Descriptive Analysis - 副本1

1010_Analytical_data_interpretation_and_treatment_分析数据解释及处理<1010>Analytical data interpretation and treatment 分析数据解释及处理IntroductionThis chapter provides information regarding acceptable practices for the analysis and consistent interpretation of data obtained from chemical and other analyses.Basic statistical approaches for evaluating data are described,and the treatment of outliers and comparison of analytical methods are discussed in some detail.序论这一章节提供了对从化学和其他的实验中获得的信息如何进行合理分析和一致解释的信息。

评估数据的基本统计方法，如何处理极端数据及分析方法的比较在一些章节中进行讨论。

NOTE---It should not be inferred that the analysis tools mentioned in this chapter form an exhaustive list .Other ,equallyvalid,statistical methods may be used at the discretion of the manufacture and other users of this chapter.注意---没必要从一个详细的清单中推断这一章节提到的分析工具。

其他等效的统计方法也可能被用于慎密的制造或被其他用户使用。

Package‘easyDes’October13,2022Type PackageTitle An Easy Way to Descriptive AnalysisVersion6.0Author Zhicheng Du,Yuantao HaoMaintainer Zhicheng Du<*****************>Description Descriptive analysis is essential for publishing medical articles.This package provides an easy way to conduct the descriptive analysis.1.Both numeric and factor variables can be handled.For numeric variables,normal-ity test will be applied to choose the parametric and nonparametric test.2.Both two or more groups can be handled.For groups more than two,the post hoc test will be ap-plied,'Tukey'for the numeric variables and'FDR'for the factor variables.3.T test,ANOV A or Fisher test can be forced to apply.4.Mean and standard deviation can be forced to display.License GPL-3Imports PMCMRplus,multcomp,stats,utilsNeedsCompilation noRepository CRANDate/Publication2021-11-1910:30:02UTCR topics documented:easyDes (1)Index5 easyDes An Easy Way to Descriptive Analysis1DescriptionDescriptive analysis is essential for publishing medical articles.This package provides an easy way to conduct the descriptive analysis.1.Both numeric and factor variables can be handled.For numeric variables,normality test will be applied to choose the parametric and nonparametric test.2.Both two or more groups can be handled.For groups more than two,the post hoc test will beapplied,’Tukey’for the numeric variables and’FDR’for the factor variables.3.T test,ANOV A or Fisher test can be forced to apply.4.Mean and standard deviation can be forced to display. UsageeasyDes(nc.g,nc.n,nc.f,nc.of,dataIn,fisher,aov,t,mean,mcp.test.method,mcp.stat,mcp.t.test,mcp.t.test.method,table.margin,decimal.p,decimal.prop)Argumentsnc.g integer,the column number of the grouping variable,length of’nc.g’must be1 nc.n numeric vector,the column number of the numeric variable,length of’nc.n’can be more than1nc.f numeric vector,the column number of the factor variable,length of’nc.f’can be more than1nc.of numeric vector,the column number of the ordinal factor variable,length of ’nc.of’can be more than1dataIn data frame including variables abovefisher logic,whether to apply Fisher test by force,the default is’TRUE’aov logic,whether to apply ANOV A test by force,the default is’FALSE’t logic,whether to apply T test by force,the default is’FALSE’mean logic,whether to disply the mean and standar deviation for the numeric variables by force,the default is’FALSE’mcp.test.methodcharacter,specific for ANOV A,the method for the multiple comparisons in’multcomp’package,’Tukey’or’Dunnett’mcp.stat logic,whether to display the statistic for the multiple comparsionsmcp.t.test logic,specific for ANOV A,wether to use the pairwise t tests as the multiple comparsions instead of that in’multcomp’packagemcp.t.test.methodcharacter,specific for’mcp.t.test’==TRUE,the method for the pairwise t tests,’holm’(Holm,1979),’hochberg’(Hochberg,1988),’hommel’(Hommel,1988),’bonferroni’,’BH’(Benjamini&Hochberg,1995),’BY’(Benjamini&Yeku-tieli,2001),’fdr’,’none’table.margin1or2,which margin of the table should be calculated the proportion,1=row, 2=columndecimal.p integer,the number of decimals of the p valuedecimal.prop integer,the number of decimals of the proportions for factor variablesDetails1.Nemenyi test was used as a Kruskal-Wallis post-hoc test.2.FDR(False Discovery Rate)was used to adjust the p values after pairwise comparision of Chi-square test or Fisher test.3.Tukey test was used as a ANOV A(Analysis of Variance)post-hoc test.4.Shapiro-Wilk test was used as normality test if the sample size was between3~5,000,whileKolmogorov-Smirnov test was used if the sample size was greater than5,000.Valuetotal the descriptive statistic for all datagroup names the descriptive statistic for data of each groupmethod the method applied to test between groups,i.e.ANOV A and Tukey,Fisher and FDRstatistic the statistic of test,i.e.,the’W’to Wilcoxon test,the’chi-squared’to Kruskal-Wallis,the’t’to t test,the’F’to ANOV A testp.value the p value derived from the test between groupsstat.*_va_*the statistic derived from the post hoc test,the’t’of Tukey for ANOV A,the’q’of Nemenyi for Kruskal-Wallisp.*_va_*the p value derived from the post hoc testNotePlease feel free to contact us,if you have any advice andfind any bug!Update description:Version2.0:1.T test can be forced to apply.Version3.0:1.Fixing the wrong colnames in Chi-squre test.2.Limiting the number of the decimal digits of the statistic in Chi-squre test to three.3.The number of decimal digits of the propotion for the factor variables can be set free.Version4.0:1.Mean and standard deviation can be forced to display.2.The help document has been revised.3.Fix the problem with more than5,000samples in the normality test.Version5.0:1.Unify the number of decimal digits(i.e.,output"0.010"rather than"0.01"for p value).2.Add the’nc.of’to analyze ordinal factors.Version6.0: 1.Add the pairwise t tests for the the multiple comparsions. 2.Fix the error of "Increase workspace or consider using’simulate.p.value=TRUE’"infisher test. 3.Add the’ta-ble.margin’argument.4.Add the’decimal.p’argment.5.Fix the bugs caused by the names with specific characters in numeric variables.Author(s)Zhicheng Du<*****************>,Yuantao Hao<***************>Examplesgroup=rep(c(0,1),each=30)nx1=rnorm(60)nx2=rnorm(60)fx1=rep(c(1:3),20)fx2=rep(c(1:5),12)fx3=factor(fx2)data=data.frame(group,nx1,nx2,fx1,fx2,fx3)easyDes(nc.g=1,nc.n=2:3,nc.f=4:5,nc.of=6,dataIn=data,fisher=TRUE,aov=FALSE,t=FALSE,mean=FALSE,mcp.stat=FALSE) easyDes(nc.g=4,nc.n=2:3,nc.f=c(5,5),nc.of=6,dataIn=data,fisher=TRUE,aov=FALSE,t=FALSE,mean=FALSE,mcp.stat=FALSE) easyDes(nc.g=4,nc.n=3,nc.f=5,nc.of=6,dataIn=data,fisher=TRUE,aov=FALSE,t=FALSE,mean=FALSE,mcp.stat=TRUE)Index∗Descriptive analysiseasyDes,1easyDes,15。

