TEXTANALYSE_JEconHist_Davis and North_Institutional Change

tpo36三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (3)题目 (5)答案 (10)背景知识 (11)阅读-2 (12)原文 (12)译文 (14)题目 (15)答案 (20)背景知识 (20)阅读-3 (24)原文 (24)译文 (25)题目 (27)答案 (32)背景知识 (33)阅读-1原文Soil Formation①Living organisms play an essential role in soil formation. The numerous plants and animals living in the soil release minerals from the parent material from which soil is formed, supply organic matter, aid in the translocation (movement) and aeration of the soil, and help protect the soil from erosion. The types of organisms growing or living in the soil greatly influence the soil's physical and chemical characteristics. In fact, for mature soils in many parts of the world, the predominant type of natural vegetation is considered the most important direct influence on soil characteristics. For this reason, a soil scientist can tell a great deal about the attributes of the soil in any given area simply from knowing what kind of flora the soil supports. Thus prairies and tundra regions, which have characteristic vegetations, also have characteristic soils.②The quantity and total weight of soil flora generally exceed that of soil fauna. By far the most numerous and smallest of the plants living in soil are bacteria. Under favorable conditions, a million or more of these tiny, single-celled plants can inhabit each cubic centimeter of soil. It is the bacteria, more than any other organisms, that enable rock or other parent material to undergo the gradual transformation to soil. Some bacteria produce organic acids that directly attack parent material, breaking it down and releasing plant nutrients. Others decompose organic litter (debris) to form humus (nutrient-rich organic matter). A third group of bacteria inhabits the root systems of plants called legumes. These include many important agricultural crops, such as alfalfa, clover, soybeans, peas, and peanuts. The bacteria that legumes host within their root nodules (small swellings on the root) change nitrogen gas from the atmosphere into nitrogen compounds that plants are able to metabolize, a process, known as nitrogen fixation, that makes the soil more fertile. Other microscopic plants also are important in soil development. For example, in highly acidic soils where few bacteria can survive, fungi frequently become the chief decomposers of organic matter.③More complex forms of vegetation play several vital roles with respect to the soil. Trees, grass, and other large plants supply the bulk of the soil's humus. The minerals released as these plants decompose on the surface constitute an important nutrient source for succeeding generations of plants as well as for other soil organisms. In addition, trees can extend their roots deep within the soil and bring up nutrients from far below the surface. These nutrients eventually enrich the surface soil when the tree drops its leaves or when it dies and decomposes. Finally, trees perform the vital function of slowing water runoff and holding the soil in place with their root systems, thus combating erosion. The increased erosion that often accompanies agricultural use of sloping land is principally caused by the removal of its protective cover of natural vegetation.④Animals also influence soil composition. The faunal counterparts of bacteria are protozoa. These single-celled organisms are the most numerous representatives of the animal kingdom, and, like bacteria, a million or more can sometimes inhabit each cubic centimeter of soil. Protozoa feed on organic matter and hasten its decomposition. Among other soil-dwelling animals, the earthworm is probably the most important. Under exceptionally favorable conditions, up to a million earthworms (with a total body weight exceeding 450 kilograms) may inhabit an acre of soil. Earthworms ingest large quantities of soil, chemically alter it, and excrete it as organic matter called casts. The casts form a high-quality natural fertilizer. In addition, earthworms mix of soil both vertically and horizontally, improving aeration and drainage.⑤Insects such as ants and termites also can be exceedingly numerous under favorable climatic and soil conditions. In addition, mammals such as moles, field mice, gophers, and prairie dogs sometimes are present in sufficient numbers to have significant impact on the soil. These animals primarily work the soil mechanically. As a result, the soil is aerated broken up, fertilized, and brought to the surface, hastening soil development.译文土壤形成①活生物体在土壤形成中起着重要作用。

2010年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语试题Section I Use of EnglishDirections:Read the following text. Choose the best word(s) for each numbered blank and mark [A], [B], [C] or [D] on ANSWER SHEET 1. (10 points)In 1924 America's National Research Council sent two engineers to supervise a series of industrial experiments at a large telephone-parts factory called the Hawthorne Plant near Chicago. It hoped they wouldlearn how stop-floor lighting 1 workers' productivity. Instead, the studies ended 2 giving their name to the "Hawthorne effect", the extremely influential idea that the very 3 to being experimented upon changed subjects' behavior.The idea arose because of the 4 behavior of the women in the Hawthorne plant. According to 5 of the experiments, their hourly output rose when lighting was increased, but also when it was dimmed. It did not 6 what was done in the experiment; 7 something was changed, productivity rose. A(n) 8 that they were being experimented upon seemed to be 9 to alter workers' behavior 10 itself.After several decades, the same data were 11 to econometric the analysis. Hawthorne experiments has another surprise store 12the descriptions on record, no systematic 13 was found that levels ofproductivity were related to changes in lighting.It turns out that peculiar way of conducting the experiments may behave let to 14 interpretation of what happed. 15, lighting was always changed on a Sunday. When work started again on Monday, output 16 rose compared with the previous Saturday and 17 to rise for the next coupleof days. 18, a comparison with data for weeks when there was no experimentation showed that output always went up on Monday, workers19 to be diligent for the first few days of the week in any case, before20 a plateau and then slackening off. This suggests that the alleged "Hawthorne effect" is hard to pin down.1. [A] affected [B] achieved [C] extracted [D] restored2. [A] at [B] up [C] with [D] off3. [A] truth [B] sight [C] act [D] proof4. [A] controversial [B] perplexing [C] mischievous[D] ambiguous5. [A] requirements [B] explanations [C] accounts[D] assessments6. [A] conclude [B] matter [C] indicate [D] work7. [A] as far as [B] for fear that [C] in case that[D] so long as8. [A] awareness [B] expectation [C] sentiment [D] illusion9. [A] suitable [B] excessive [C] enough [D] abundant10. [A] about [B] for [C] on [D] by11. [A] compared [B] shown [C] subjected [D] conveyed12. [A] contrary to [B] consistent with [C] parallel with[D] peculiar to13. [A] evidence [B] guidance [C] implication [D] source14. [A] disputable [B] enlightening [C] reliable[D] misleading15. [A] In contrast [B] For example [C] In consequence [D] As usual16. [A] duly [B] accidentally [C] unpredictably[D] suddenly17. [A] failed [B] ceased [C] started [D] continued 20. [A] breaking [B] climbing [C] surpassing [D] hittingSection II Reading ComprehensionPart ADirections:Read the following four texts. Answer the questions below each text by choosing [A], [B], [C] or [D]. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. (40 points)Text 1Of all the changes that have taken place in English-language newspapers during the past quarter-century, perhaps the most far-reaching has been the inexorable decline in the scope and seriousness of their arts coverage.It is difficult to the point of impossibility for the average reader under the age of forty to imagine a time when high-quality arts criticism could be found in most big-city newspapers. Yet a considerable number of the most significant collections of criticism published in the 20th century consisted in large part of newspaper reviews. To read such books today is to marvel at the fact that their learned contents were once deemed suitable for publication in general-circulation dailies.We are even farther removed from the unfocused newspaper reviews published in England between the turn of the 20th century and the eve of World War II, at a time when newsprint was dirt-cheap and stylish arts criticism was considered an ornament to the publications in which it appeared. In those far-off days, it was taken for granted that the critics of major papers would write in detail and at length about the events they covered. Theirs was a serious business, and even those reviewers who wore their learning lightly, like George Bernard Shaw and Ernest Newman, could be trusted to know what they were about. These men believed in journalism as a calling, and were proud to be published in the daily press. “So few authors have brains enough or literary gift enough to keep their own end up in journalism,” Newman wrote, “that I am tempted to define ‘journalism’ as ‘a term of contempt applied by writers who are not read to writers who are.’”Unfortunately, these critics are virtually forgotten. NevilleCardus, who wrote for the Manchester Guardian from 1917 until shortly before his death in 1975, is now known solely as a writer of essays on the game of cricket. During his lifetime, though, he was also one of England’s foremost classical-music critics, a stylist so widely admired that his Autobiography (1947) became a best-seller. He was knighted in 1967, the first music critic to be so honored. Yet only one of his books is now in print, and his vast body of writings on music is unknown save to specialists.Is there any chance that Cardus’s criticism wi ll enjoy a revival? The prospect seems remote. Journalistic tastes had changed long before his death, and postmodern readers have little use for the richly upholstered Vicwardian prose in which he specialized. Moreover, the amateur tradition in music criticism has been in headlong retreat.21. It is indicated in Paragraphs 1 and 2 that[A] arts criticism has disappeared from big-city newspapers.[B] English-language newspapers used to carry more arts reviews.[C] high-quality newspapers retain a large body of readers.