, the court of appeals affirmed, and New York(P) appealed.ISSUE: May the federal government order a state government to enact particular legislation?HOLDING AND DECISION:(O’Connor,J.) No. The federal government may not order a state government to enact particular legislation. The federal government may provide incentives for states to regulate in a certain way by tying funding to acceptance of a federal plan or by giving states a choice between enacting a federal plan or having state law preempted by federal law. Here, the first incentive is a congressional exercise of Commerce Clause power (allowing sited states to impose a surcharge on interstate commerce and imposing a federal tax on that surcharge ) combined with an exercise of Spending Clause power (making return of surcharges contingent on compliance with the federal plan). The second incentive is a routineexercise of the commerce power. If a state chooses not to follow the federal plan, generators of waste within that state become subject to federal regulation authorizing states with waste sites to deny access. The burden would fall on the waste generators, not on the state, and the state would not be forced to spend funds or accede to federal direction. The third incentive, however, crossed the line to coercion. Whether a state “chooses”to take title to waste or to accept liability for disposal, the burden of not enacting the federal plan falls on the state. The strength of the federal interest is irrelevant. Federal courts may issue directives to state officials, but the Constitution expressly grants that authority. Such authority is outside Congress’enumerated powers and,for that reason,also infringes on state sovereignty reserved by theTenth Amendment. While the 1985 Act was a creation of and compromise among the states, the states may not constitutionally consent to give up their sovereignty. Affirmed as to the first two incentives, reversed as to the third.CONCURRENCE AND DISSENT: (White, J.) The Acts were the product of cooperative federalism. The states bargained among themselves to solve an imminent crisis and achieve compromises for Congress to sanction. New York (P) reaped the benefits of the 1985 Act, an agreement which it holped formulate, and should not be able to sue now. the majority wrongly finds that states cannot consent to relinquish some sovereignty. Tenth Amendment restrictions on the commerce power are procedural limits, designed to preventfederal destruction of state governments not to protect substantive areas of state autonomy.CONCURRENCE AND DISSENT:(Stevens,J.) The notion that Congress may not order states to implement federal legislation is incorrect and unsound. The federal government regulates state railroads, schools, prisons, and elections, and in time of war, Congress undoubtedly could command states to supply soldiers.7.CHAPTER 3JUDICIAL EFFORTS TO PROTECT THE EXPANSION OF THE MARKET AGAINST ASSERTIONS OF LOCAL POWERCITY OF PHILADELPHIA v. NEW JERSEYMunicipality(P) v. State(D)437 u.s. 617 (1978)NATURE OF CASE : Appeal of state court decision upholding state-imposed limitations on waste importation.FACT SUMMARY: New Jersey(D) enacted a statute banning the importation of waste products for disposal.CONCISE RULE OF LAW: A state may not enact bans on articles of commerce absent legitimate public welfare concerns.FACTS : The State of New Jersey(D) enacted a ban on the importation of refuse into the state for disposal. The law was couched in environmentalist terms. Philadelphia(P) and other entities interested in disposing in New Jersey(D) challenged the constitutionality of the law. The New Jersey Surpreme Court upheld the measure, and Philadelphia(P) appealed. ISSUE: May a state enact bans on articles of commerce absent legitimate public welfare concerns?HOLDING AND DECISION: (Stewart, J.) No. A state may not enact bans on articles of commerce absent legitimate public welfare concerns. Only when there is something apart from the external status of an article giving the reason for the prohibition of importation may the prohibiton be legitimate. When the focus is on the out-of-state character of the article, the measure is protectionist. Whether the article is desirable or undesirable is irrelevant. Here the only distinction made is between in-state and out-of-state waste. The public health is an issue, but public health cannot be advanced in a way which unnecessarily burdens interstate commerce. While New Jersey(D) could attack this problem by regulating more closely all waste, it cannot do so by enacting protectionist measures. Reversed.DISSENT: (Rehnquist,J.) There is no difference between a state enacting legitimate quarantine laws and doing what New Jersey(D) did here.。