descriptive statistics and correlation analysisDescriptive statistics and correlation analysis are two important statistical techniques used to analyze and summarize data. Descriptive statistics involves the use of numerical measures to describe and summarize the main features of a dataset, such as central tendency (mean, median, mode) and variability (standard deviation, range). On the other hand, correlation analysis is used to examine the strength and direction of the relationship between two or more variables. Descriptive statistics is the first step in analyzing data as it provides a clear understanding of the dataset's characteristics. It allows researchers to identify patterns, trends, and outliers within the data. For example, by calculating the mean and standard deviation of a dataset, we can determine the average value and the spread of the data points.Correlation analysis, on the other hand, focuses on examining the relationship between variables. It measures the degree to which changes in one variable are associated with changes in another variable. Correlation coefficients range from -1 to +1, where a positive correlation indicates a direct relationship, a negative correlation indicates an inverserelationship, and a correlation close to zero indicates no relationship.By conducting correlation analysis, researchers can determine if there is a significant relationship between variables. This information is crucial in many fields, such as finance, social sciences, and healthcare. For example, in finance, correlation analysis is used to assess the relationship between different stocks or assets to build diversified portfolios.In addition to measuring the correlation between two variables, correlation analysis can also be extended to examine multiple variables simultaneously through techniques like multiple regression analysis. This allows researchers to identify the independent and dependent variables and predict the outcome based on the relationship between them.Overall, descriptive statistics and correlation analysis are valuable tools in statistical analysis. They provide researchers with a deeper understanding of the data and help draw meaningful conclusions. By utilizing these techniques, researchers can make informed decisions, detect patterns, and identify relationships between variables.。