[D] young readers doubt the suitability of criticism on dailies.22. Newspaper reviews in England before World War II were characterizedby[A] free themes.[B] casual style.[C] elaborate layout.[D] radical viewpoints.23. Which of the following would Shaw and Newman most probably agree on?[A] It is writers' duty to fulfill journalistic goals.[B] It is contemptible for writers to be journalists.[C] Writers are likely to be tempted into journalism.[D] Not all writers are capable of journalistic writing.24. What can be learned about Cardus according to the last twoparagraphs?[A] His music criticism may not appeal to readers today.[B] His reputation as a music critic has long been in dispute.[C] His style caters largely to modern specialists.[D] His writings fail to follow the amateur tradition.25. What would be the best title for the text?[A] Newspapers of the Good Old Days[B] The Lost Horizon in Newspapers[C] Mournful Decline of Journalism[D] Prominent Critics in MemoryText 2Over the past decade, thousands of patents have been granted for what are called business methods. received one for its "one-click" online payment system. Merrill Lynch got legal protection for an asset allocation strategy. One inventor patented a technique for lifting a box.Now the nation's top patent court appears completely ready to scale back on business-method patents, which have been controversial ever since they were first authorized 10 years ago. In a move that has intellectual-property lawyers abuzz the U.S. court of Appeals for the federal circuit said it would use a particular case to conduct a broad review of business-method patents. In re Bilski, as the case is known , is "a very big deal", says Dennis D. Crouch of the University of Missouri School of law. It "has the potential to eliminate an entire class of patents."Curbs on business-method claims would be a dramatic about-face, because it was the federal circuit itself that introduced such patents with is 1998 decision in the so-called state Street Bank case, approving a patent on a way of pooling mutual-fund assets. That ruling produced an explosion in business-method patent filings, initially by emerging internet companies trying to stake out exclusive rights to specific types of online transactions. Later, move established companies raced to add such patents to their files, if only as a defensive move against rivals that might beat them to the punch. In 2005, IBM noted in a court filing that it had been issued more than 300 business-method patents despite the fact that it questioned the legal basis for granting them. Similarly, some Wall Street investment films armed themselves with patents for financial products, even as they took positions in court cases opposing the practice.The Bilski case involves a claimed patent on a method for hedging risk in the energy market. The Federal circuit issued an unusual order stating that the case would be heard by all 12 of the court's judges, rather than a typical panel of three, and that one issue it wants to evaluate is whether it should "reconsider" its state street Bank ruling.The Federal Circuit's action comes in the wake of a series of recent decisions by the supreme Court that has narrowed the scope of protections for patent holders. Last April, for example the justices signaled thattoo many patents were being upheld for "inventions" that are obvious. The judges on the Federal circuit are "reacting to the anti-patent trend at the Supreme Court", says Harold C. Wegner, a patent attorney and professor at George Washington University Law School.26. Business-method patents have recently aroused concern because of[A] their limited value to business[B] their connection with asset allocation[C] the possible restriction on their granting[D] the controversy over authorization27. Which of the following is true of the Bilski case?[A] Its ruling complies with the court decisions[B] It involves a very big business transaction[C] It has been dismissed by the Federal Circuit[D] It may change the legal practices in the U.S.28. The word "about-face" (Line 1, Para 3) most probably means[A] loss of good will[B] increase of hostility[C] change of attitude[D] enhancement of dignity29. We learn from the last two paragraphs that business-method patents[A] are immune to legal challenges[B] are often unnecessarily issued[C] lower the esteem for patent holders[D] increase the incidence of risks30. Which of the following would be the subject of the text?[A] A looming threat to business-method patents[B] Protection for business-method patent holders[C] A legal case regarding business-method patents[D] A prevailing trend against business-method patentsText 3In his book The Tipping Point, Malcolm Gladwell argues that social epidemics are driven in large part by the acting of a tiny minority of special individuals, often called influentials, who are unusuallyinformed, persuasive, or well-connected. The idea is intuitively compelling, but it doesn't explain how ideas actually spread.The supposed importance of influentials derives from a plausible sounding but largely untested theory called the "two step flow of communication": Information flows from the media to the influentials and from them to everyone else. Marketers have embraced the two-step flow because it suggests that if they can just find and influence the influentials, those selected people will do most of the work for them. The theory also seems to explain the sudden and unexpected popularity of certain looks, brands, or neighborhoods. In many such cases, a cursory search for causes finds that some small group of people was wearing, promoting, or developing whatever it is before anyone else paid attention. Anecdotal evidence of this kind fits nicely with the idea that only certain special people can drive trendsIn their recent work, however, some researchers have come up with the finding that influentials have far less impact on social epidemics than is generally supposed. In fact, they don't seem to be required of all.The researchers' argument stems from a simple observing about social influence, with the exception of a few celebrities like Oprah Winfrey—whose outsize presence is primarily a function of media, not interpersonal, influence—even the most influential members of a population simply don't interact with that many others. Yet it is precisely these non-celebrity influentials who, according to the two-step-flow theory, are supposed to drive social epidemics by influencing their friends and colleagues directly. For a social epidemic to occur, however, each person so affected, must then influence his or her own acquaintances, who must in turn influence theirs, and so on; and just how many others pay attention to each of these people has little to do with the initial influential. If people in the network just two degrees removed from the initial influential prove resistant, for example from the initial influential prove resistant, for example the cascade of change won't propagate very far or affect many people.Building on the basic truth about interpersonal influence, the researchers studied the dynamics of populations manipulating a number of variables relating of populations, manipulating a number of variables relating to people's ability to influence others and their tendency to be influenced. Our work shows that the principal requirement for what we call "global cascades"– the widespread propagation of influence through networks –is the presence not of a few influentials but, rather, of a critical mass of easily influenced people, each of whom adopts, say, a look or a brand after being exposed to a single adopting neighbor. Regardless of how influential an individual is locally, he or she canexert global influence only if this critical mass is available to propagate a chain reaction.31. By citing the book The Tipping Point, the author intends to[A] analyze the consequences of social epidemics[B] discuss influentials' function in spreading ideas[C] exemplify people's intuitive response to social epidemics[D] describe the essential characteristics of influentials.32. The author suggests that the "two-step-flow theory"[A] serves as a solution to marketing problems[B] has helped explain certain prevalent trends[C] has won support from influentials[D] requires solid evidence for its validity33. What the researchers have observed recently shows that[A] the power of influence goes with social interactions[B] interpersonal links can be enhanced through the media[C] influentials have more channels to reach the public[D] most celebrities enjoy wide media attention34. The underlined phrase "these people" in paragraph 4 refers to theones who[A] stay outside the network of social influence[B] have little contact with the source of influence[C] are influenced and then influence others[D] are influenced by the initial influential35. what is the essential element in the dynamics of social influence?[A] The eagerness to be accepted[B] The impulse to influence others[C] The readiness to be influenced[D] The inclination to rely on othersText 4Bankers have been blaming themselves for their troubles in public. Behind the scenes, they have been taking aim at someone else: the accounting standard-setters. Their rules, moan the banks, have forced them to report enormous losses, and it's just not fair. These rules saythey must value some assets at the price a third party would pay, not the price managers and regulators would like them to fetch.Unfortunately, banks' lobbying now seems to be working. The details may be unknowable, but the independence of standard-setters, essential to the proper functioning of capital markets, is being compromised. And, unless banks carry toxic assets at prices that attract buyers, reviving the banking system will be difficult.After a bruising encounter with Congress, America's Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) rushed through rule changes. These gave banks more freedom to use models to value illiquid assets and more flexibility in recognizing losses on long-term assets in their income statement. Bob Herz, the FASB's chairman, cried out against those who "question our motives." Yet bank shares rose and the changes enhance what one lobby group politely calls "the use of judgment by management."European ministers instantly demanded that the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) do likewise. The IASB says it does not want to act without overall planning, but the pressure to fold when it completes