《英语B1》阅读理解81.Holidays in the United States usually occur at least once a month. Most months have a national holiday that has been arranged to be celebrated on a Monday. The holidays have all been decided to be celebrated on a Monday so that the workers may have 3-day weekends--- that is, Saturday, Sunday and Monday in order to rest or travel or do things with their families. Major holidays in the United States such as New Year’s Day or Christmas Day or the day, when we remember the first settlers of the United States, called Thanksgiving Day are celebrated all over the country. During these holidays most businesses close and the workers stay home and celebrate with their family.Vacation can be from 2 weeks a year to 4 weeks a year. This usually depends on how long you’ve been working for a company, what type of position you have, whether you have a very high position or a very important position and it’s difficult to find someone to replaceyou. In this case, you might take a few days at a time rather than taking one month all at once. Usually the more time you spend working for a company, the more time you may get for vacation.1. The government of the United States makes it a rule for workers to have a ___ weekend almost once a month.A. 1-dayB. 2-dayC. 3-dayD. 4-day2. Workers in the United States sometimes work from___.A. Monday to SaturdayB. Tuesday to SundayC. Thursday to FridayD. Tuesday to Friday3. Which statement is not true according to this passage?A. Only a few shops remain open on New Years Day.B. Most of the workers needn’t work on Christmas Day.C. Days on vacation must be more than all the holidays in a year.D. All the workers have a half month vacation at last.4. The reason why someone has to divide his vacation into several parts is that ___.A. no one can be found to take his placeB. he hasn’t a most high positionC. he plays an important role in his workD. he hasn’t been working for his company for a long time5. Which of the following is the best title for this passage?A. Holidays in the United StatesB. Vacation in the United States.C. How do the workers spend their holidays.D. Something about the holidays and vacation in the U.S..82.Why don’t birds get lost in their long migratory flights? Scientists have been puzzle d over this question for many years. Now they’re beginning to fill in the blanks.Not long ago, experiments showed that birds rely on the sun to guide them during daylight hours. But what about birds that fly mainly at night? Tests with artificial stars have proved conclusively that certain night-flying birds are able to follow the star in their long-distance flights.One such bird---a warbler(鸣禽)---had spent its lifetime in a cage and never flown under the natural sky. Yet it showed an inborn ability to us e the stars for guidance. The bird’s cage was placed under an artificial star-filled sky at migration time. The bird tried to fly in the same direction as that taken by his outdoor cousins. Any change in the position of the make-believe stars caused a change in the direction of his flight.Scientists think that warbler, when flying in daylight, use the sun for guidance. But the stars are apparently their principal means of navigation. What do they do when the stars are hidden by clouds? Apparently, they find their way by such landmarks as mountain ranges, coast lines, and river courses. But when it’s too dark to see these, the warblers circle helplessly, unable to get their bearings.1. The reason why birds don’t get lost in migratory flightsA. have been known to scientists for years .B. have only recently been discovered.C. are known by everyone.D. will probably remain a mystery.2. The experiment with the warbler indicated thatA. birds have to be taught to navigate.B. a bird that has been caged will not migrate.C. some birds cannot fly at night.D. some birds seem instinctively to follow the star when flying at night.3. Under artificial stars, the bird in the cageA. tried to fly in the same direction as birds not caged .B. changed direction when the position of the stars was changed.C. would not fly at all.D. both A and B.4. Warblers migrateA. from North American to the Falkland Islands.B. only once during their lifetime.C. using what is apparently an inborn navigational ability.D. when they are freed from their cages.5. This article is a good example of the way scientistsA. jump to conclusion.B. discover workable answers to general questions by studying particular cases.C. formulate a law and then carry out investigation.D. are frustrated by the habits of animals.83. Social customs and ways of behaving change. Things which were considered impolite many years ago are now acceptable. Just a few years ago, it was considered impolite behavior for a man to smoke on the street. No man who thought of himself as being a gentleman would make a fool of himself by smoking when a lady was in a room.Customs also differ from country to country. Does a man walk on the left or the right of a woman in your country? Or doesn’t it matter? What abo ut table manners? Should you use both hands when you are eating? Should you leave one on your lap, or on the table?The Americans and the British not only speak the same language but also share a large number of social customs. For example, in both America and England people shake