Descriptive abstract是科技论文中的一种常见结构，用于对研究结果进行简洁、准确的描述。

其基本结构包括以下几个部分：
1. 背景介绍：简要介绍研究领域的背景和现状，说明研究的重要性和意义。

2. 目的和方法：明确研究的目的和采用的方法，包括实验设计、数据采集和分析等。

3. 结果：简明扼要地呈现研究的主要结果，可以使用图表或数据来支持描述。

4. 讨论：对研究结果进行解释和分析，探讨其与已有研究的异同之处，指出研究的局限性和未来发展方向。

5. 结论：总结研究的主要发现和贡献，强调研究的意义和应用价值。

在撰写descriptive abstract时，需要注意以下几点：
1. 突出重点：将研究的重点和亮点放在摘要的前面，让读者能够快速了解研究的核心内容。

2. 简洁明了：使用简洁、明了的语言表达研究的结果和结论，避免使用过多的专业术语和复杂的句子结构。

3. 逻辑清晰：按照研究的逻辑顺序组织摘要的内容，确保读者能够理解研究的整个过程。

4. 准确无误：确保摘要中的数据和结果准确无误，避免出现错误或误导性的信息。

毕设附件外文文献翻译原文及译文(3500 字)原文Study of Service Quality Management in Hotel IndustryBorkar; SameerAbstractIt is an attempt to understand the role of quality improvement process in hospitality industry and effectiveness in making it sustainable business enterprise. It is a survey of the presently adopted quality management tools which are making the hotels operations better focused and reliable and meet the customer expectations. Descriptive research design is used to know the parameters of service quality management in hospitality industry. Exploratory research design is undertaken to dig out the service quality management practices and its effectiveness. Data analysis is done and presented; hypothesis is tested against the collected data. Since the industry continuously tries to improve upon their services to meet the levels of customer satisfaction; Study presents tools for continuous improvement process and how it benefits all the stake holders. It can be inferred from the study that the hotel implement continuous improvement process and quality management tools to remain competitive in the market. The study involves hotels of highly competitive market with limited number of respondents. This limits the study to hotel industry and has scope of including other hospitality service providers as well.Keywords: Customer Satisfaction, Perception, Performance Measurement, Continuous, Improvement Process.IntroductionIt has brought paradigm shifts in the operations of hospitality industry. The overall perspective of the industry is changed due to introduction of new techniques and methods of handling various processes. Awareness among the hoteliers and the guests has fuelled the inventions focused on operations. The increased sagacity of customer satisfaction led to the use of high standards of service in industry. The new service parameters made the hoteliers to implement quality management as an effective aid. It has significantly affected hotels' ability to control and adapt to changing environments. The use of new techniques began with the simple motive of sophistication and precise activities in the given field of operation which may result in high standards of service in global economy and has allowed the rise of a leisure class.Conceptual Framework This study of Service quality management in hospitality industry is an attempt to understand the presence of quality improvement process in hospitality industry and effectiveness in making it sustainable business enterprise. It is a survey of the presently adopted quality management tools which are making the hotels operations safer, focused and reliable and meet the customer expectations.As the hospitality industry becomes more competitive there is an obvious need to retain clientele as well as increasing profitability and hence management professionals strive to improve guest satisfaction and revenues. The management professionals whom are striving for these results however often have limited understanding of research surrounding the paradigms of guest satisfaction and loyalty and financial performance. This research paper shall enlighten some of the variables and important facts of service quality resulting into guest satisfaction.Review of LiteratureCustomers of hospitality often blame themselves when dissatisfied for their bad choice. Employees must be aware that dissatisfied customers may not complain and therefore the employees should seek out sources of dissatisfaction and resolve them. (Zeithaml V., 1981, p.186 -190)It is said that service quality is what differentiates hospitality sector, however there is not an agreed definition of what service quality is. There is however a few different suggestions of how to define service quality. Dividing it into technical, functional and image components; (Greenrooms C., 1982) another is that service quality is determined by its fitness for use by internal and external customers. It is accepted that service quality is depends upon guest's needs and expectations. A definition of service quality state that quality is simply conformance to specifications, which would mean that positive quality is when a product or service specific quality meet or exceed preset standards or promises. This however seems like an easy viewwithin the hospitality industry. The alternative definitions read as follows: 1) quality is excellence; 2) quality is value for money; 3) quality is meeting or exceeding expectations. This appears better aligned with ideas which exist within hospitality management than the first mentioned simplistic approach. Service quality and value is rather difficult to calculate, companies must therefore rely on guest's quality perceptions and expectations to get consistent results which is best achieved by asking guest's questions related to expectations and their perceptions of the service quality, which can effectively be achieved through carefully designed surveys.A major problem with service quality is variability and limited capability and robustness of the service production process. (Gummesson E., 1991) Hotels consumers have well-conceived ideas about service quality and quality attributes are considered important for most types of services, the absence of certain attributes may lead consumers to perceive service quality as poor. The presence of these attributes may not substantially improve the perceived quality of the service. Most customers would be willing to trade some convenience for a price break, and that the behavior, skill level and performance of service employees are key determinants of perceived quality of services. This is a major challenge in improving or maintaining a high level of service quality. (Tigineh M. et al 1992)Studies focusing on service quality management suggest that service firms spend too little effort on planning for service quality. The resultant costs of poor service quality planning lead to lower profitability as part of the service failures.