it reconstruction of rules later this year is strong. Charlie McCreevy, a European commissioner, warned the IASB that it did "not live in a political vacuum" but "in the real word" and that Europe could yet develop different rules.It was banks that were on the wrong planet, with accounts that vastly overvalued assets. Today they argue that market prices overstate losses, because they largely reflect the temporary illiquidity of markets, not the likely extent of bad debts. The truth will not be known for years. But bank's shares trade below their book value, suggesting that investors are skeptical. And dead markets partly reflect the paralysis of banks which will not sell assets for fear of booking losses, yet are reluctant to buy all those supposed bargains.To get the system working again, losses must be recognized and dealt with. America's new plan to buy up toxic assets will not work unless banks mark assets to levels which buyers find attractive. Successful markets require independent and even combative standard-setters. The FASB and IASB have been exactly that, cleaning up rules on stock options and pensions, for example, against hostility from special interests. But by giving in to critics now they are inviting pressure to make more concessions.36. Bankers complained that they were forced to[A] follow unfavorable asset evaluation rules[B] collect payments from third parties[C] cooperate with the price managers[D] reevaluate some of their assets.37. According to the author , the rule changes of the FASB may resultin[A] the diminishing role of management[B] the revival of the banking system[C] the banks' long-term asset losses[D] the weakening of its independence38. According to Paragraph 4, McCreevy objects to the IASB's attempt to[A] keep away from political influences.[B] evade the pressure from their peers.[C] act on their own in rule-setting.[D] take gradual measures in reform.39. The author thinks the banks were "on the wrong planet" in that they[A] misinterpreted market price indicators[B] exaggerated the real value of their assets[C] neglected the likely existence of bad debts.[D] denied booking losses in their sale of assets.40. The author's attitude towards standard-setters is one of[A] satisfaction.[B] skepticism.[C] objectiveness[D] sympathyPart BDirections:For Questions 41-45, choose the most suitable paragraphs from the list A-G and fill them into the numbered boxes to form a coherent text. Paragraph E has been correctly placed. There is one paragraph which does not fit in with the text. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET1. (10 points)[A] The first and more important is the consumer's growing preference for eating out; the consumption of food and drink in places other than homes has risen from about 32 percent of total consumption in 1995 to 35 percent in 2000 and is expected to approach 38 percent by 2005. This development is boosting wholesale demand from the food service segment by 4 to 5 percent a year across Europe, compared with growth in retaildemand of 1 to 2 percent. Meanwhile, as the recession is looming large, people are getting anxious. They tend to keep a tighter hold on their purse and consider eating at home a realistic alternative.[B] Retail sales of food and drink in Europe's largest markets are at a standstill, leaving European grocery retailers hungry for opportunities to grow. Most leading retailers have already tried e-commerce, with limited success, and expansion abroad. But almost all have ignored the big, profitable opportunity in their own backyard: the wholesale food and drink trade, which appears to be just the kind of market retailers need.[C] Will such variations bring about a change in the overall structure of the food and drink market? Definitely not. The functioning of the market is based on flexible trends dominated by potential buyers. In other words, it is up to the buyer, rather than the seller, to decide what to buy .At any rate, this change will ultimately be acclaimed by an ever-growing number of both domestic and international consumers, regardless of how long the current consumer pattern will take hold.[D] All in all, this clearly seems to be a market in which big retailers could profitably apply their scale, existing infrastructure and proven skills in the management of product ranges, logistics, and marketing intelligence. Retailers that master the intricacies of wholesaling in Europe may well expect to rake in substantial profits thereby. At least, that is how it looks as a whole. Closer inspection reveals important differences among the biggest national markets, especially in their customer segments and wholesale structures, as well as the competitive dynamics of individual food and drink categories. Big retailers must understand these differences before they can identify the segments of European wholesaling in which their particular abilities might unseat smaller but entrenched competitors. New skills and unfamiliar business models are needed too.[E] Despite variations in detail, wholesale markets in the countries that have been closely examined—France, Germany, Italy, and Spain—are made out of the same building blocks. Demand comes mainly from two sources: independent mom-and-pop grocery stores which, unlike large retail chains, are two small to buy straight from producers, and food service operators that cater to consumers when they don't eat at home. Such food service operators range from snack machines to large institutional catering ventures, but most of these businesses are known in the trade as "horeca": hotels, restaurants, and cafes. Overall, Europe's wholesale market for food and drink is growing at the same sluggish pace as the retail market, but the figures, when added together, mask two opposing trends.[F] For example, wholesale food and drink sales come to $268 billion in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom in 2000—morethan 40 percent of retail sales. Moreover, average overall margins are higher in wholesale than in retail; wholesale demand from the food service sector is growing quickly as more Europeans eat out more often; and changes in the competitive dynamics of this fragmented industry are at last making it feasible for wholesalers to consolidate.[G] However, none of these requirements should deter large retailers (and even some large good producers and existing wholesalers) from trying their hand, for those that master the intricacies of wholesaling in Europe stand to reap considerable gains.EPart CDirections:Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese. Your translation should be written carefully on ANSWER SHEET 2. (10 points)One basic weakness in a conservation system based wholly on economic motives is that most members of the land community have no economic value. Yet these creatures are members of the biotic community and, if its stability depends on its integrity, they are entitled to continuance.When one of these noneconomic categories is threatened and, if we happen to love it .We invert excuses to give it economic importance. At the beginning of century songbirds were supposed to be disappearing. (46) Scientists jumped to the rescue with some distinctly shaky evidence to the effect that insects would eat us up if birds failed to control them. the evidence had to be economic in order to be valid.It is painful to read these round about accounts today. We have no land ethic yet, (47) but we have at least drawn near the point of admitting that birds should continue as a matter of intrinsic right, regardless of the presence or absence of economic advantage to us.A parallel situation exists in respect of predatory mammals and fish-eating birds. (48) Time was when biologists somewhat over worded the evidence that these creatures preserve the health of game by killing the physically weak, or that they prey only on "worthless" species.Some species of tree have been read out of the party by economics-minded foresters because they grow too slowly, or have too low a sale vale to pay as timber crops. (49) In Europe, where forestry is ecologically more advanced, the non-commercial tree species are recognized as members of native forest community, to be preserved as such, within reason.To sum up: a system of conservation based solely on economic self-interest is hopelessly lopsided. (50) It tends to ignore, and thus eventually to eliminate, many elements in the land community that lack commercial value, but that are essential to its healthy functioning. It assumes, falsely, I think, that the economic parts of the biotic clock will function without the uneconomic parts.Section ⅢWritingPart A51. Directions:You are supposed to write for the postgraduate association a notice to recruit volunteers for an international conference on globalization, you should conclude the basic qualification of applicant and the other information you think relative.You should write about 100 words. Do not sign your own name at the end of the letter. Use "postgraduate association" instead.Part B52. Directions:Write an essay of 160-200 words based on the following drawing. In your essay, you should1) describe the drawing briefly,2) explain its intended meaning, and then3) give your comments.You should write neatly on ANSHWER SHEET 2. (20 points)2009年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语试题Section I U se of EnglishDirections:Read the following text. Choose the best word(s) for each numbered blank and mark A, B, C or D on ANSWER SHEET 1. (10 points)Research on animal intelligence always makes me wonder just how smarthumans are.1the fruit-fly experiments described in Carl Zimmer'spiece in the Science Times on Tuesday. Fruit flies who were taught tobe smarter than the average fruit fly 2 to live shorter lives. This suggests that 3bulbs burn longer, that there is an 4 in not being too terrifically bright.Intelligence, it 5 out, is a high-priced option. It takes more upkeep, burns more fuel and is slow 6 the starting line because it depends on learning — a gradual 7— instead of instinct. Plenty of other species are able to learn, and one of the things they've apparently learned is when to8.Is there an adaptive value to9intelligence? That's the questionbehind this new research. I like it. Instead of casting a wistful glance10 at all the species we've left in the dust I.Q.-wise, it implicitly asks what the real11of our own intelligence might be. This is12the mind of every animal I've ever met.Research on animal intelligence also makes me wonder whatexperiments animals would 13 on humans if they had the chance. Every cat with an owner, 14, is running a small-scale study in operant conditioning. we believe that 15animals ran the labs, they would test us to 16 the limits of our patience, our faithfulness, our memory for。