hands when they meet each other for the first time. Also, most Englishmen will open a door for a woman or offer their seat to a woman, and so will most Americans. Promptness is important both in England and in America. That is, if a dinner invitation is for 7 o’clock, the dinner guest either arrives close to that time or calls up to explain his delay.The important thing to remember about social customs is not to do anything that might make other people feel uncomfortable, especially if they are your guests. There is an old story about a man who gave a formal dinner party. When the food was served, one of the guests started to eat his peas with a knife. The other guests were amused or shocked, but the host calmly picked up his knife and began eating in the same way. It would have been bad manners to make his guest feel foolish or uncomfortable.1. If one has accepted a dinner invitation, what should he do if he is to be late for the dinner?A. He should find an excuse.B. He should ask for excuse.C. He should say “Sorry”.D. He should telephone to explain his being late.2. “It would have been bad manners to make his guests feel foolish or uncomfortable.” “Bad manners: means ___.A. uglyB. dishonestC. impoliteD. shameful3. Which of the following do you think is the best title for this passage?A. Social Customs and BehaviorB. Social lifeC. American and British CustomsD. Promptness Is Important4. According to the text, the best host ___.A. tries his best to make his guests feel comfortableB. makes his guests feel excitedC. tries to avoid being naughty to his guestsD. tries to avoid being foolish5. The author of this article may agree with which of the following?A. The guest who ate his peas with a knife.B. The other guests who were amused or shocked.C. The host who picked up his knife and began eating in the same way.D. None of the above.84. There have been many great inventions, things that changed the way we live. The first great invention was that is still very important today --- the wheel. This made it easier to carry heavythings and to travel long distances.For hundreds of years after that there were few inventions that had as much effect as the wheel. Then in the early 1800’s the world started to change. There was little unknown land left in the world. People didn’t have to explore much anymore. They began to work instead to make life better.In the second half of the 19th century many great inventions were made. Among them were the camera, the electric light and the radio. These all became a big part of our life today.The first part of the 20th century saw more great inventions. The helicopter in 1909, sound movies in 1926, the computer in 1928, and jet planes in 1930. This was also a time when a new material was first made. Nylon came out in 1935. It changed the kind of clothes people wear. The middle part of the 20th century brought new ways to help people get over disease. They worked very well. They made people healthier and let them live long lives. By the 1960s most people could expect to live to be at least 60.By this time most people had a very good life. Of course new inventions continued to be made. But man now had a desire to explore again. The world is known to man but the stars are yet. Man began looking for ways to go into space. Russia made the first step. Then the United States took a step. Since then other countries, including China and Japan, have made their steps into space.In 1969 man took his biggest step away form earth. Americans first walked on the moon. This is certainly just a beginning though. New inventions will someday allow us to do things we have never yet dreamed of.1. ___ inventions had had as much effect as the wheel before the 19th century.A. Quite a number ofB. SomeC. FewD. Many other2. Nylon came out nearly at the same time as ___.A. the radioB. the cameraC. jet planesD. the movies3. People can live longer lives because ___ to help cure diseases have worked very well.A. doctorsB. new methodsC. medicinesD. new hospitals4. This passage talks mainly about ___.A. how inventions affect people’s livesB. when the electric light was inventedC. which country made the first step into spaceD. why cars were very important5. We can safely come to the conclusion that peo ple’s lives will be made even better through ___.A. new discoveriesB. greater inventionsC. better ways to help get over diseasesD. all of the above85.The whole body is covered with skin. The surface of the skin is dead (like the hair and nails), but it is made from a living layer just under the surface. The outside dead layers wear off all the time, with new ones replacing them, and the body forms a totally new skin every three weeks.The skin protects the body from the outside world and it passes in information from the outside. It helps to keep water in the body and to keep the body at the same temperature. Bacteria (germs)cannot get in through the skin unless it is damaged.If the weather is cold, the blood vessels on the skin squeeze (挤压) down, or