(Stuart F., et al 1996)When discussing satisfaction, it is important to understand that guest's evaluation of service comprise of two basic distinct dimensions: service delivery and service outcome (Mattila, 1999). Research indicates that how the service was delivered (perceived functional quality) is more important than the outcome of the service process (technical quality). This research clearly indicates that effort by staff have a strong effect on guest's satisfaction judgments.Companies delivering services must broaden their examination of productivity to help settle conflicts – the leverage synergies – between improving service quality and boosting service productivity. ( Parasuraman A. 2002)A key activity is to conduct regularly scheduled review of progress by quality council or working group and management must establish a system to identify areas for future improvement and to track performance with respect to internal and external customers. They must also track the changing preferences of customer. Continuous improvement means not only being satisfied with doing a good job or process. It is accomplished by incorporating process measurement and team problem solving an all work activities. Organization must continuously strive for excellence by reducing complexity, variation and out of control process. Plan-D-Study-Act (PDSA) developed by Shewhart and later on modified by Deming is an effective improvement technique. First Plan carefully, then carry out plan, study the results and check whether the plan worked exactly as intended and act on results by identifying what worked as planned and what didn't work.Continuous process improvement is the objective and these phases of PDSA are the framework to achieve those objectives. (Besterfield D. et al 2003) The 'servicescape' -is a general term to describe the physical surroundings of a service environment (Reimer 2005, p. 786) such as a hotel or cruise ship. Guests are sometimes unconsciously trying to obtain as much information as possible through experiences to decrease information asymmetries This causes guests to look for quality signals or cues which would provide them with information about the service, which leads us to 'cue utilization theory'. Cue utilization theory states that products or services consist of several arrays of cues that serve as surrogate indicators of product or service quality. There are both intrinsic and extrinsic cues to help guests determine quality. Consequentially, due to the limited tangibility of services, guests are often left to accept the price of the experience and the physical appearance or environment of the hotel or cruise ship itself as quality indicators. Though there are many trade and academic papers discussing guest satisfaction has been published, one can note that limited attention has been paid to the value perception and expectations guests have towards product delivery and influence price guests pay for an experience has on satisfaction and future spending. Furthermore it is also known that the role of pricing in relation to guest determinants of perceived quality of services. This is a major challenge in improving or maintaining a high level of service quality. (Tigineh M. et al 1992) Studies focusing on service quality management suggest that service firms spend too little effort on planning for service quality.The resultant costs of poor service quality planning lead to lower profitability as part of the service failures. (Stuart F., et al 1996)When discussing satisfaction, it is important to understand that guest's evaluation of service comprise of two basic distinct dimensions: service delivery and service outcome (Mattila, 1999). Research indicates that how the service was delivered (perceived functional quality) is more important than the outcome of the service process (technical quality). This research clearly indicates that effort by staff have a strong effect on guest's satisfaction judgments. Companies delivering services must broaden their examination of productivity to help settle conflicts –the leverage synergies –between improving service quality and boosting service productivity. ( Parasuraman A. 2002)Telephonic conversation with peers and friends in hospitality industry worked a wonder giving lots of inputs in drafting this paper. Secondary data sources- For this study, data sources such as hospitality journals, Books on service quality management, organization behavior, URL on internet of various hospitality majors. Referring hospitality publications were helpful in knowing the current inventions in industry.Research Tools: Descriptive research design is used to know the attributes of service quality management in hospitality industry. Exploratory research design is undertaken to dig out the service quality management practices and its effectiveness. Data analysis is done and presented in tables. The hypothesis is tested against the collected data.Hypotheses: The hypotheses framed for the subject areHypothesis 1: Implementing service quality management as a tool for improvement in Customer Satisfaction.Hypothesis 2: Practicing Continuous Improvement program has benefited hotel. Limitation & Scope of the Study: Though there was a specific questionnaire used for collecting information, the objective of the paper was well discussed with the every contributor and whatever the information was provided by these sources is arranged for further analysis. The analysis of the available data is done on the relevance to the topic. The effectiveness of the technology in conservation of resources was always a point of consideration. The data is sifted for making it as precise as possible.Analysis and DiscussionsThere is a significant relationship between service quality management and customer satisfaction. In hospitality industry, the customer satisfaction variables such as Availability, Access, Information, Time, delivery of service, availability of personal competence, Comfortable and safer atmosphere and pollution free environment are of prime concern to every hotelier. The industry continuously tries to improve upon their services to meet the levels of customer satisfaction.The intangible nature of the service as a product means that it could be very difficult to place quantifiable terms on the features that contribute to the quality and measurement of the quality of the product is a problem for Service quality management.The customer is frequently directly involved in the delivery of the service and as such introduces an unknown and unpredictable influence on the process. The customer variability in the process makes it difficult to determine the exact requirements of the customer and what they regard as an acceptable standard of service.This problem is magnified as it is often judgmental, based on personal preferences or even mood, rather than on technical performance that can be measured. Every hotel has a target market to cater which has very specific requirement in terms of expected and perceived quality of service.The customers come with different perception of quality every time they come to hotel and this makes it quite difficult to define quality and set the level of it. It requires hotel to continuously compare their perception against customer perception in terms of satisfaction measurement with performance measurement. The study has shown that the effective tools which management of various hotels uses for continuous improvement process and how it is dissipated amongst all the stake holders.译文酒店业服务质量管理研究博卡;萨米尔摘要本文旨在研究酒店业中质量改进过程的作用以及如何有效地推动企业的可持续发展。