TEXT AThe meridians of longitude are imaginary great circles drawn from pole to pole around the earth. By international agreement, the meridian of longitude passing through Greenwich, England, is numbered zero. The earth is divided into 360 degrees, and the meridians are numbered east and west from Greenwich. There are 180 degrees of longitude east of Greenwich and 180 degrees in the westerly direction. New York has a longitude of 74 degrees west (74ºW) which means that it lies on the 74th meridian west of Greenwich.Since the sun appears to travel around the earth in 24 hours, it will move 360/24 or 15 degrees in one hour. This reasoning can be used by navigators to determine their longitude. Imagine that we have set sail from Greenwich, England, after having set a very accurate clock, or chronometer, to the local Greenwich time. As we travel westward toward New York, we notice that the sun is going “slower” than our chronometer. At the time that our timepiece reads 12 o’clock, the sun has not quite reached the zenith. As a matter of fact, when our clock reads noon, what it really means is that it’s noon in Greenwich, England. Our clock continues to tell us the time, not at our present location, but at Greenwich. Let us wait until the sun is directly overhead (noon at our location) and then read the time on our clock. Suppose it reads 1 o’clock. This means that there is one hour’s difference in time between our longitude and that of Greenwich. As we mentioned earlier, this corresponds to exactly 15 degrees of longitude, so our longitude must be 15ºW. The world is divided into 24 time zones, and each zone corresponds to 15 degrees of longitude. New York is approximately 5 time zones west of Greenwich, so the time difference must be about 5 hours. By maintaining chronometers on Greenwich time, ships can determine their longitude on any sunny day by merely noting the difference in hours between Greenwich time and local sun time and multiplying this difference by 15 degrees.Of course, longitude gives only half of the information needed to determine our precise location. We must also know our latitude, which tells us how far we are north or south of the Equator. The Equator is the zero line for the measurement of latitude. Circles are drawn parallel to the Equator to indicate other values of latitude. There are 90 degrees of south latitude.In the Northern Hemisphere, there is a star called Polaris almost directly over the North Pole. This makes it possible to determine the latitude of a given point by setting our sextant to measure the angle between Polaris, the North Star, and the horizon. Mathematicians tell us that this angle is equal to the latitude at the point in question.To get an idea of our location, therefore, we need to know local time, Greenwich time, and the angle between Polaris and the horizon.1. The passage is mainly about ____a. the latitudeb. the longitudec. how to know one’s location on the earth surfaced. how to determine local time2. suppose it is 18:00 in Greenwich, England , then the local time in New York is ____a. 18:00b. around 13:00c. around 23:00d.17:003. “Chronometer” in para 2. Refers to______a. length measurement tool b weight measurement tool c. time measurement tool d. chronology4. to get the precise location of a ship on the sea, the shipman must know____a. the longitude of his place onlyb. the latitude of his position onlyc. the number degrees he lies east or west of Greenwichd. both his latitude and longitude.5.from the last paragraph, we know that _____a. to know local time and Greenwich time is to compute the number of latitude of the placeb. to know the angle between Polaris and the horizon is to compute the number of the longitude of the placec. we need to know local time, Greenwich time and the angle between Polaris and the horizon in order to compute the longitude and latitude of the placed.we need to know local time,Greenwich time and the angle between Polaris and the horizon if we want to be a mathematicianTEXT BIn a recent book entitled The Psychic Life of Insects, Professor Bouvier says that we must be careful not to credit the little winged fellows with intelligence when they behave in what seems like an intelligent manner. They may be only reacting. I would like to confront the Professor with and instance of reasoning power on the part of an insect which cannot be explained away in any other manner.During the summer of 1899, while I was at work on my doctoral thesis, we kept a female wasp at our cottage. It was more like a child of our own. That was one of the ways we told the difference.It was still a young wasp when we got it (thirteen or fourteen years old) and for some time we could not get it to eat or drink, it was so shy. Since it was a female we decided to call it Miriam, but soon the children’s nickname forit---“Pudge”---became a fixture, and “Pudge” it was from that time on.One evening I had been working late in my laboratory fooling around with some gin and other chemicals, and when leaving the room, I tripped over a nine of diamonds which someone had left lying on the floor and knocked over my card index which contained the names and addresses of all the larvae worth knowing in North America. The cards went everywhere.I was too tired to stop to pick them up that night, and went sobbing to bed, just as mad as I could be. As I went, however, I noticed the wasp was flying about in circles over the scattered cards. “Maybe Pudge will pick them up”, I said half laughingly to myself, never thinking for one moment that such should be the case.When I came down the next morning Pudge was still asleep in her box, evidently tired out. And well she might have been. For there on the floor lay the cards scattered all about just as I had left them the night before. The faithful little insect had buzzed about all night trying to come to some decision about picking them up and arranging them in the boxes for me, and then had figured out for herself that, as she knew practically nothing of larvae of any sort except wasp larvae, she would probably make more of a mess by rearranging them than if she had left them on the floor for me to fix. It was just too much for her to tackle and, discouraged, she went over and lay down in her box, where she cried herself to sleep.If this is not an answer to Professor Bouvier’s statement, I do not know what is.6. Professor Bouvier believes that insects____a. do not have intelligenceb. behave in an intelligent wayc are capable of reasoning d. are more intelligent than we thought7. On the evening the author fell over, someone____a. had moved his card his card indexb. had been playing card gamesc. had knocked over his boxes containing cardsd. had looked at his collection of diamonds8. when he came to the laboratory the next morning, the author____a. saw that his cards had already been rearrangedb. realized that the wasp had been trying to helpc. found evidence of the wasp’s intelligenced. found his index cards still scattered about the room9. the author’s account of his wasp’s intelligence______a. is imaginaryb. is convincingc. firmly proves his point of viewd. is valuable for insect study10. the purpose of this article is to _____a. oppose Professor Bourvier’s point of viewb. support Porfessor Bouvier with his own experiencec. further discuss thether insects are intelligentd. illustrate the working theory behind the author’s thesisTEXT CHe was a funny looking man with a cheerful face, good-natured and a great talker. He was described by his student, the great philosopher Plato, as “the best and most just and wisest man.” Yet, this same man was condemned to death for his beliefs.The man was the Greek philosopher, Socrates, and he was condemned for not believing in the recognized dogs and for corrupting young people. The second charge stemmed from his association with numerous young men who came to Athens from all over the civilized world to study under him.Socrates’ methods of teaching was to ask questions and , by pretending not to know the answers, to press his students into thinking for themselves. His teachings had been unsurpassed in influence in all the great Greek and Roman schools of philosophy. Yet, for all his fame and influence, Socrates himself never wrote a word.Socrates encouraged new idea and free thinking in the young, and this was frightening to the conservative people. They wanted him silenced. Yet, many were probably surprised that he accepted death so readily.Socrates had the right to ask for a lesser penalty, and he probably could have won over enough of the people who had previously condemned him. But Socrates, as a firm believer in law, reasoned that it was proper to submit to the death sentence. So, he calmly accepted his fate and drank a cup of poison hemlock in the presence of his grief-stricken friends and students.11. in the first paragraph, the word “yet” is used to introduce____a. a contrastb. a sequencec. an emphasisd. an example12. Socrates was condemned to death because he ____a. believed in lawb. was a philosopherc. published outspoken philosophical articlesd. advocated original opinions13. the word “unsurpassed” in the third paragraph is closest in meaning to ____a. untoldb. unequaledc. unnoticedd. unexpected14. by mentioning that Socrates himself never wrote anything, the writer implies that _____a. it was surprising that Socrates was so famousb. Socrates was not learned as he is reputed to have beenc. Socrates used the work of his students in teachingd. the authorities refused to publish Socrates’ work15. Socrates accepted the death penalty to show _____a. his belief in his studentsb. his contempt for conservativesc. his recognition of the legal systemd. that he was not afraid of deathTEXT DSenator John F.Kerry’s campaign yesterday seized on the Pentagon’s call-up of thousands of former soldiers for duty in Iraq and Afghanistan to step up its charge that the Bush administration’s management of the military has left the Army spread dangerously thin.The move demonstrated the Kerry campaign’s increasing willingness to engage Bush on what had been the president’s perceived strength, his handling of national security.Kerry advisers contend that the call-up of the Individual Ready Reserve is the result of a series of bad decisions and poor war planning by Bush and his top advisers. His campaign released a “fact sheet” and brought forward a retired Air Force chief who campaigned for Bush in 2000 to reinforce its claims.