contract, so that as little blood as possible comes near the surface. This means that less warmth is lost to the outside. This makes the skin look pale, or even “blue”. At the same time, the hairs on the skin are pulled upright by tiny muscles.When it is hot, the blood vessels expand, or get wider again, to allow plenty of blood to run near the surface of the skin. This helps the body to loose heat, and the skin may look red. At the same time, The sweat glands produce more sweat, which cools the skin down.If the skin has ever been numb, you will realize how important the feeling from the skin is. Nerves in the skin are sensitive to heat and cold, sharpness, hardness and softness, wetness and dryness and pain. If one is not able to feel these things, which can act as warning, he is likely to be burned, cut or hurt in other ways.The color of the skin depends on special color cells. These are just below the top layers of the skin. They are needed as protection from some of the harmful rays of the sun. The stronger the sun, the more important it is to have a dark skin. People with pale skins may “tan(晒黑)” in the sun. This happens when the body produces extra color cells in the skin for protection. In the sun, the skin produces a vitamin (vitamin D) which is needed for strong bones.1. According to the passage, which of the following statements is not true?A. There is skin all over one’s body.B. The skin of one’s body will be completely different in three weeks.C. The surface of the skin is made of a living layerD. One’s hair and nails are dead.2. The second paragraph of the passage mainly talks about.A. the functions of the skinB. the temperature of the skinC. the information from the skinD. the water in one’s body3. When will bacteria get in through the skin?A. When one is ill.B. When the bacteria are strong enough.C. When the skin is cut.D. When the temperature is very low.4. When the weather is cold, the skin will contract in order toA. make more blood come near the surface.B. keep warmth.C. make the skin look pale.D. help the body lose heat.5. The color of the skin is determined by.A. the top layers of the skin.B. vitamin DC. the rays of the sunD. color cells.86.Many of the world’s pollution problems have been caused by the crowdi ng of large groups of people into the cities. Supply for the needs of the people leads to further pollution by industry. If the rapid increase in human population continues at the present rate, there may be much greater harm. Some scientists speak of the i ncrease in numbers of people as“population pollution”.About 2,000 years ago, the world population was probably about 250 million. It reached a billionin 1850. By 1930, the population was two billion. It was three and a half billion by 1980. It doubled by the year 2000. If the population continues to grow at the same rate, there would be 25 billion people in the world a hundred years from now!Man has been using the earth’s resources more and more rapidly over the years. Some of them are almost gone. Now m any people believe that man’s greatest problem is how to control the growth of his own population. The materials in the world will not support the human population, in time to come, if the present rate of increase continues. Already there is overcrowding in the cities and hunger in some countries. Can man’s rate of increase continue? Many people believe that human survival in the future depends on the answer to this question.1. The world’s pollution problems would be less serious ifA. fewer people moved from countryside to the cities.B. More people moved from countryside to the cities.C. Industry developed less fast.D. Many people moved to the cities without the fast development of industry.2. The increasing move to the cities of the people is thought to beA. city pollutionB. population pollutionC. countryside pollutionD. industry pollution3. In 1850 the population in the world wasA. 250 millionB. 1,000millionC. 200 millionD. 2,000million4. In the year 2000, the world population wasA. 350 millionB. 25,000 millionC. 4,000 millionD. 7,000 million5. The most serious problem man is facing is thought to beA. The using of the earth’s resources.B. The control over the waste of the natural materials.C. How to slow down the increase of population.D. How to stop the birth of new babies.87. While flying in space, astronauts have no weight. It is a condition of weightlessness. How does this affect their heart and blood vessels? What happens to their hearts and blood vessels when they go into space?On earth gravity (引力) makes blood flow down towards the feet, so the heart must work to pump blood up. In space blood flows up towards the heart. The effect is similar to what happens when you lie with your feet up and your head down. The flowing blood is felt by receptors in the walls of arteries (动脉) in the upper part of the body and in the heart. These receptors send signals to the brain, but the brain reads them incorrectly. To the brain, the signals means the amount of blood in the body