英语专业（语言学）历年真题试卷汇编1英语专业（语言学）历年真题试卷汇编1(总分：50.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、名词解释(总题数：13，分数：26.00)1.Sociolect(中山大学2000年；南开大学2003年研)（分数：2.00）________________________________________________________________ __________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Dialects which identify where a person is in terms of a social scale are called "social dialects"or "class dialects" or "sociolects" for short.)解析：2.Linguistic variable(北外2011研)（分数：2.00）________________________________________________________________ __________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Linguistic variables are those where the meaning remains constant but form varies like cat and pussy have the same social meaning but different from. So far as pronunciation is concerned house[h]and with[h]has same social meaning with different pronunciations. Here variables are just the tools to analyze the language to set social dimensional society.) 解析：3.prototype（分数：2.00）________________________________________________________________ __________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Prototype: what members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexicalcategory, e. g. for some English speakers "cabbage"(rather than say"carrot")might be the prototypical vegetable.)解析：4.conceptual metonymy（分数：2.00）________________________________________________________________ __________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one cognitive category, the source, provides mental access to another cognitive category, the target, within the same cognitive domain, or idealized cognitive model(ICM).) 解析：5.iconicity（分数：2.00）________________________________________________________________ __________________________正确答案：(正确答案：It is a feature of language which means that the structure of language reflects in some way the structure of experience, that is, the structure of the world, including the perspective imposed on the world by the speaker.)解析：6.grammaticalization（分数：2.00）________________________________________________________________ __________________________正确答案：(正确答案：The process whereby an independent word is shifted to the status of a grammatical element is called grammaticalization. Grammaticalization brings about typical changes in meanings and the distribution of forms. Another characteristic of grammaticalized forms is that the constraints ontheir grammatical uses tend to reflect their lexical histories. Another typical outcome of grammaticalization is the development of different historical levels of nearly equivalent forms.)解析：7.Interlanguage（上海交大2005研)（分数：2.00）________________________________________________________________ __________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Interlanguage. refers to the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language. It"s a language system between the target language and the learner"s native language, and imperfect compared with the target language, but not mere translation from the learner"s native language. For example, when the Chinese student is learning English, he may make errors like "to touch the society".)解析：8.Universal Grammar(西安交大2008研)（分数：2.00）________________________________________________________________ __________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Universal grammar is a theory of linguistics postulating principles of grammar shared by all languages, thought to be innate to humans(linguistic nativism). It attempts to explain language acquisition in general, not describe specific languages. Universal grammar proposes a set of rules intended to explain language acquisition in child development.)解析：9.contrastive analysis(浙江大学2004研)（分数：2.00）________________________________________________________________ __________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Contrastive analysis is an approach to analysis of second language acquisition, based on a belief that a more effective teaching pedagogy would come out when the similarities and differences between native language and target language are taken into consideration. By such an analysis, it is supposed that some leaning difficulties could be predicted in terms of language transfer.)解析：10.Error Analysis（中山大学2011研)（分数：2.00）________________________________________________________________ __________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Errors are significant in telling the teacher what needs to be taught, in telling the researcher how learning proceeds and those errors are a means whereby learners test their hypotheses about the language to be learnt. They are worth further probing Error Analysis involves, first independently or objectively, describing the learners" interlanguage(that is, their version of the target language and the target language itself), then a comparison of the two is followed to locate mismatches. Different from contrastive analysis, Error Analysis, EA for short, gives less consideration to learners" native language. The procedure of Error Analysis consists of the following steps: (1)Recognition (2)Description (3)Explanation For example, explanation; the absence of an item that must appear in a well-formed utterance: e. g. She sleeping. Type of error; Omissions.)解析：11.applied linguistics (武汉大学2006研)（分数：2.00）________________________________________________________________ __________________________正确答案：(正确答案：It is a branch of linguistics which studies the application of linguistics in reality. For example, there are studies on multilingualism, language acquisition, first and second language teaching and learning.)解析：12.the audiolingual method of language teaching（分数：2.00）________________________________________________________________ __________________________正确答案：(正确答案：It is the teaching of a second language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing and the use of mother tongue in the classroom is not allowed.) 