“The troops are paying the price for arrogant mismanagement and poor planning at the civilian policy level,” retired Air Force Chief of Staff General Merrilll “Tony”McPeak, a Kerry adviser, said in a conference call with reporters yesterday. “The force we have in Iraq today is part of what I call an in-between force—too small to solve the problem and too big to be supported by our force structure.”The return to duty of 5,600 former military officers and enlisted personnel is the latest issue which the presumptive Democratic presidential nominee has sought to use to draw distinctions between himself and Bush in the area of national security. Both candidates are trying to persuade voters that they are the best stewards of the nation’s defense, and recent polls have shown the public’s confidence in the president’s handling of the war in Iraq is slipping. Kerry has previously called for increasing the size the Army by 40,000 to meet the demands of overseas deployments, a move that has been repeatedly rebuffed by the White House despite growing support in Congress.The Bush administration maintains that the call-up of soldiers that are required to keep in touch with the Army for as many as four years after leaving service does not mean the Army isn’t large enough. “I don’t think the Army’s too small. We’re using a manpower pool that’s available to us” Robert Smiley, a senior Army official who oversees training, readiness, and mobilization, told reporters yesterday. “This is good personnel management. This is a group of people we can use to fill vacancies.”The troops, being culled from a total of 111,323 soldiers in the Individual Ready Reserve, are needed to fill jobs as truck drivers, engineers, and military police, officials said. Smiley said that more would probably be called in the future.Army officials noted yesterday that this is not the first time they have tapped into the IRR. During the 1991 Persian Gulf War over 20,000 former soldiers were mobilized. Since the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, 2,533 IRR soldiers have been called-up, 226 of them volunteers. Of the 5,600 IRR soldiers that now have 30 days to report to active duty, officials said more than 300 have volunteered.16. from the passage, we can infer that____a. 2533 IRR soldiers were called up this timeb. 226 of the called-up soldiers were volunteersc. 111,323 soldiers were called upd. 5,600 soldiers were called up.17. according to John F. Kerry, the call-up of the former soldiers recently was____a. one of bad decisions made by Bush administrationb. required to keep in touch with the Armyc. correctd. not clear18. the word “rebuff ” in the last sentence of para. 5 probably means____a. to buff againb. to reject bluntly, often disdainfully, snub, refusec. to plan in advance the expenditure ofd. to review the plan of the expenditure of19. how long will the soldiers called-up this time serve in the army according to the passage?a. probably 4 yearsb. probably 3 yearsc. probably half a yeard. now known20. the called-up soldiers will probably do the following jobs EXCEPT _____a. truck driversb. engineersc. military policed. snipersC B CD C A B C A A A D B A C D A B A D。

2014高考英语阅读理解抓分练习〔14〕与答案阅读理解Imagine putting a seed in a freezer, waiting 30,000 years, and then taking the seed out and planting it. Do you think a flower would grow? Amazingly, scientists have just managed to do something very similar. They found the fruit of an ancient plant that had been frozen underground in Siberia — a region covering central and eastern Russia — for about 31,800 years. Using pieces of the fruit, the scientists grew plants in a lab. The new blooms have delicate white petals. They are also the oldest flowering plants that researchers have ever revived from a deep freeze. “This is like regenerating a dinosaur from tissues of an ancient egg,〞said University of California, Los Angeles biologist Jane Shen-Miller. The plant has a long history. Back when mammoths and woolly rhinoceroses walked the land, an Arctic ground squirrel buried seeds and fruits in an underground chamber near the Kolyma River in northeastern Siberia. The ground became permafrost, a layer of soil that stays frozen for a long time. Recently, Russian scientists dug out the old squirrel hole and found the plant remains 38 meters below the surface. Back at the lab, the team fed nutrients to tissue from three of the fruits to grow shoots. Then the scientists transferred the shoots to pots filled with soil. The plants produced seeds that could be used to grow even more of them. It’s important for scientists to know that plant tissues can still be revived after being frozen for a long time. That’s because many re searchers are trying to preserve the seeds of modern plants by freezing them and then storing them in giant lockers at various spots around the globe. One such endeavor, an underground facility in Norway, is called the Svalbard Global Seed Vault. It stores hundreds of thousands of frozen seeds. If a plant ever goes extinct, scientists could bring it back by taking its seeds from the Svalbard or other storage lockers. “No one knows how long they are ableto live for, but freezing is basically the format for many plant conservation attempts nowadays.〞 Shen-Miller said. It’s a good thing that at least some plants are tough enough to survive the experience.64. How did the fruit originally get underground? A. It was placed there by an animal. B. It was trapped there during the ice-age. C. It was planted there by ancient farmers. D. It was buried there after the earthquake.65. Why are scientists interested in this discovery? A. It helps them learn how plant life has changed in the past 30,000 years. B. It can help guide future efforts to protect endangered plant-life. C. It can provide directions for where to look for other ancient plants. D. It proves that all plant life can survive for thousands of years when frozen.66. The underlined w ord “they〞 in the final paragraph refers to _______. A. plants B. seeds C. scientists D. storage lockers67. The purpose of the passage is to _______. A. discuss a plant conservation effort B. introduce some ancient plants C. outline some causes of global warming D. describe a scientific research project66.【答案】B【解析】根据前一段的最后一句“If a plant ever goes extinct, scientists could bring it back by taking its seeds from the Svalbard or other storage lockers〞可知，此处的they指的应该是seeds。

浙江省温州市2023-2024学年高二上学期期末测试英语试卷姓名：__________ 班级：__________考号：__________一、第二部分，阅读，第一节，阅读下列短文, 从每题所给的 A 、B 、C 、D 四个选项中, 选出最佳选项。

(共15 小题；每小题2.5分, 满分37.5分)阅读理解California is home to some of the most beautiful botanical gardens in the country. Suppose you want to appreciate unique landscapes and native plants, this post has what you need to experience in the Golden State.San Francisco Botanical GardenLocated in the Golden Gate Park, this garden is home to over 9, 000 types of plants. It has 55 acres of walking paths and streams where families, couples, and solo travelers can escape from the noise of the city. It offers attractive florals(植物群)during every season of the year.California Botanic GardenIt's the largest botanic garden devoted to California-native plants. As a living museum, the California Botanic Garden features over 22, 000 California-native plant species, many of which are endangered species. The garden offers guided walks and tours for visitors who want a behind-the-scenes look at the garden and its many beautiful species.UC Botanical Garden at BerkeleyThis garden features the most diverse landscapes in the world. It has over 10, 000 types of plants. The plant collections here are impressive; visitors can wander for hours and still find new plants to admire. Special events are hosted there throughout the year, including plant sales and summer camps for kids.San Diego Botanic GardenThis coastal California botanic garden has 4 miles of trails and ocean views and features over 5,000 plant species. Among 29 uniquely themed gardens on-site, the bamboo garden collection is a must-see. With over 100 species within the living collection of bamboo, guests can experience many distinctive eco-friendly plants up close.If exploring the botanical gardens in California is on your to-do list, don't wait any longer!We're confident this collection of must-see outdoor gardens will entertain, amaze, and inspire you.1．Which botanical garden has the most types of plants?A．San Francisco Botanical Garden.B．California Botanic Garden.C．UC Botanical Garden.D．San Diego Botanic Garden.2．What is special about San Diego Botanic Garden?A．It holds different events regularly.B．It has distinctive theme gardens.C．It features California-native plants.D．It shows various landscapes worldwide.3．Who are the intended readers of the text?A．Travellers.B．Gardeners.C．Researchers.D．Guides.阅读理解Have you ever wondered what happens to your mobile phones and laptops after you throw them out to make way for a newer model? According to its latest Global E-Waste Monitor, India is the third top producer of e-waste in the world. E-waste in Indian landfill goes on to pollute soil and groundwater, affecting food supply systems and water sources.Thankfully, the country has a new group of artists who are changing these thrown mechanical items-from mobile phones to old televisions-into large murals( 壁画)and artworks to creatively show their concern for the waste problem.Over the past quarter of a century, Mumbai's Haribaabu Naatesan has transformed hundreds of tonnes of e-waste into art, integrating elements from nature and industry. "I get my waste material from friends. relatives and neighbours who know my interest in e-art and send me bags of thrown electronic appliances, "says Naatesan. Over his career, he has created huge murals for several companies. He has also showed his work at the India Art Fair, as well as several other national displays.Another artist Vishwanath Davangere has also long worked with e-waste. He likes to take apart old laptops and reassemble(重新组装)them into birds, animals and plants. After retirement, he started pursuing this hobby more seriously and started selling his creations across the world. His most outstanding works include a robotic Egyptian statue with glowing red eyes and a Milky Way made from keyboard keys. He hopes to enable others to reconsider their own consumption habits and make more environmentally conscious choices."By giving e-waste a second chance, I aim to raise awareness about the environmental impact of electronic waste."says Davangare, who today has a collection of more than 600 eco-art objects.4．