has increased, so the brain tells other parts of the body to react to the increase in the blood. For example, the body produces more urine (尿液), resulting in loss of body fluid and salt. At the same time the astronaut has less desire to drink and so does not replace the lost fluid.As a spacecraft begins to fall back to earth atmosphere, the crew begins to feel gravity. Blood again flows towards the feet and collects there. The heart beats faster in an effort to pumpenough blood to the brain. Some crew members may not get enough blood to the brain and the heart beats too fast. They become sick and even lose consciousness as their spacecraft reenters the earth atmosphere. To prevent this, special clothing is invited for astronauts to prevent blood collecting in their l egs. They put it on just before the craft reenters the earth’s atmosphere. They also drink about a liter (升) of water and eat some salt to replace the fluid they have lost while in space.Weightlessness affects the heart and blood vessels in another way. The heart does not work as hard in a weightless environment as it does in an environment of gravity. When the heart works less hard, the heart muscles become weaker. It is replaced by fibrous tissue and fat.1. If one lies with his feet up and his head down on earth, hisA. heart will pump the blood up to the head.B. blood will flow down towards the feet.C. heart will have to work harder.D. blood will flow up towards the heart.2. What can we infer from the second paragraph of the passage?A. The brain reads the signals incorrectly because it tends to go wrong in outer spaceB. In space an astronaut should drink some water even when he does not feel thirsty.C. In space the amount of water in the body of an astronaut increase.D. The receptors in the walls of arteries often send wrong signals to the brain.3. When the spacecraft reenters the earth’s atmosphere some astronauts become sick or even lose consciousness becauseA. their brains cannot get enough bloodB. their hearts are not strong enoughC. their blood collects in their feetD. they begin to feel the gravity again4. When the spacecraft enter the earth’s atmosphere, the astronauts should do the following exceptA. drinking some water.B. eating some saltC. putting on special clothingD. trying to regain their consciousness5. After a long time in space, an astronaut’s heart muscles become weaker becauseA. the heart works too hard under an environment of weightlessness.B. they are completely replaced by fibrous tissue and fat.C. they are short of exercises when the heart works less hard.D. the astronaut’s hard work puts too great a burden on the heart.88. What will man be like in the future---in 5,000 or even 50,000 years from now? We can only make a guess, of course, but we can be sure that he will be different from what he is today. For man is changing slowly all the time.Let us take an obvious example. Man, even five years ago, was shorter than he is today. Now, on average, men are about three inches taller. Five hundred years is a relatively short period of time, so we may assume that man will continue to grow taller.Again, in the modern world we use our brain a great deal. Even so, we still make use of only about 20% of the brain’s capacity. As time goes on, however, we shall have to use our brain more and more---and eventually we shall need larger ones! This is likely to bring about a physical change too: the head, in particular the forehead, will grow larger.Nowadays our eyes are in constant use. In fact, we use them so much that very often they become weaker and we have to wear glasses. But over a very long period of time it is likely that man’s eyes will grow stronger.On the other hand, we tend to make less use of our arms and legs. These, as a result, are likely to grow weaker. At the same time, however, our fingers will grow more sensitive because they are used a great deal in modern life.But what about hair? This will probably disappear from the body altogether in course of time because it does not serve a useful purpose any longer. In the future, then, both sexes are likely to be bald!Perhaps all this gives the impression that future man will not be a very attractive creature to look at! This may well be true. All the same, in spit of all these changes, future man will still have a lot in common with us. He will still be a human being, with thoughts and emotions similar to our own.1. Future man is likely to be different from usA. in almost every wayB. in quite a few waysC. in great many waysD. in one or two ways2. The reason for believing that future man will be different is that heA. began to change five years agoB. never stops changingC. never stops growingD. has recently begun to change3. People’s heads will eventually grow larger. This is because their brainsA. will grow faster than at presentB. will be in constant useC. will play an important partD. will need more room than at present4. Future man will probablyA. have bigger eyesB. get weaker eyesC. see betterD. have to