解析：13.the direct method of language teaching（分数：2.00）________________________________________________________________ __________________________正确答案：(正确答案：The learning of a second language by using the target language directly and associating speech form with action, gesture, objects and situations. Mother tongue is never or rarely used in the classroom, and the students supposedly acquire the second language in a way similar to the way they acquired their first language.)解析：二、简答题(总题数：12，分数：24.00)14.Linguistics is not the only field concerned with language. Other disciplines such as sociology, psychology, ethnography are also preoccupied with language.(中山大学2008研)（分数：2.00）________________________________________________________________ __________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Since language has both individual and social aspects, it is naturally of interest to psychologists and sociologists among others. Many psychologists are interested to investigate the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example, language development in the child, such as the theories of language acquisition; biological foundations of language , and a big topic—the relationship between language and cognition, so there are psycholin-guistics. Socialists who are interested in the relations between language and society do researches concerned both sociology and linguistics, including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users. When anthropologists enlisted the help of linguists to study unwritten languages, anthropology and linguistics became closely associated in the early days of anthropological fieldwork. In contrast with other linguists, anthropological linguists are interested primarily in the history and structure of formerly unwritten languages. They are concerned with the emergence of language and also with the divergence of languages over thousands of years. Therefore, it is not surprising there are some branches of macrolinguistics that show an interdisciplinary nature.) 解析：15.There are two kinds of grammar based on differentlinguistic points of view. They are prescriptive grammar and descriptive grammar. A grammar may describe how language is actually spoken and/or written, and may not state or postulate how it ought to be spoken or written. But a grammar may also state the rules for what is considered the best or most correct usage. Which grammar is descriptive grammar, and which grammar is prescriptive grammar? Cite some examples to give your reasons.(北师大2003研)（分数：2.00）________________________________________________________________ __________________________正确答案：(正确答案：The first one is typical of descriptive grammar, while the second one is prescriptive grammar. The descriptive grammar aims to describe how people speak and detail the underlying knowledge. It is believed in descriptive grammar that whatever occurs in natural speech, such as hesitation, incomplete utterance, should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, or corrupt; modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. Whereas, the prescriptive approach aims to teach people how to speak, read, and write a particular language;in the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. For example, the statement that "in standard English, a double negative is rarely used" is a description, showing how the language is used in standard English, regardless whether it is correct or not. "You should never use a double-negative" is a typical grammar rule that prescribes what should be grammatically correct in the Standard English. As for the spelling, prescription says "judgment" is correct, but description accurately points out that "judgement" is consideredby Edited English to be correct too, and a descriptive account for these two different spellings will show how the later one is used and who uses it.)解析：16.Saussure puts forward the concept of langue and parole, and Chomsky puts forward the concept of competence and performance. Please dwell upon the differences and similarities, if any, of the two pairs; langue and parole /doc/524189031.html,petence and performance.(北京交通大学2007研)（分数：2.00）________________________________________________________________ __________________________ 正确答案：(正确答案：According to F. de Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community; while parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. For Chomsky, a fundamental distinction between linguistic competence and performance should be made. A language user"s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called linguistic competence. And performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations. In light with this, competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker"s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, and thus would involve imperfections such as slips of tongue, false starts, unnecessary pauses, and so on. Thus, the point is that a speaker"s performance does not always match his competence. Saussure"s distinction is somewhat similar with Chomsky"s in the sense that they both refer to the constant factor which underlies theutterances that constitute parole/performance. However, their difference is quite obvious. Saussue"s language is a social product, a set of conventions for a speech community. Chomsky regards competence as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussrue looks at language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky looks at it more from a psychological point of view.)