Why do the artists create artworks from E-waste?A．To promote their artistic career.B．To update electronic appliances.C．To make profits for several companies.D．To express their environmental concern.5．What can we learn about Naatesan from paragraph 3?A．His creations are displayed globally.B．He gains support from people around.C．He has been creating e-art for 10 years.D．His works integrate technology and history.6．Which of the following best describes Davangere?A．Reliable.B．Confident.C．Devoted.D．Generous.7．Which can be a suitable title for the text?A．E-waste Recycling Sweeping the WorldB．Environmental Problems Worrying IndiansC．An Art Movement Turning Trash into CashD．Indian Creatives Transforming E-waste into Art阅读理解In1921, Karel Capek's play R. U. R:Rossum's Universal Robots had its first public performance in Prague, and was translated into English the following year. He needed a name for the factory-produced humanoid workers of the story, and was thinking of coining something based on the word "labour". But his brother Josef suggested an old Czech word for "forced labour", robota. And the word "robot" was born.If the Capeks had known English, they might have chosen one of the words with relevant senses that were already in the language. "Automaton" had been available since the 17th century and "android" since the 18th. But the clear sound of "robot" seemed to capture the public imagination, because within five years it was being used not only for intelligent artificial beings but for any machine capable of carrying out a complex set of movements.In science fictions(小说), the word took on new life, with writers such as Isaac Asimov writing well-regarded novels in which robots played a central role. It was these writers who first shortened "robot" to "bot", but none of them could have expected the explosion of usages which arrived in the 1990s, as the shortened word came to be adopted in computing. Today, a bot is any piece of software that runs an automated task, such as in searching the Internet or playing computer games. It has also become a suffix(后缀) , with the function of the "bot" explained in the other part of the word, as in searchbot, infobot, spybot and warbot.As early as 1923, George Bernard Shaw had applied the word "robot" to people who act automatically, without thinking or emotion, usually because of the repetitive work they have to do. Now anyone having automaton-like behaviour risks attracting the label. A movie star called Samantha who has taken on the same type of character too many times might have her roles described as "Samanthabots. "And in 2009"Obamabots"arrived -people who support Barack Obama without really knowing anything about him.8．What does the underlined word "coining "in paragraph 1 mean?A．Delivering.B．Predicting.C．Inventing.D．Recommending.9．How did the word "robot" develop in the 1990s?A．It was no longer linked with machines.B．It was gradually replaced by "android".C．It was shortened and used in computing.D．It was only adopted in well-regarded novels.10．What is the last paragraph mainly about?A．The usage of "robot" in different situations.B．The impact of "robot" on people's behavior.C．The popularity of "robot" among movie stars.D．The connection of "robot" with public figures.11．Where is the text probably taken from?A．A writer's biography.B．A science fiction.C．A technology newspaper.D．A language encyclopedia.阅读理解The road to a Nobel Prize, the most respected scientific award in the world, is growing ever longer, with almost half of winners now waiting more than 20 years from making a Nobel-worthy discovery to receiving the prize.One analysis shows that the average time between publishing the work and receiving one of the science prizes has nearly doubled in the past 60 years. Across the three science prizes, chemistry now has the longest "Nobel lag"-an average of 30 years over the past decade -and physiology or medicine has the shortest, at 26 years.Alfred Nobel's will stated that the prizes should be awarded "to those who, during the previous year, shall have given the greatest benefit to mankind. "In reality this has only happened a few times. But in the first half of the twentieth century, it was common for Nobel prize winners to be in their 30s -and that is unheard of now, says Santo Fortunato, now a computational social scientist at Indiana University.There are a number of possible reasons for this, says Yian Yin, a computational social scientist at Comell University. It could be that the overall number of breakthroughs is increasing each year, so awards cannot keep up with the number of people who deserve to be recognized, he says. It is also the case that the importance of some works, which Yin describes as "sleeping beauties" are only realized years or decades later. Besides, the lengthening gap could be a sign that there has been a decrease in "disruptive" science -important studies or discoveries that change the paradigm( 范式)of their field. This could be causing the Nobel committees to focus more on the past.Fortunato points out that, if the gap continues to grow, outstanding scientists could miss out on the award owing to the Nobel Committee's rule banning posthumous prizes(追授奖项) . "It has to stop at some point, "he says, adding that a rethink of the posthumous-awarding ban would allow more people's work to get the recognition that it deserves. 12．Why does the writer mention the numbers in the first two paragraphs?A．To explain a rule.B．To present a fact.C．To clarify a concept.D．To make a prediction.13．What can we learn about the Nobel prize winners from the paragraph 3?A．None of them are in their 30snowadays.B．Their names are unheard of by the public.C．None of them receive the prizes several times.D．They must make contributions the year before.14．Why might be a cause of the Nobel lag?A．The change in standards.B．The requirement of the award.C．The increase in breakthroughs.D．The tradition of the committees.15．What does Fortunato suggest in the last paragraph?A．Reconsidering the current rule.B．Establishing a better committee.C．Stopping the award presentation.D．Recognizing more people's work.二、第二部分，阅读理解，第二节(共5 小题：每小题2.5分, 满分12.5分)阅读下面短文, 从短文后的选项中选出可以填入空白处的最佳选项。

一、根据首字母填写单词(单词拼写)1. This reference book is easily a________ to beginners.2. You are a ______mistaken! Such an honest person can’t tell a lie to us. (根据首字母单词拼写)3. He should be a________of himself for telling such lies. （根据首字母单词拼写）二、根据汉语意思填写单词(单词拼写)4. Over those years she ________ (逐渐地) built up a reputation as a successful lawyer. (根据汉语提示单词拼写)5. Jack is late again. It is _________ (典型的) of him to keep others waiting. (根据汉语提示单词拼写)6. The epidemic situation (疫情) was ________(令人不安的). (根据汉语提示完成句子)三、根据中英文提示填写单词(单词拼写)7. It now looks e____________ (完全) different from what it was.(根据中英文提示单词拼写)8. This museum is d________ (绝对地) worth visiting again. （根据中英文提示填空）四、完成句子9. 中国是一个有吸引力的国家，有许多神秘的故事和传奇人物。

(where)China is an attractive country ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ mysterious stories and legends.10. 果不其然，走下楼梯，来到站台上就像跳进一座正在喷发的火山一样。

①If humans were truly at home under the light of the moon and stars, we would go in darkness happily, the midnight world as visible to us as it is to the vast number of nocturnal(夜间活动的) species on this planet. Instead, we are diurnal creatures, with eyes adapted to living in the sun’s light. This is a basic evolutionary fact, even though most of us don’t think of ourselves as diurnal beings. Yet it’s the only way to explain what we’ve done to the night: We’ve engineered it to receive us by filling it with light.The benefits of this kind of engineering come with consequences 一called light pollution 一whose effects scientists are only now beginning to study. Light pollution is largely the result of bad lighting design，which allows artificial light to shine outward and upward into the sky. III-designed lighting washes out the darkness of night and completely changes the light levels 一and light rhythms — to which many forms of life, including ourselves, have adapted. Wherever human light spills into the natural world, some aspect or life is affected.In most cities the sky looks as though it has been emptied of stars, leaving behind a vacant haze(霾) that mirrors our fear of the dark. We’ve grown so used to this orange haze that the original glory of an unlit nigh t —dark enough for the planet Venus to throw shadow on Earth—is wholly beyond our experience, beyond memory almost.We’ve lit up the night as if it were an unoccupied country, when nothing could be further form the truth. Among mammals alone, the number of nocturnal species is astonishing. Light is a powerful biological force, and on many species it acts as a magnet(磁铁). The effect is so powerful that scientists speak of songbirds and seabirds being ―captured‖ by searchlights on land or by the light from gas flares on marine oil platforms. Migrating at night, birds tend to collide with brightly lit tall buildings.Frogs living near brightly lit highways suffer nocturnal light levels that are as much as a million times brighter than normal, throwing nearly every aspect of their behavior out of joint, including most other creatures, we do need darkness .Darkness is as essential to our biological welfare, to our internal clockwork, as light itself.Living in a glare of our own making, we have cut ourselves off from our evolutionary and cultural heritage—the light of the stars and the rhythms of day and night. In a very real sense, light pollution causes us to lose sight of our true place in the universe, to forget the scale of our being, which is best measured against the dimensions of a deep night with the Milky Way—the edge of our galaxy—arching overhead.50. According to the passage, human being .A. prefer to live in the darknessB. are used to living in the day lightC. were curious about the midnight worldD. had to stay at home with the light of the moon51. What does ―it‖(Paragraph 1) most probably refer to?A. The night.B. The moonC. The skyD. The planet52. The writer mentions birds and frogs to .A. provide examples of animal protectionB. show how light pollution affects animalsC. compare the living habits of both speciesD. explain why the number of certain species has declined53. It is implied in the last paragraph that .A. light pollution dose harm to the eyesight of animalsB. light pollution has destroyed some of the world heritagesC. human beings cannot go to the outer spaceD. human beings should reflect on their position in the universe54. What might be the best title for the passage?A. The Magic light.B. The Orange Haze.C. The Disappearing Night.D. The Rhythms of Nature.