wear better glasses5. future ma n’s hair willA. grow darkerB. stop growing completelyC. fall out more oftenD. get longer89. Some of the most interesting buildings in the world are the pyramids. The pyramids stand huge and silent, and in modern days, people look at them and wonder, “Who built them? Why? When? What is inside? How did they do it?”Thousands of years ago, certain kings of Egypt built the pyramids. They used to build them as tombs. The kings thought the pyramids would help them find life after death. They also wanted the world to remember them as important people. Some pyramids were for queens, but they are less interesting because they are not as big as those of the kings!The oldest pyramid that we know today is the pyramid near Sakara in Egypt. It is about 5000 years old.There are many pyramids along the Nile River. The largest is the pyramid of Khufu. It is made of 2,300,000 huge stones, most of them taller than a person. It is about 144 meters high. Inside the pyramid are the burial rooms for the king and queen and long passage ways to these rooms.The rest of the pyramid is made of solid stones.Workers usually built the pyramids when they had little or no work to do on their farms. To build the pyramid of Khufu, 100,000 men worked for twenty years.We know there are wonderful treasures in the pyramids. Robbers have dug into some of the pyramids and taken many of these treasures. However, today some of the treasures are in museums.How did the people of ancient days build the pyramids? How did they carry and lift upwards the huge stones? Each stone fits in with one another so well though they didn’t have our modern machine at all! The ancient art work of Egypt give us the idea of a miracle. Scientists have studied the pyramids, but nobody can say just how they did it.1. What is this passage mainly about?A. How ancient tombs were built in Egypt.B. Some of the most interesting buildings in the world.C. Egyptian Kings and their wives.D. The oldest pyramid near Sakara in Egypt.2. People today think the pyramids in Egypt.A. are reminders of the power enjoyed by the kings.B. are in memory of some important people.C. will help ancient Egyptian kings find life after death.D. are the most important buildings in the world.3. Which of the following is true?A. The pyramid near Sakara is the largest in Egypt.B. All the stones used to build the pyramid of Khufu are taller than a person.C. It took 100,000 workers and 20 years to build the pyramid of Khufu.D. All the treasures in the burial rooms have been stolen.4. Why did robbers dig into the pyramids? BecauseA. they wanted to see if there were any treasures in them as they thought.B. they wanted to study why each stone fits so well.C. they wanted to know how those huge stones were carried and lifted upwards.D. they wanted to steal all the precious things.5. According to the passage, we...A. have known a lot about the pyramids.B. know nothing about these ancient tombs.C. can’t say just how these pyramids were built.D. know quite well how ancient Egyptians built the pyramids.90.Trees are useful to man in three very important ways: they provide him with wood and other products; they give him shade; and they help to prevent droughts (干旱) and floods. Unfortunately, man has not realized that the third of these services is the most important. Two thousand years ago a rich and powerful country cut down its trees to build warships, with which to gain itself an empire(帝国). It gained the empire, but, without its trees, its soil became hardand poor. When the empire fell to pieces, the home country found itself faced by flood and starvation.Even though a government realizes the importance of a plentiful supply of trees, it is difficult for it to persuade villagers to see this. The villagers want wood to cook their food with; and they can earn money by selling wood. They are usually too lazy to plant and look after the trees. So, unless the government has a good system of control, or can educate the people, the forests will slowly disappear.This does not only mean that the villagers' children and grandchildren will have fewer trees. The results are even more serious, for where there are trees their roots break the soilup, allowing the rain to sink in and also bind the soil, thus preventing its being washed away easily. But where there are no trees, the rain falls on hard ground and flows away from the surface, causing flood.1. That trees can help to prevent droughts and floods isA. not as important as the other services.B. as important as the other services.C. not importantD. more important than any other services.2. People cut trees down in large numbers so that they found thatA. they lost the best friends they had.B. their best friends lost tree.C. their best friends drew quick profit.D. their best friends died.3. Two thousand years ago, the soil of a rich country became hard and poor, becauseA. it fell to pieces.B. it was faced with floods.C. it cut down its trees to build warships.D. it was faced with starvation.4. It is difficult for a government to persuade the villagersA. to make charcoalB. to realize the importance of treesC. to carry wood to the townD. to cook the food with wood5. According to the passage we know that trees canA. prevent the rain from falling on the ground.B. cause great floods.C. have the rich top-soil carried away.D. prevent the soil from being washed away easily.答案81. 1-5 CDDAD82. 1-5 BDDCB83. 1-5 DCAAC84. 1-5 CCBAD,.85. 1-5 CACBD86. 1-5 ABBDC87. 1-2 DBBDC88. 1-5 BBBCB89. 1-5 BACDC90. 1-5 DACBD。