解析：17.Examine the following two statements about language, and discuss the similarities and differences between them.Do you agree with the two statements? Explain your answer.Sapir(1921: Language):"Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. "Bloch and Trager(1942; Outline of Linguistic Analysis): "A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates. "（分数：2.00）________________________________________________________________ __________________________ 正确答案：(正确答案：Similarities;(1)Both definitions stick to the fact that language is primarily a matter of speech because the primary medium of language is sound. Sapir illustrates this idea by implying that the produced symbols are auditory and Bloch and Trager by explicitly using the word " vocal". (2)Both definitions allude to the fact that the association between the words and the things that they denoted is rarely inherent, Sapir by using the word * symbols" and Bloch and Trager by placing emphasis on " arbitrary"and "symbols". Differences: (1)Sapir"s definition emphasize that language relates to communication between human beings. It is very different from the communication systems of other creatures, such as birdsongs and bee dances. Bloch and Trager do not clearly indicate this property, only saying that it is possessed by a social group.(2)Sapir also considers that language is " non-instinctive" and " voluntarily produced". Thus for himlanguage does not include such instinctive forms of communication as smiling and cries of pain, etc. However, Bloch and Trager"s definition do not include this feature. (3)The element " system" in Bloch and Trager"s definition reflects the fact that language provides us with the framework for generating appropriate utterances rather than providing us with an infinite store of ready-made utterances. Still elements of lacunae are combined according to rules. (4)The function of language is indicated differently in two definitions. Sapir sees language as for communicating ideas, emotions and desires, while Bloch and Trager considers it for a social group"s co-operation. Sapir"s definition proposes " communication" as the principal function of language and specifies what is communicated; Bloch and Trager only vaguely points out that language can be used for co-operation. Each of the two definitions has its own special emphasis and it not totally free from limitations. We think the two definitions grasp some defining properties of language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication, for example, " vocal" , " arbitrary" , " symbol" , " purely human" , " a system". But either has some limitation. As for Sapir"s definition, whether one considers language to be instinctive or not is an issue. Language is instinctive in so far as we are all born with a predisposition to speak, we all acquire a language without tuition and when we speak we do not consciously convert our thoughts into speech. Language is, however, non-instinctive in that we can choose what to say or whether to say anything at all. Both thedefinition"s description of language"s function is not precise. Sapir"s definition confines language only to communicating ideas, emotions and desires, and Bloch and Trager"s definition does not point it out at all.)解析：18.It is widely known that animals have their own ways of communicating with each other. For example , bees can dance very complicated dances and some birds can sing very complicated songs. It is also generally agreed that there are fundamental differences between human language and other animals" ways of communicating. i.What is your view on this point? ii. If you also think that there are fundamental differences between human language and other animals" ways of communicating, according to you, what are the differences? Please give short explanations. If you don"t think that there are fundamental differences between human language and other animals" ways of communicating, please also defend your position. Illustrate your points with examples if necessary.（分数：2.00）________________________________________________________________ __________________________ 正确答案：(正确答案：i. There"re fundamental differences between human language and other animal"s ways of communicating. All creatures, not only the "clever" ones like apes and dolphins but also such "lower" ones as bees and birds are able to communicate with each other. We have been careful in using the term "animal communication system" to indicate this ability. But language is human-specific which is not merely a tool used to transmit information but also a means of social communication. Linguists made a list of "design features" , which are found utterly absent in animalcommunication and thus distinguish human language from animal"s cry . ii. There are fundamental differences between human language and other animals" ways of communicating, such as the "design feature" could distinguish human language from other systems of communication. For instance, 1)Duality, animals that use vocal signals have a stock of basic sounds which vary according to species. A cow has less than ten, a chicken has around twenty, but most animals can use each basic sound to stand for one thing only, so the communicative power of animal language is highly limited. However, human language has a number of sound units, or phonemes and each phoneme can become meaningful when it is combined with other phonemes, so we say human language operates on two levels of structures.2)Productivity or Creativity, it means that human beings can produce novel utterances whenever they want. The robin is creative in its ability to sing the same thing in many ways, but not creative in its ability to use the same units of the system to express manydifferent messages with different meanings. 3)Displacement, it is a property of language enabling people to talk about things being remote either in space or in time. Most animals can only communicate about things in the immediate situation.) 解析：解析：(本题主要考查语言的本质特征。