②Last summer, two nineteenth-century cottages were rescued from remote farm fields in Montana, to be moved to an Art Deco building in San Francisco. The houses were made of wood. These cottages once housed early settlers as they worked the dry Montana soil; now they hold Twitter engineers.The cottages could be an example of the industry’ s odd love affair with ―low technology,‖ a concept associated with the natural world, and with old-school craftsmanship (手艺) that exists long before the Internet era. Low technology is not virtual (虚拟的) —so, to take advantage of it, Internet companies have had to get creative. The rescued wood cottages, fitted by hand in the late eighteen-hundreds, are an obvious example, but Twitter’s designs lie on the extreme end. Other companies are using a broader interpretation (阐释) of low technology that focuses on nature.Amazon is building three glass spheres filled with trees, so that employees can ―work and socialize in a more natural, park-like setting.‖At Google’s office, an entire floor is carpeted in glass. Facebook’s second Menlo Park campus will have a rooftop park with a walking trail.Olle Lundberg, the founder of Lundberg Design, has worked with many tech companies over the years. ―We have lost the connection to the maker in our lives, and our tech engineers are the ones who feel impoverished (贫乏的) , because they’re surrounded by the digital world,‖he says. ―They’re looking for a way to regain their individual identity, and we’ve found that introducing real crafts is one way to do that.‖This craft based theory is rooted in history, William Morris, the English artist and writer, turned back to pre-industrial arts in the eighteen-sixties, just after the Industrial Revolution. The Arts and Crafts movement defined itself against machines. ―Without creative human occupation, people became disconnected from life,‖ Morris said.Research has shown that natural environments can restore(恢复) our mental capacities. In Japan, patients are encouraged to ―forest-bathe,‖ taking walks through woods to lower their blood pressure.These health benefits apply to the workplace as well. Rachel Kaplvin, a professor of environmental psychology, has spent years researching the restorative effects of natural environment. Her research found that workers with access to nature at the office—even simple views of trees and flowers—felt their jobs were less stressful and more satisfying. If low-tech offices can potentially nourish the brains and improve the mental health of employees then, fine, bring on the cottages.50. The writer mentions the two nineteenth-century cottages to show that ________.A. Twitter is having a hard timeB. old cottages are in need of protectionC. early settlers once suffered from a dry climate in MontanaD. Internet companies have rediscovered the benefits of low technology51. Low technology is regarded as something that _______.A. is related to natureB. is out of date todayC. consumes too much energyD. exists in the virtual world52. The main idea of Paragraph 5 is that human beings ________.A. have destroyed many pre-industrial artsB. have a tradition of valuing arts and craftsC. can become intelligent by learning historyD. can regain their individual identity by using machines53.The writer’s attitude to ―low technology‖ can best be described as ________.A. positiveB. defensiveC. cautiousD. doubtful54. What might be the best title for the passage?A. Past Glories, Future DreamsB. The Virtual World, the Real ChallengeC. High-tech Companies, Low-tech OfficesD. The More Craftsmanship, the Less Creativity③The baby monkey is much more developed at birth than the human baby. Almost from the moment it is born, the baby monkey can move around and hold tightly to its mother. During the first few days of its life the baby will approach and hold onto almost any large, warm, and soft object in its environment, particularly if that object also gives it milk. After a week or so, however, the baby monkey begins to avoid newcomers and focuses its attentions on ―mother‖—the real mother or the mother-substitute (母亲替代物).During the first two weeks of its life warmth is perhaps the most important psychological thing that a monkey mother has to give to its baby. The Harlows, a couple who are both psychologists, discovered this fact by offering baby monkeys a choice of two types of mother-substitutes—one covered with cloth and one made of bare wire. If the two artificial mothers were both the same temperature, the little monkeys always preferred the cloth mother. However, if the wire model was heated, while the cloth model was cool, for the first two weeks after birth the baby monkeys picked the warm wire mother-substitutes as their favorites. Thereafter they switched and spent most of their time on the more comfortable cloth mother.Why is cloth preferable to bare wire? Something that the Harlows called contact (接触) comfort seems to be the answer, and a most powerful influence it is. Baby monkeys spend much of their time rubbing against their mothers’ skins, putting themselves in as close contact with the parent as they can. Whenever the young animal is frightened, disturbed, or annoyed, it typically rushes to its mother and rubs itself against her body. Wire doesn’t ―rub‖ as well as does soft wire cloth. Prolonged (长时间的) ―contact comfort‖ with a cloth mother appears to give the babies confidence and is much more rewarding to them than is either warmth or milk.According to the Harlows, the basic quality of a baby’s love for its mother is trust. If the baby is put into an unfamiliar playroom without its mother, the baby ignores the toys no matter how interesting they might be. It screams in terror and curls up into a furry little ball. If its cloth mother is now introduced into the playroom, the baby rushes to it and holds onto it for dear life. After a few minutes of contact comfort, it obviously begins to feel more secure. It then climbs down from the mother-substitute and begins to explore the toys, but often rushes back for a deep embrace (拥抱) as if to make sure that its mother is still there and that all is well. Bit by bit its fears of the new environment are gone and it spends more and more time playing with the toys and less and less time holding on to its ―mother.‖50. Psychologically, what does the baby monkey desire most during the first two weeks of its life?A. WarmthB. MilkC. ContactD. Trust51. After the first two weeks of their life, baby moneys prefer the cloth mother to the wire mother because the former is __________.A. larger in sizeB. closer to themC. less frightening and less disturbingD. more comfortable to rub against52. What does the baby monkey probably gain from prolonged ―contact comfort‖?A. AttentionB. SoftnessC. ConfidenceD. Interest53. It can be inferred that when the baby monkey feels secure, __________.A. it frequently rushes back for a deep embrace when exploring the toysB. it spends more time screaming to get rewardsC. it is less attracted to the toys though they are interestingD. it cares less about whether its mother is still around54. The main purpose of the passage is to __________.A. give the reasons for the experimentB. present the findings of the experimentC. introduce the method of the experimentD. describe the process of the experiment④Two friends have an argument that breaks up their friendship forever, even though neither one can remember how the whole thing got started. Such sad events happen over and over in high schools across the country. In fact, according to an official report on youth violence, "In our country today, the greatest threat to the lives of children and adolescents is not disease or starvation or abandonment, but the terrible reality of violence". Given that this is the ease, why aren't students taught to manage conflict the way they are taught to solve math problems, drive ears, or stay physically fit?First of all, students need to realize that conflict is unavoidable. A report on violence among middle school and high school students indicates that most violent incidents between students begin with a relatively minor insult (侮辱). For example, a fight could start over the fact that one student eats a peanut butter sandwich each lunchtime. Laughter over the sandwich can lead to insults, which in turn can lead to violence. The problem isn't in the sandwich, but in the way students deal with the conflict.Once students recognize that conflict is unavoidable, they can practice the golden rule of conflict resolution (解决) : stay calm. Once the student feels calmer, he or she should choose words that will calm the other person down as well Rude words, name-calling, and accusations only add fuel to the emotional fire. On the other hand, soft words spoken at a normal sound level can put out the fire before it explodes out of control.After both sides have calmed down, they can use another key strategy (策略) for conflict resolution : listening. Listening allows the two sides to understand each other. One person should describe his or her side, and the other person should listen without interrupting. Afterward, the listener can ask non-threatening questions to clarify the speaker's position. Then the two people should change roles.Finally, students need to consider what they are hearing. Tiffs doesn't mean trying to figure out what's wrong with the other person. It means understanding what the real issue is and what both sides are trying to accomplish. For example, a shouting match over a peanut butter sandwich might happen because one person thinks the other person is unwilling to try new things. Students need to ask themselves questions such as these: How did this start? What do I really want? What am I afraid of? As the issue becomes clearer, the conflict often simply becomes smaller. Even if it doesn't, careful thought helps both sides figure out a