美国政治相关知识英语作文1. The United States is a federal republic, with a president as the head of state and government. The president is elected by the people and serves a four-year term.2. The United States Congress is the legislative branch of the federal government, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Members of Congress are elected by the people to represent their interests and pass laws.3. The Supreme Court is the highest court in the United States, responsible for interpreting the Constitution and reviewing the constitutionality of laws. The justices are appointed by the president and serve for life.4. The two major political parties in the United States are the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. They compete in elections at all levels of government and have different ideologies and policy priorities.5. The United States has a system of checks and balances, where each branch of government has the power to limit the actions of the other branches. This is designed to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.6. Political campaigns in the United States often involve intense fundraising, advertising, and public appearances by candidates. Elections can be highly competitive and divisive, with issues such as healthcare, immigration, and the economy taking center stage.7. The United States has a long history of political activism and social movements, including the civil rights movement, the women's suffrage movement, and the labor movement. These movements have led to significant changes in laws and policies.8. The role of the media in American politics is significant, with news outlets and social media platforms shaping public opinion and influencing political discourse. The media also holds elected officials accountable throughinvestigative reporting and analysis.9. The United States has a system of federalism, where power is divided between the federal government and state governments. This allows for different laws and policies to be implemented at the state level, reflecting the diversity of the country.10. The political landscape in the United States is often characterized by polarization and partisanship, with deep divisions between different groups of people. This can make it challenging to find common ground and enact bipartisan solutions to pressing issues.。

The President of the United States is the head of state and government of the United States.The President is one of the three branches of the federal government,along with Congress and the judiciary.The role of the President is to enforce laws,represent the country in foreign affairs,and serve as the commanderinchief of the military.The President is elected every four years by the people through an indirect process known as the Electoral College.Each state has a certain number of electors based on its population,and these electors cast their votes for the President.The candidate who receives the majority of electoral votes becomes the President.The President has the power to sign bills into law or veto them.However,the veto can be overridden by a twothirds majority in both houses of Congress.The President also has the authority to nominate and appoint key government officials,such as federal judges and ambassadors,with the advice and consent of the Senate.In foreign affairs,the President is the primary representative of the United States.They have the power to negotiate treaties and make executive agreements with foreign nations. However,treaties must be ratified by a twothirds majority in the Senate.The President is also responsible for the safety and security of the nation.As the commanderinchief,they have the authority to deploy the military and make decisions about military strategy.However,the President must also work with Congress,which has the power to declare war.The President is not just a political figure but also a symbol of the nation.They are expected to set an example for the country and uphold the values of democracy,freedom, and justice.The President is also responsible for giving the annual State of the Union address to Congress,where they outline their policy goals and vision for the country.In conclusion,the President of the United States is a powerful and important position. They have a wide range of responsibilities and play a crucial role in shaping the countrys laws,foreign policy,and national security.The President is elected by the people and serves as a representative of the nation both at home and abroad.。