Analysis of the text1. ThemeThe text concerns about the controversy surrounding affirmative action’s effectiveness. Inthis article , Rodriguez felt uneasy about the ethnics of Affirmative Action even while hewas receiving the benefits of this social policy. As he explains, he finally made themoral decision to refuse teaching offers from Yale and other prestigious universitiesbecause he thought those offers were made mainly because of his ethnic ancestry. Thetext describes the phenomenon with the hope of invoking more thinking on it.2. Writing StyleThe text is later incorporated into Hunger of Memory, which is the first memoir of Mexican-American Rodriguez, who began his schooling in Sacramento, Californiaknowing just 50 words of English. Here is the poignant journey of a "minority student"who pays the cost of his social assimilation and academic success with a painfulalienation--from his past, his parents, and his culture. Rodriguez's awards for Hunger ofMemory include the The Christopher Prize for Autobiography. An autobiography is asummary of a person’s life. In a concise narrative the writer attempts to tell the readerwho he is, selecting and presenting , usually in order of occurrence in his life ,thoseevents that will give the reader a clear understanding of him. In a completeautobiography it is necessary to include the principal happenings from infancy to thetime of writing. In a partial autobiography the writer usually confines humself to (a )limited period(s) which may be indicated in the title.A combination of narration and argumentationThe argument is carried out in a narrative wayStylistic characteristics:Tone: ironicUses a lot of descriptive words to indicate his thoughts and feelingse.g. embarrassment, guilt, extravagant, gaudy3) StructurePart One (Paragraph 1): introdution and revelation of the themePart Two (Paragraphs 2-3): description of the extravagant chances to a range of benefits brought forward his thinking on Affirmative ActionPart Three (Paragraphs 4- 8): the author’s experience of his job searching furthered his thinkingPart Four (Paragraphs 9-19): the author’s conversation with a teaching assistantPart Five (Paragraphs 20-21): further thinking of affirmative action after the conversation。