mutual solution.There will always be conflict in schools, but that doesn't mean there needs to be violence. After students in Atlanta started a conflict resolution program, according to Educators for Social Responsibility, "64 percent of the teachers reported less physical violence in the classroom; 75 percent of the teachers reported an increase in student co-operation; and 92 percent of the students felt better about themselves'. Learning to resolve conflicts can help students deal with friends, teachers, parents, bosses, and coworkers. In that way, conflict resolution is a basic life skill that should be taught in schools across the country.50. This article is mainly aboutA. the lives of school childrenB. the cause of arguments in schoolsC. how to analyze youth violenceD. how to deal with school conflicts51. From Paragraph 2 we can learn thatA. violence is more likely to occur at lunchtimeB. a small conflict can lead to violenceC. students tend to lose their temper easilyD. the eating habit of a student is often the cause of a fight52. Why do students need to ask themselves the questions stated in Paragraph 5?A. To find out who is to blame.B. To get ready to try new things.C. To make clear what the real issue is.D. To figure out how to stop the shouting match.53. After the conflict resolution program was started in Atlanta, it was found thatA. there was a decrease in classroom violenceB. there was less student cooperation in the classroomC. more teachers felt better about themselves in schoolsD. the teacher-student relationship greatly improved54. The writer's purpose for writing this article is toA. complain about problems in school educationB. teach students different strategies for school lifeC. advocate teaching conflict management in schoolsD. inform teachers of the latest studies on school violence⑤In the more and more competitive service industry, it is no longer enough to promise customer satisfaction. Today, customer ―delight‖ is what companies are trying to achieve in order to keep and increase market share.It is accepted in the marketing industry, and confirmed by a number of researchers, that customers receiving good service will promote business by telling up to 12 other people; those treated badly tell tales of woe to up to 20 people. Interestingly, 80 percent of people who feel their complaints are handled fairly will stay loyal.New challenges for customer care have come when people can obtain goods and services through telephone call centers and the Internet. For example, many companies now have to invest (投资) a lot of money in information technology and staff training in order to cope with the ―phone rage‖---- caused by delays in answering calls, being cut off in mid-conversation or left waiting for long periods.―Many people do not like talking to machines,‖ says Dr, Storey, Senior Lecturer in Marketing at City University Business School. ―Banks, for ex ample, encourage staff at call centers to use customer data to establish instant and good relationship with then. The aim is to make the customer feel they know you and that you can trust them – the sort of comfortable feelings people have during face-to-f ace chats with their local branch manager.‖Recommended ways of creating customer delight include: under-promising and over-delivering (saying that a repair will be carried out within five hours, but getting it done within two) replacing a faulty product immediately; throwing in a gift voucher (购物礼券)as an unexpected ―thank you‖ to regular customers; and always returning calls, even when they are complaints.Aiming for customer delight is all very well, but if services do not reach the high level promised, disappointment or worse will be the result. This can be eased by offering an apology and an explanation of why the service did not meet usual standards with empathy(for example, ―I know how you must feel‖), and possible solutions (replacement, compensation or whatever fairness suggests best meets the case).Airlines face some of the toughest challenges over customer care. Fierce competition has convinced them at that delighting passengers is an important marketing tool, while there is great potential for customer anger over delays caused by weather, unclaimed luggage and technical problems.For British Airways staff, a winning telephone style is considered vital in handling the large volume of calls about bookings and flight times. They are trained to answer quickly, with their names, job title an d a ―we are here to help‖ attitude. The company has invested heavily in information technology to make sure that information is available instantly on screen.British Airways also says its customer care policies are applied within the company and staff are taught to regard each other as customers requiring the highest standards of service.Customer care is obviously here to stay and it would be a foolish company that used slogans such as ―we do as we please‖. On the other hand, the more customers are promis ed, the greater the risk of disappointment.50. We can learn from Paragraph 2 that _______.A. complaining customers are hard to satisfyB. unsatisfied customers receive better serviceC .satisfied customers catch more attentionD. well-treated customers promote business51. The writer mentions ―phone rage‖(Paragraph 3)to show that ________.A. customers often use phones to express their angerB. people still prefer to buy goods onlineC. customer care becomes more demandingD. customers rely on their phones to obtain services52. What does the writer recommend to create customer delight?A. Calling customers regular.B. Gibing a ―thank you ―note..C. Delivering a quicker service.D. Promising more gifts.53. If a manager should show his empathy (Paragraph 6), what would be probably say?A. ―I know how upset you must be.‖B. ―I appreciate your understanding.‖C. ―I’m sorry for the delay.‖D. ―I know it’s our fault.‖54. Customer delight is important for airlines because ________.A. their telephone style remains unchangedB. they are more likely to meet with complaintsC. the services cost them a lot of moneyD. the policies can be applied to their staff55. Which of the following is conveyed in this article?A. Face-to –face service creates comfortable feelings among customers.B. Companies that promise more will naturally attract more customers.C. A company should promise less but do more in a competitive market.D. Customer delight is more important for air lines then for banks.。

tpo28三篇阅读原文译文题目答案译文背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (5)题目 (7)答案 (15)背景知识 (16)阅读-2 (20)原文 (20)译文 (24)题目 (26)答案 (34)背景知识 (35)阅读-3 (43)原文 (43)译文 (47)题目 (49)答案 (58)背景知识 (59)阅读-1原文Groundwater①Most of the world’s potable water----freshwater suitable for drinking----is accounted for by groundwater, which is stored in the pores and fractures in rocks. There is more than 50 times as much freshwater stored underground than in all the freshwater rivers and lakes at the surface. Nearly 50 percent of all groundwater is stored in the upper 1,000 meters of Earth. At greater depths within Earth, the pressure of the overlying rock causes pores and cracks to close, reducing the space that pore water can occupy, and almost complete closure occurs at a depth of about 10 kilometers. The greatest water storage, therefore, lies near the surface.②Aquifers, Porosity and Permeability.Groundwater is stored in a variety of rock types. A groundwater reservoir from which water can be extracted is called an aquifer. We can effectively think of an aquifer as a deposit of water. Extraction of water depends on two properties of the aquifer: porosity and permeability. Between sediment grains are spaces that can be filled with water. This pore space is known as porosity and isexpressed as a percentage of the total rock volume. Porosity is important for water-storage capacity, but for water to flow through rocks, the pore spaces must be connected. The ability of water, or other fluids, to flow through the interconnected pore spaces in rocks is termed permeability. In the intergranular spaces of rocks, however, fluid must flow around and between grains in a tortuous path; this winding path causes a resistance to flow. The rate at which the flowing water overcomes this resistance is related to the permeability of rock.③Sediment sorting and compaction influence permeability and porosity. The more poorly sorted or the more tightly compacted a sediment is ,the lower its porosity and permeability. Sedimentary rocks----the most common rock type near the surface----are also the most common reservoirs for water because they contain the most space that can be filled with water. Sandstones generally make good aquifers, while finer-grained mudstones are typically impermeable. Impermeable rocks are referred to as aquicludes. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are more compact, commonly crystalline, and rarely contain spaces between grains. However, even igneous and metamorphic rocks may act as groundwater reservoirs if extensive fracturing occurs in such rocks and if the fracture system is interconnected.④The water table is the underground boundary below which all thecracks and pores are filled with water. In some cases, the water table reaches Earth’s surface, where it is expressed as rivers, lakes and marshes. Typically, though, the water table may be tens or hundreds of meters below the surface. The water table is not flat but usually follows the contours of the topography. Above the water table is the vadose zone, through which rainwater percolates. Water in the vadose zone drains down to the water table, leaving behind a thin coating of water on mineral grains. The vadose zone supplies plant roots near the surface with water.⑤Because the surface of the water table is not flat but instead rises and falls with topography, groundwater is affected by gravity in the same fashion as surface water. Groundwater flows downhill to topographic lows. If the water table intersect the land surface, groundwater will flow out onto the surface at springs, whether to be collected there or to subsequently flow farther along a drainage. Groundwater commonly collects in stream drainages but may remain entirely beneath the surface of dry stream-beds in arid regions. In particularly wet years, short stretches of an otherwise dry stream-bed may have flowing water because the water table rises to intersect the land surface.译文地下水①世界上绝大部分饮用水----可以饮用的淡水----都是地下水，它们储藏在岩石孔隙和裂缝中。